1. Introduction
Dandelion (Taraxacum genus), named “Pugongying” in China, is a perennial plant belonging to the Asteraceae family. It has a complex classification, comprising over three hundred species [1]. In Asia, the Taraxacum genus is widely cultivated and also found wild in most parts of China, North Korea, Mongolia, and Russia [2]. It grows in temperate regions globally, including on lawns, on roadsides, on disturbed banks and shores of waterways, and in other areas with moist soils.
As an edible medicinal herb and vegetable, dandelion (Taraxacum genus) has long been utilized in traditional medicine, folk remedies, and substitution therapies in many countries to treat diverse diseases (Figure 1) [3]. Taraxacum genus as a drug was first used to treat liver and spleen diseases in Arabian medicine. In the 16th century, the German botanist Fuchs discovered that Taraxacum can be used to treat gout, diarrhea, blisters, and spleen and liver diseases. It has been used as a common drug for detoxification, swelling, and lactation since the 16th century in China. Since the 19th century, several authors have relied on the existing traditional knowledge to provide scientific explanations about how Taraxacum works on diseases and their symptoms [4]. Taraxacum can be used as diuretics, antioxidants, bile agents, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anti-cancer agents. Corresponding studies in the 20th century revealed that Taraxacum can be used medicinally, while its inflorescences, leaves, and roots can be processed into different foods. For example, the leaves of cultivated or wild Taraxacum species can be eaten in salads, while roots are baked and used as a coffee substitute [5]. Additionally, the Taraxacum leaf extract can be used as a flavoring agent for various foods, including alcoholic and soft drinks, frozen dairy desserts, candies, baked goods, pudding, and cheese [6,7].
The Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2020 edition) records over forty Chinese patent medicines containing Taraxacum genus, which can be clinically utilized for treating over fifty types of diseases. Since Taraxacum genus could clear away heat, remove toxicity, disperse swelling, dissipate binds, and induce diuresis, dandelion in clinic is commonly used to cure inflammation, stomach trouble, tumors, gynecological diseases, male urinary system diseases, etc. For example, clinical studies demonstrated that the Kangfuxiaoyan suppository containing dandelion could attenuate symptoms and improve immunity in pelvic inflammatory patients; Rupixiao granule containing dandelion possessed the beneficial activity to induce diuresis so as to mitigate edema and resolve hard lumps, which had a satisfactory effective rate for treating breast hyperplasia. Additionally, according to the ClinicalTrials.gov database resource (
Therefore, a comprehensive review of the Taraxacum genus studies is necessary considering its numerous benefits. In this work, we reviewed the recent studies of the Taraxacum genus. Firstly, we introduced the dandelion herbs and described them both botanically and ethnopharmacologically. We then discussed the main chemical composition of Taraxacum genus and outlined its pharmacological effects and toxicity, as these previously have not been fully reviewed to date. Finally, we focused on the challenges and future directions of Taraxacum genus, which could elucidate their pharmaceutical research and practical clinical applications. Thus, this review will provide a better understanding of the Taraxacum genus and its biological activities by comprehensively summarizing the existing literature.
2. Materials and Methods
The literature review was performed using several resources, including Web of Science, ScienceDirect, PubMed, Wiley Online Library, Google Scholar, Europe PMC, Baidu Scholar, American Chemical Society (ACS), and SpringerLink as well as books on Chinese Pharmacopoeia and China Flora, by using different relevant keywords. Additionally, we used Ph.D. and M.S. dissertations, local magazines, and books on toxicology, such as Ben Cao Gang Mu and the Handbook for the Toxicity of Traditional Chinese Medicine.
The keywords used included Taraxacum, dandelion, phytology, genus, ethnopharmacology, sesquiterpenoids, phenolics, other main active components, toxicology, and pharmacological and clinical study. We verified the Latin names of all plants mentioned in this paper from
3. Phytology and Ethnopharmacology
3.1. Phytology
Dandelion is widely distributed in the northern hemisphere and belongs to the Asteraceae family. The whole grass possesses medicinal values, such as clearing away heat, detoxification, reduction of swelling, and phlegm dispersion. Generally, the leaves of various dandelions are ≥5–25 cm long, simple, lobed, and form a basal rosette above the central taproot. Their flower heads open during the daytime and close at night, and have colors ranging from yellow to orange. The heads are borne singly on a hollow stem (scape), which is usually leafless and rises 1–10 cm or more above the leaves. Stems and leaves exude white and milky latex when broken. A rosette may simultaneously produce several flowering stems. The flower heads are 2–5 cm in diameter and entirely comprise ray florets. The flower heads mature into spherical seed heads, sometimes called blowballs or clocks, which contain many single-seeded fruits called achenes. Each achene is attached to a pappus with fine hair-like material, which facilitates wind-aided dispersal over long distances (
3.2. Ethnopharmacology
In traditional Chinese medicine, dandelion was first recorded in Tang Bencao—the oldest classical medical book written in the Tang Dynasty (657–659 AD). In this book, dandelion was regarded as a powerful medicine to treat breast swelling and pain. Later, the Yunnan Materia Medica written by Ren Lanmao (in the Ming Dynasty) described that dandelion displayed a great detoxification effect and could treat various sores. Additionally, dandelion has also been included in the Ming Dynasty masterpiece Compendium of Materia Medica edited by Chinese pharmacologist Li Shizhen. This book describes the detailed functions of dandelion and its wide use in many Chinese medicinal prescriptions.
Currently, dandelion has been recorded in the 2020 edition of the Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China. Thirty-nine prescriptions included dandelion as the principal active component, and these are listed in the Chinese Pharmacopeia and approved by the state administration of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) of the People’s Republic of China (Table 1). Furthermore, many countries also recognize the medical applications of dandelion ever since the advent of ancient medicine, especially in Latin America, Europe, and Asia. Ancient medicine records showed that every part of the dandelion could be used. Based on the symptoms, the usage forms of dandelion may be countless, including infusion, decoction, tincture, plaster, and powder. Furthermore, the administration route may either be oral or topical. The main therapeutic indications include gastrointestinal, skin, and respiratory diseases [1]. Table 2 lists the different uses of the various species of Taraxacum.
4. Chemical Compounds
Traditional medicinal plants have a corresponding therapeutic effect depending on their constituent compounds [32]. Dandelion is highly regarded for its unique biological characteristics and good biological activity. Considering its excellent pharmacological properties, researchers have isolated their active ingredients over the past few decades. Its biological activity is determined by complex chemical components, mainly sesquiterpenoids, phenolic compounds, essential oils, saccharides, flavonoids, sphingolipids, triterpenoids, sterols, coumarins, etc. In vivo and in vitro studies have displayed outstanding bioactivities of dandelion, such as anti-bacterial, anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-rheumatic, etc. Undoubtedly, it is the diverse phytoconstituents that provide dandelion with remarkable pharmacological properties. For example, phenolic acids such as caffeic acid, coumaric acid, dihydrosyingin, chicoric acid, vanillin, etc., in dandelion possess anti-oxidative and immunostimulant properties. The main sesquiterpene compounds in dandelion are sesquiterpene lactones, usually in the form of glycosides, such as sonchuside, cichorioside C, ixerin D, taraxafolide, and so on, which have anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial activities. Triterpenoids and sterols in dandelion such as lupenyl acetate, α-amyin acetate, β-amyin acetate, β-sitosterol, daucosterol, etc., can alleviate cardiovascular diseases. Flavonoids in dandelion such as quercetin, chrysoeriol diosmetin, luteolin, etc., usually have anti-oxidative activity; While coumarins in dandelion such as aesculin, cichoriin, esculetin, scopoletin, etc., possess anti-inflammatory, bacteriostatic, anti-coagulant, and anti-cancer effects.
4.1. Sesquiterpenoids and Phenolic Compounds
Dandelion contains different sesquiterpenoid and phenolic compounds. The bitter taste of dandelion is mainly imparted by sesquiterpenoids (Figure 2). The only known sesquiterpene lactone components in this plant are two germacranolides, namely, taraxinic acid and the β-glucopyranosyl ester and its 11, 13-dihydroderivative and two eudesmanolides (4a(15),11β(13)-tetrahydroridentin B, and taraxacolide-1-O-β-glucopyranoside), which were isolated from T. officinale [33]. From the ethanolic root extracts of two different species of the Taraxacum genus (T. laevigatum and T. disseminatum), eight types of germacrane and eudesmane sesquiterpenoids, including 1β,3β,6α-trihydroxy-4α(15)-dihydrocosticacid methyl ester and its 1-O-β-glucopyranoside, were obtained [34]. A sesquiterpenoid ketolactone and a new guaianolide were isolated from an ethyl acetate-soluble part of a methanolic extract of T. wallichii [35]. Furthermore, eight sesquiterpenes, including 1β,3β-dihydroxy-eudesman-11(13)-en-6α,12-olide, 1β,3β-dihydroxyeudesman-6α,12-olide, loliolide, 1β,3β-dihydroxyeudesman-11(13)-en-6α,12-olide, ainslioside 1β,3β-dihydroxyeudesman-6α,12-olide, and 11β,13-dihydrotaraxinic acid were successfully obtained from T. mongolicum [36,37,38]. Five germacrane- and guaiane-type sesquiterpene lactones together with benzyl glucoside, dihydroconiferin, syringing, and dihydrosyringin were isolated from the roots of T. officinale [39]. Eleven sesquiterpene lactones, including the new guaianolide 11β-hydroxydeacetylmatricarin-8-O-β-glucopyranoside and four other known phenolic glucosides, were also isolated from the roots of T. hondoense [40]. T. erythrospermum, T. serotinum, T. obovatum, T. alpinum, and T. udum are species of the Taraxacum genus. Additionally, sixteen sesquiterpenoids were also isolated from the aforementioned varieties [41,42,43,44,45]. Two eudesmane-type sesquiterpene lactones, (2β-hydroxysantamarine-1β-D-glucopyranoside and 3β-hydroxy-4αH-3-dihydrosantamarine-β-
Polyphenolic compounds are widely present in plants. Many potentially active phenolic compounds are isolated from different species of the Taraxacum genus [50,51,52] (Figure 3).
4.2. Essential Oils
Bylka et al. analyzed T. officinale L. by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and obtained 25 volatile compounds, with 1,3-dimethylbenzene, 1,2-dimethylbenzene, 1-ethyl-3-methylbenzene, heneicosane, and tricosane as the main components [53]. The separated compounds also included straight-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons (nonadecane, hexadecane, heneicosane, pentadecane, tricosane, eicosane, and 1-tridecyne), branched aliphatic hydrocarbons (2,5,5-trimethylheptane and 6-ethyl-2-methyloctane), esters (benzyl benzoate), alkylated benzenes (1,3-dimethylbenzene, 1,2-dimethylbenzene, 1-ethyl-3-methylbenzene, and 1-hydroxymethyl-4-methylbenzene), alcohols (2-nonen-1-ol, 1,9-nonanediol, and 1-tridecanol), aldehydes (octanal, phenylacetaldehyde, 2-methylbenzaldehyde, nonanal, pentadecanal, and 10-undecenal), and ketones (5-methyl-2-hexanone and hexadecanoic acid). Upon analyzing the volatile components of T. officinale using GC–MS, the essential oil components obtained were butyl acetate, 2-methyl-propanol, n-butanol, 4-phenyl-1-butanol, 4-hydroxyl 4-methyl-2-pentanone, acetic acid, 4-terpineol, fluoro-terpineol, and alpha-terpineol [54].
4.3. Saccharides
A recent study reported the successful extraction of a water-soluble heteropolysaccharide from T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz comprising three monosaccharides, namely pika, arabinose, and galactose in a molar ratio of 1.0:10.7:11.9 [55]. Schütz et al. isolated fructooligosaccharides and fructopolysaccharides from the root of T. officinale WEB. ex WIGG [56].
4.4. Flavonoids
Flavonoids are a class of natural compounds with a 2-phenylchromanthone structure and a ketone carbonyl group. The oxygen atom in the first position is basic and can form a salt with a strong acid. The hydroxy derivative has a yellow color and is called a xanthophyll or a flavonoid. Dandelion contains diverse flavonoids, which are important in plant growth, development, flowering, fruiting, and anti-bacterial defense (Figure 4). Six flavonoids, including apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, luteolin-7-β-
4.5. Sphingolipids
A sphingolipid comprises a long-chain fatty acid, a sphingosine molecule or its derivative, and a polar head alcohol. The polar head group of the sphingolipid binds to the hydroxyl group of the sphingosine, while the fatty acid moiety forms an amide bond with its amino group. Two sphingolipids, namely, gynuramide II and phytolacca cerebroside, were obtained and identified from the root of T. mongolicum [57] (Figure 5).
4.6. Triterpenoids and Sterols
Triterpenoids are substances formed by the end-to-end joining of several isoprenes with their hydroxyl groups being removed. Most triterpenoids comprise a chain of 30 carbon atoms, while few contain 27 carbon atoms. In dandelion, pentacyclic triterpenoids are the main type. A sterol, which is a general term for a group of compounds with a fluorene nucleus, has a cyclopentane polyhydrophenanthrene skeleton. There are different kinds of sterols in different parts of the dandelion. In dandelions, triterpenoids and sterols exhibit remarkable anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory activities (Figure 6). Six triterpenoids and sterols, such as gigantursenol A, taraxasterol, β-sitosterol, β-sitosterol-3-O-β-
4.7. Coumarins
Coumarin-based compounds are relatively less distributed in dandelions (Figure 7); 6,7-dihydroxycoumarin (escin) and scutellarin were isolated from the stems and leaves of T. officinale in 1981 [65]. Nine coumarin compounds (including umbelliferone, coumestrol, lactucin, hachibate, east azlactone, resveratrol, lactucin, chicory, and esculin) were isolated from T. officinale and T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz [30,63,66].
4.8. Others
Some studies have reported that T. mongolicum also contains glycerin, inositol, polysaccharides, and other compounds that are indispensable for plant growth [67,68] (Figure 8). With the advancement of identification techniques, different classes of compounds can be assigned by comparing them with standards. Ma et al. employed ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) and identified three compounds, namely, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and taraxasterol [69]. Oh et al. used HPLC to identify quercetin from the ethanolic extract of T. mongolicum [70]. Lignans, including mongolicumin A and rufescidride, were obtained from T. mongolicum [38,60]. The leaf extract of T. officinale contained houttuyin and aescin. This study is the first to report the discovery of free pterin (luteolin 3′-methyl ether). The contents of cichoric acid, chlorogenic acid, houttuyin, and aescin in chicory plants were initially identified. Chicoric acid and its related monocaffeine tartaric acid are major phenolics, which are also used in pharmaceutical preparations and found in alfalfa [63]. Jia et al. isolated two compounds, namely, caffeic acid and luteolin 7-O-β-
5. Pharmacological Effects
Dandelion has been reported to have multiple pharmacological effects, including anti-bacterial, anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-rheumatic, etc. This section reviews recent findings on the pharmacological effects of Taraxacum (Figure 9) (Table 3).
5.1. Anti-Bacterial and Anti-Oxidant Effects
Dandelion reportedly possesses excellent anti-bacterial activity. Díaz and his colleagues isolated diverse chemical compounds from T. officinale leaves, mainly triterpenoids and other unknown compounds. Subsequently, the leaves’ extract could markedly inhibit Gram-positive bacteria with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 200 g mL−1), thus suggesting dandelion had promising anti-bacterial potential [127]. In another experiment, the content, anti-oxidant activity, and cytotoxicity of phenols and flavonoids in three different types of dandelion methanolic extracts were investigated. The total phenolic content was 1000 mg·kg−1, with the aboveground content being higher than the root. T. mongolicum had the highest phenolic content in the stems (76.8 mg·kg−1) and roots (40.0 mg·kg−1), followed by T. coreanum and T. officinale (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the total flavonoid content also showed a consistent trend with the total phenolic content. The anti-oxidant activity of each methanolic extract increased in a dose-dependent manner. The maximum 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging activities of T. mongolicum shoot and root extracts (89.6% and 83.4%) were obtained at a concentration of 1000 mg·kg−1. The overall experimental results proved that the total phenolic and flavonoid levels were highly correlated with anti-oxidant activity, but their content and activity varied across species [87,89]. In another study of the anti-bacterial activity of the extracts of T. mongolicum in different solvents, Gao reported that only the ethanolic extract had varying degrees of anti-bacterial activity (inhibition zone >7 mm in diameter), while the aqueous extract did not [78].
Flavonoids and coumaric acid derivatives were extracted from dandelion flowers. In the study of anti-oxidant properties, the extracts had scavenged effects on superoxide and hydroxyl radical-induced damage; meanwhile, the inhibition of hydroxyl radicals was nonspecific. The reduction in the phenolic content of the extract reduced the DPPH capacity and showed a synergistic effect with α-tocopherol. After the addition of the corresponding extract, the bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated macrophage RAW264.7 cells in mice, thereby significantly reducing the NO concentration in a concentration-dependent manner. Additionally, adding a certain extract concentration significantly inhibited the peroxide radical-induced intracellular oxidation of RAW264.7 cells. The extract demonstrated a significant anti-oxidant activity in biological and chemical models. In addition, the inhibitory effect of the extract on reactive oxygen species (ROS) and NO was related to its phenolic content [93].
T. mongolicum extract inhibited four Gram-negative bacteria and two Gram-positive bacteria, especially Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bacillus subtilis, with MIC values of 125 and 62.5 μg·mL−1, respectively. The ethyl acetate soluble component extracted from dandelion had high anti-bacterial activity and can be used as a natural preservative in the pharmaceutical industry [79]. The relationship between osteoporosis and oxidative stress induced by ROS was also studied and food and plants with anti-oxidant effects are being increasingly focused upon to reduce the ROS-induced damage caused during bone metabolism. The anti-oxidative effect of T. mongolicum on the proliferation and the differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells induced by hydrogen peroxide was investigated, and the total contents of polyphenols and flavonoids were 33.65 and 4.45 mg·g−1, respectively. Under hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress, dandelion extract promoted the proliferation of MC3T3-E1 cells and differentiation of osteoblasts. Hence, dandelion extract can inhibit oxidative stress-induced damage to osteoblasts and serve as a potential anti-oxidant material for preventing bone diseases [94].
With the increasing resistance of cow mastitis to bacteria and considering the safety of dairy products, anti-bacterial extracts should be used instead of antibiotics for the treatment of mastitis in dairy cows. The anti-bacterial effects of purslane and T. mongolicum aqueous and ethanolic extracts on the main pathogens of cow mastitis (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, and Streptococcus agalactiae) were studied using disk diffusion method. The aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the two traditional Chinese medicines had different inhibitory effects on the four pathogens of cow mastitis. The anti-bacterial activity of the two Chinese herbal extracts against E. coli was higher than that against other bacteria. The ethanolic extract had higher anti-bacterial activity against E. coli than purslane. However, the anti-bacterial activity of the T. mongolicum ethanol extract was lower than that of the aqueous extract. Hence, purslane and the T. mongolicum extract may be used for the treatment of mastitis in dairy cows [66].
5.2. Anti-Cancer Effects
A previous report investigating the use of T. mongolicum extracts for the prevention and treatment of bovine mastitis discovered that different concentrations of the extract had no noticeable cytotoxic effect on MAC-T cells, thus being the first to report that the T. mongolicum extract significantly inhibited the production of NO and pro-inflammatory cytokines in MAC-T cells. This finding has a certain clinical application value for the prevention and treatment of bovine mastitis [108]. Breast cancer is an aggressive and fatal breast disease with limited treatment options. Although T. mongolicum (a Chinese herbal medicine with anti-cancer activity) has been used for the treatment of breast abscess and breast hyperplasia since ancient times, its mechanism of action needs further scientific studies [128]. T. mongolicum extract significantly inhibited the activity of MDA-MB-231 cells by causing the G2/M phase arrest and apoptosis. The extract also significantly increased the levels of cleaved caspase-3 and PARP proteins, with the caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK inhibiting T. mongolicum extract-induced apoptosis. Three ER stress-related signals were strongly induced by the T. mongolicum treatment, including increased expression of ATF4, ATF6, XBP1s, GRP78, and cleavage-related genes along with elevated phosphorylation levels of proteins, eIF-2αIRE1, and downstream molecular GRP78 impermanence. MDA-MB-231 cells transfected with CHOP siRNA significantly inhibited the T. mongolicum extract-induced apoptosis. The underlying mechanism is partially attributed to the strong activation of the active/p-eIF2α/ATF4/cut axis. In conclusion, apoptosis induced by endoplasmic reticulum stress generates the anti-cancer effect of the T. mongolicum extract, thereby suggesting that the T. mongolicum extract may be a potential treatment for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) [57]. However, the use of dandelion for breast cancer treatment is mainly based on anecdotal evidence and has no sufficient scientific evidence. Therefore, Oh et al. hypothesized that T. mongolicum can act as a selective estrogenic receptor modulator and hormone replacement therapy for postmenopausal women. T. mongolicum ethanol extract significantly increased the cell proliferation and estrogenic response element-driven luciferase activity. Hence, T. mongolicum ethanol extract can induce estrogenic activity mediated by the classical estrogenic receptor pathway, thereby providing a scientific basis for its anti-cancer application in traditional medicine [70].
5.3. Anti-Inflammatory Effects
Inflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of acute tracheobronchitis. The main component of T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz—an organic acid, has good anti-inflammatory activity. Furthermore, organic acids can improve the regulation of the TLR4/NF-κB (TLR4/IKK/NF-κB) signaling pathway in LPS-mediated histopathological damage, which may provide a basis for the treatment of acute tracheobronchitis [72,73].
T. mongolicum is widely used in the Eastern Hemisphere. Since T. mongolicum has a high mineral content, it causes potential problems with the absorption of quinolones. Since a previous study reported the occurrence of multifactorial drug interactions between T. mongolicum and ciprofloxacin, the effects of their simultaneous use should not be ignored. Ciprofloxacin is a fluoroquinolone antibiotic that has good anti-bacterial activity against Gram-positive, Gram-negative, and mycobacteria. However, its oral absorption greatly diminished the effect of simultaneous administration of metal-containing cations. This phenomenon has been extensively studied for antacids, mineral supplements, and dairy products. However, information about this interaction is not yet available in mineral-rich herbal and health foods. Drug–drug interactions may occur between ciprofloxacin and a mineral-rich anti-inflammatory/anti-bacterial herb, T. mongolicum Hand-Mazz. Traditionally, T. mongolian dried plants are used for the treatment of lice, ulcers, mastitis, lymphadenitis, inflamed eyes, sore throat, lung and breast abscesses, acute appendicitis, jaundice, and urinary tract infections. Furthermore, this herb exerts a bactericidal effect on multiple pathogens, and its water extract has MIC values ranging from 1:10 to 1:640. In addition, the in vitro antifungal, anti-leptospiral, and antiviral effects of the herbs have been proven. Chemical testing of T. mongolicum indicates the presence of triterpenoids (such as tartaric alcohol and tartaric acid), inulin, pectin, asparagine, and phenolic compounds. A comprehensive pharmacokinetic assessment of the rat was performed and demonstrated the potential of drug–drug interactions between T. mongolicum and ciprofloxacin [80].
Different solvent extracts of T. officinale were successfully prepared by Jeon et al. in a carrageenan-induced balloon model [104]. The ethanolic extract inhibited the production of exudates and significantly reduced the NO and leukocyte levels in the exudate. The extract also inhibited acetic acid-induced vascular permeability in a dose-dependent manner in acetic acid-induced abdominal peristalsis in mice. In summary, medicinal dandelion has anti-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-nociceptive properties by inhibiting NO production and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression and/or its anti-oxidant activity.
Mouse macrophages (RAW 264.7) were used to study the anti-inflammatory effects and mechanism of the methanolic extract of T. officinale leaves on LPS induction. The methanolic extract and its components inhibited LPS-induced production of NO, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and prostaglandin (PG) E2 in a dose-dependent manner. However, the chloroform soluble fraction significantly inhibited the production of NO, PG E2, and two pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β)) in a dose-dependent manner, with MIC values of 66.51, 90.96, 114.76, and 171.06 μg·mL−1, respectively. Hence, the anti-inflammatory effects of leaf extract may be due to the down-regulation of NO, PG, E2, and pro-inflammatory cytokines along with the inactivation of the MAP kinase signaling pathway, thereby reducing the expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and COX-2 [107]. Therefore, in the anti-inflammatory mechanism study, the aqueous extract of T. mongolicum exerted certain protective effects on acute lung injury-induced inflammation in mice [69].
6. Other Effects
Baek examined the methanolic extract of T. mongolicum and its fraction for their scavenging effects on DPPH and superoxide radicals and also their hepatoprotective effects on tacrine-induced cytotoxicity in the human hepatoma cell line, HepG2 cells. The extract had free radical scavenging and hepatoprotective effects [129]. The novel homogenous polysaccharide DPSW-A was obtained from T. mongolicum and its derivative demonstrated limited anti-coagulant function [55]. Furthermore, the newly isolated compound 1β,3β-dihydroxy-eudesman-11(13)-en-6α from T. mongolicum inhibited the NO production, with an IC50 of 38.9 μM [36].
In the study of its hypolipidemic action and mechanism, T. mongolicum was extracted separately with water, 50% ethanol, and 95% ethanol. The 50% ethanolic extract was the most effective among the 13 extracts. Prolonged administration of the 50% ethanolic extract significantly reduced the body weight of rats and the serum levels of triglyceride LDL-C and total cholesterol. Hence, T. mongolicum helps in lowering blood lipid levels [68]. Moreover, the T. mongolicum methanol extract strongly inhibited monoamine oxidase. Therefore, the extract can potentially affect diseases, such as depression, dementia, and Alzheimer’s disease [95].
Skin whitening is becoming popular among people. Melanin is an important factor that determines skin color. In the study of melanin synthesis inhibition by T. mongolicum extract, reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and Western blot were used to analyze the protein and mRNA levels of tyrosinase-related protein (TRP)-1, TRP-2, tyrosinase, MITF, ERK, and PKA, and it was found to inhibit melanin synthesis [110].
To verify the antiviral effect of T. mongolicum on the hepatitis B virus, researchers found that 50–100 g·mL−1 T. mongolicum extract could protect the rat hepatocytes as compared with D-galactosamine (D-GalN), thioacetamide (TAA), and t-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP). The protective effect of 100 g·mL−1 T. mongolicum extract on rat hepatocytes was enhanced. Furthermore, the T. mongolicum extract significantly inhibited DNA replication at 1–100 g·mL−1, and reduced the levels of HBsAg and HBeAg at 25–100 g·mL−1, with inhibition rates of 91.39% and 91.72% at 100 g·mL−1, respectively. The T. mongolicum extract significantly inhibited DNA replication at 25–100 g·mL−1, thus exerting a strong antiviral effect on HBV. The protective effect of T. mongolicum extract on hepatocytes may be achieved by inhibiting oxidative stress. However, the antiviral properties of the T. mongolicum extract may help block protein synthesis and DNA replication. The main components of the T. mongolicum extract were quantitatively analyzed to provide a scientific basis for its use in the treatment of hepatitis [71].
7. Toxicity
When a plant or a compound isolated from a plant has no significant toxicity or side effects, its potential therapeutic effect should be studied further. This is particularly important for dandelion [130]. In daily life, the recommended dosage of dandelion is 10–15 g [1]. In 1974, Râcz–Kotilla et al. [114] studied the diuretic effect of a 4% aqueous extract of dandelion. Firstly, they performed acute toxicity tests on different parts of dandelion and fluid extracts of grass (DL50 = 27.2 g·kg−1 body weight). In the diuretic experiment, the aqueous extract of dandelion was administered at a dose of 8 g·kg−1 body weight for one month, and the body weight of the mice and rats were found to be reduced by ~30%. In the study of the protective effect of renal oxidative damage caused by CCl4, the oral administration of 100, 250, 300, 500, and 750 mg·kg−1 dandelion aqueous extract for the duration of the test was considered safe. In addition, the corresponding lesions in mice showed a good prognosis, thus indicating that these dosages are within the normal range [115,122,131]. In terms of cytotoxicity, HepG2, HeLa, HL60, and Vero E6 cells had different IC50 values (0.015 ± 0.001, 0.023 ± 0.002, >0.25) [92].
8. Conclusions and Future Prospects
As a well-known complementary and alternative medicine, the whole dandelion herb, including its roots, stem, leaf, flower, and seed is rich in diverse bioactive ingredients including sesquiterpenes, phenolic compounds, phytosterols, triterpenes, etc. However, previous studies have mainly focused on extracting and identifying active ingredient structures from different kinds of dandelion. At present, most research focuses on studying the biological activity of partial extracts such as the root extracts, while the research on the biological activity of other effective active ingredients of dandelion are relatively fewer. Moreover, the pharmacological research of the effective active ingredients of dandelion mostly focuses on the basic pharmacological mechanism, and the form of mechanism research is relatively simple. For example, in order to clarify the specific anti-cancer mechanism of dandelion, more advanced strategies including network pharmacology, molecular pharmacology, and metabolomics methods can be flexibly used to comprehensively demonstrate the multi-target anti-cancer action mechanism of dandelion, which will provide new insights for further accurate search, and confirmation and optimization of the relationship between the active ingredient of dandelion and the target. Additionally, most of the current studies focus on in vitro cell experiments, and the research results lack clinical applicability. In the future, a large number of in vivo animal models are needed to deeply study the pharmacological mechanisms and targets of active ingredients of dandelion, so that they can realize clinical application as soon as possible and offer new ideas and methods for precise treatment.
To be more specific, T. mongolicum, T. borealisinense, T. coreanum Nakai, and T. officinale are the most frequently utilized species for complementary and alternative medicine. Additionally, in terms of pharmacological effects, dandelion could exert potent anti-bacterial, anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-rheumatic activities. Moreover, the extracts from different parts all displayed excellent aforementioned activities, which provided strong evidence regarding the use of the traditional medicinal herb as an anti-bacterial drug. However, the anti-bacterial effect differed between the different types of dandelion. Although dandelion is a traditional medicinal plant used for different treatments, its mechanism of action and its corresponding biological activity and safety should be further studied. Furthermore, when dandelion is clinically applied, in-depth research and investigation should be conducted regarding its distribution and metabolism. Therefore, we believe that with further developments in science and technology, novel drug technologies can be combined with traditional therapeutic medicinal plants, such as dandelion, to achieve better treatment outcomes.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Not applicable.
COX-2: cyclooxygenase-2; D-GalN: D-galactosamine; HPLC: high-performance liquid chromatography; HSCCC: high-speed counter-current chromatography; IL-1β: interleukin-1β; iNOS: inducible NO synthase; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; MIC: minimum inhibitory concentration; MTT: tetrazolium salt colorimetric; NMR: nuclear magnetic resonance; PG: prostaglandin; PHPLC: preparative HPLC; TAA: thioacetamide; t-BHP: t-butyl hydroperoxide; TCM: traditional Chinese medicine; TNBC: triple-negative breast cancer; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α; UPLC: ultra-performance liquid chromatography.
Footnotes
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Enlarge this image.Figure 1. The morphology of Taraxacum officinale.
Enlarge this image.Figure 2. The chemical structures of representative sesquiterpenoids from Taraxacum genus.
Enlarge this image.Figure 2. The chemical structures of representative sesquiterpenoids from Taraxacum genus.
Enlarge this image.Figure 3. The chemical structures of representative phenolic compounds from Taraxacum genus.
Enlarge this image.Figure 3. The chemical structures of representative phenolic compounds from Taraxacum genus.
Enlarge this image.Figure 4. The chemical structures of representative flavonoids from Taraxacum genus.
Enlarge this image.Figure 4. The chemical structures of representative flavonoids from Taraxacum genus.
Enlarge this image.Figure 5. The chemical structures of representative sphingolipids from Taraxacum genus.
Enlarge this image.Figure 6. The chemical structures of representative triterpenoids and sterols from Taraxacum genus.
Enlarge this image.Figure 7. The chemical structures of representative coumarins from Taraxacum genus.
Enlarge this image.Figure 8. The chemical structures of other types of compounds from Taraxacum genus.
Enlarge this image.Figure 8. The chemical structures of other types of compounds from Taraxacum genus.
Enlarge this image.Figure 9. The pharmacological mechanisms of the key chemical constituents of the dandelion.
Preparations in which Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz. is the main component listed in Chinese Pharmacopoeia and approved by the government.
| Preparation Name | Type | Main Compositions | Function | Administration | Storage |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yiganning Keli | Granules | Hedyotis diffusa; Artemisia capillaris Thunb.; Lysimachia christinae Hance; Codonopsis pilosula (Franch.) Nannf.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz.; Reynoutria multiflora (Thunb.) Moldenke; Paeonia suffruticosa Andr.; Smilax glabra Roxb.; Paeonia lactiflora Pall.; Melia toosendan Sieb. et Zucc. | Invigorating the qi and strengthening the spleen, activating blood and removing phlegm, removing heat, detoxification | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Erding Keli | Granules | Viola yedoensis Makino; Lobelia chinensis Lour.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz.; Strobilanthes cusia | Detoxification | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Xiao’er Baotaikang Keli | Granules | Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl; Rehmannia glutinosa (Gaertn.) Libosch. ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.; Bupleurum chinense DC.; Scrophularia ningpoensis Hemsl.; Fritillaria thunbergii Miq.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Strobilanthes cusia; Arnebia euchroma (Royle) Johnst. | Clearing the heat, relieving cough and phlegm | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Xiao’er Jiebiao Keli | Granules | Lonicera japonica Thunb.; Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl; Arctium lappa L.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi; Saposhnikovia divaricata (Turcz.) Schischk.; Perilla frutescens; Schizonepeta tenuifolia Briq.; Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi; Cow-bezoar | Diffusing the lungs, clearing heat, detoxification | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Niuhuang Jingnao Pian | Troche | Cow-bezoar; Lonicera japonica Thunb.; Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl; Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi; Coptis chinensis Franch.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Pearl; Ophiopogon japonicus (Thunb.) Rehmannia glutinosa (Gaertn.) Libosch. ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey. | Clearing away heat, detoxification | Orally | Sealed and protected from moisture |
| Shuanghu Qinggan Keli | Granules | Lonicera japonica Thunb.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Chrysanthemum indicum L.; Bunge Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge; Reynoutria japonica Houtt.; Coptis chinensis Franch. | Clearing away heat and dampness, dispelling phlegm and widening the qi, promoting qi and promoting blood circulation | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Baipuhuang Pian | Troche | Pulsatilla chinensis (Bge.) Regel; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi; Phellodendron amurense Rupr. | Heat and dampness, detoxification, cooling blood | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Dalitong Keli | Granules | Bupleurum chinense DC.; Citrus aurantium; Saussurea costus; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Citrus reticulata Blanco; Paederia scandens (Lour.) Merr.; Corydalis yanhusuo W. T. Wang | Clearing away heat, relieving depression, stomach down | Orally | Sealed and stored in a dry place |
| Fule Keli | Granules | Lonicera japonica Thunb.; Sargentodoxa cuneata (Oliv.) Rehder & E.H. Wilson; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Isatis indigotica; Paeonia veitchii Lynch; Melia toosendan Sieb. et Zucc.; Corydalis yanhusuo W. T. Wang | Clearing heat, cooling blood, relieving phlegm and pain | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Lianpu Shuangqing Pian | Troche | Berberine salt; Extract of T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; | Detoxification, relieving dryness and dampness | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Kangyan Tuire Pian | Troche | Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi | Clearing away heat, detoxification, eliminating and dispersing swelling | Orally | Sealed and stored in a cool dry place |
| Kanggusuiyan Pian | Troche | Lonicera japonica Thunb.; Viola yedoensis Makino; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Scutellaria barbata D. Don; Pulsatilla chinensis (Bge.) Regel; Hedyotis diffusa Willd. | Clearing away heat, detoxification, dissipating swelling | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Nankang Pian | Troche | Hedyotis diffusa Willd.; Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Paeonia veitchii Lynch; Carthamus tinctorius L.; Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels; Cuscuta chinensis Lam. | Tonifying kidney and activating blood circulation, clearing heat, detoxification | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Libi Pian | Troche | Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi; Xanthium sibiricum Patr.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Magnolia biondii Pamp.; Angelica dahurica | Detoxification | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Shenyan Jiere Pian | Troche | Smilax glabra Roxb.; Imperata cylindrica var. major (Nees) C. E. Hubb.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Cinnamomum cassia (L.) J.Presl; Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl; Nepeta cataria L. | Dispelling wind, relieving heat, diffusing the lungs | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Jinpu Jiaonang | Capsule | Lonicera japonica Thunb.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Scutellaria barbata D. Don; Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe; Boswellia carterii; Astragalus membranaceus var. mongholicus (Bge.) Hsiao; Codonopsis pilosula (Franch.) Nannf. | Clearing away heat, detoxification, reducing swelling and relieving pain, benefiting Qi, dissipating phlegm | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Jinsang Sanjie Wan | Pill | Strobilanthes cusia; Lonicera japonica Thunb.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Scrophularia ningpoensis Hemsl.; Ophiopogon japonicus (Thunb.) Ker-Gawler | Clearing away heat, detoxification, promoting blood circulation, removing blood stasis | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Rupixiao Pian | Troche | T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Trichosanthes kirilowii; Spatholobus suberectus; Aucklandia lappa Decne.; Prunella vulgaris L.; Carthamus tinctorius L. | Activating blood circulation, removing blood stasis, clearing away heat and toxic substances | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Rupixiao Jiaonang | Capsule | T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Trichosanthes kirilowii; Aucklandia lappa Decne.; Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F. H. Chen; Paeonia veitchii Lynch; Carthamus tinctorius L.; Scrophularia ningpoensis Hemsl. | Activating blood circulation, removing blood stasis, clearing away heat and toxic substances | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Rupixiao Keli | Granules | T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Trichosanthes kirilowii; Aucklandia lappa Decne.; Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F. H. Chen; Paeonia veitchii Lynch; Carthamus tinctorius L.; Scrophularia ningpoensis Hemsl. | Activating blood circulation, removing blood stasis, clearing away heat and toxic substances | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Weichang Fuyuan Gao | Paste | Pseudostellaria heterophylla (Miq.) Pax ex Pax et Hoffm.; Rheum palmatum L.; Raphanus sativus L.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Aucklandia lappa Decne.; Astragalus membranaceus var. mongholicus (Bge.) Hsiao | Replenishing qi, activating blood and qi | Orally | Sealed and stored in a cool place |
| Fufang Qingdai Wan | Pill | Indigo Naturalis; Prunus mume (Sieb.) Sieb. et Zucc.; Arnebia euchroma (Royle) Johnst.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Portulaca oleracea L.; Dictamnus dasycarpus Turcz. | Clearing heat, cooling blood, detoxification, spotting | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Fufang Jinhuanglian Keli | Granules | Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl; Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi; Strobilanthes cusia; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Lonicera japonica Thunb. | Clearing away heat, detoxification | Orally | Sealed and stored in a cool place |
| Fufang Zhenzhu Anchuang Pian | Troche | Lonicera macranthoides Hand.-Mazz; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi; Phellodendron amurense Rupr.; Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels; Glehnia littoralis Fr. Schm. ex Miq.; Pearl; Clematis armandii Franch. | Clearing away heat, detoxification, cooling blood, eliminating erythema | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Fufang Yigan Wan | Pill | Panax ginseng C.A. Mey.; Strobilanthes cusia; Chrysanthemum indicum L.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Smilax glabra Roxb.; Plantago asiatica; Carthamus tinctorius L. | Clearing away heat and dampness, soothing the liver and spleen, dissipating phlegm | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Fufang Huangbaiye Tuji | Liquid |
Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl; Phellodendron amurense Rupr.; Lonicera japonica Thunb.; Centipede; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz | Detoxification, reducing swelling and rot | External | Sealed and stored in a cool place |
| Danshitong Jiaonang | Capsule | T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Artemisia capillaris Thunb.; Lysimachia christinae Hance; Bupleurum chinense DC.; Rheum palmatum L.; Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi; Citrus aurantium L. | Clearing away heat and dampness, cholagogic, stone removing | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Dankang Jiaonang | Capsule | Bupleurum chinense DC.; Rheum palmatum L.; Curcuma aromatica Salisb.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Artemisia capillaris Thunb.; Gardenia jasminoides Ellis; Mentha haplocalyx Briq. | Soothing liver, cholagogic, clearing away heat and toxins, relieving inflammation and pain | Orally | Sealed and protected from moisture |
| Qianlietong Pian | Troche | Vaccaria segetalis (Neck.) Garcke; Plantago asiatica; Astragalus membranaceus var. mongholicus (Bge.) Hsiao; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Lycopus lucidus var. hirtus Regel; Illicium verum Hook. f.; Cinnamomum cassia Presl | Clearing away dampness and turbidity, removing blood stasis, dispersing stagnation | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Reyanning Pian | Troche | T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Reynoutria japonica Houtt.; Ixeris polycephala; Scutellaria barbata D. Don | Detoxification | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Reyanning Heji | Liquid |
T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Reynoutria japonica Houtt.; Ixeris polycephala; Scutellaria barbata D. Don | Detoxification | Orally | Sealed and stored in a cool place |
| Reyanning Keli | Granules | T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Reynoutria japonica Houtt.; Ixeris polycephala; Scutellaria barbata D. Don | Detoxification | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Langchuang Wan | Pill | Lonicera japonica Thunb.; Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl; Coptis chinensis Franch.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Rehmannia glutinosa (Gaertn.) Libosch. ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.; Paeonia veitchii Lynch; Scrophularia ningpoensis Hemsl. | Clearing away heat, detoxification, cooling blood, promoting blood circulation | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Xiaoyan Tuire Keli | Granules | Isatis indigotica; Viola yedoensis Makino; Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz | Clearing away heat and detoxifying, cooling blood, reducing swelling | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Xiaocuo Wan | Pill | Cimicifuga foetida L.; Bupleurum chinense DC.; Ophiopogon japonicus (Thunb.) Ker-Gawler; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Scrophularia ningpoensis Hemsl.; Dendrobium nobile Lindl.; Prunella vulgaris L. | Clearing away heat and dampness, detoxification, dispersing | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Sangge Jiangzhi Wan | Pill | Taxillus chinensis (DC.) Danser; Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi; Dioscorea opposita Thunb.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Crataegus pinnatifida Bunge; Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge; Alisma orientalis (Sam.) Juzep. | Invigorating the kidney, strengthening the spleen, dissipating phlegm, clearing away heat and dampness | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Yinpujiedu Pian | Troche | Lonicera macranthoides Hand.-Mazz; Chrysanthemum indicum L.; Prunella vulgaris L.; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Viola philippica Cav. | Detoxification | Orally | Sealed storage |
| Kangfu Xiaoyan Shuan | Suppository | Viola philippica Cav.; Sophora flavescens Aiton; Patrinia scabiosaefolia Fisch.; Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees; T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Arnebia euchroma (Royle) Johnst. | Clearing away heat, detoxification, dampness and dispersing, killing insects and itching | Rectal administration | Sealed and stored in a cool place |
| Pudilan Xiaoyan Koufuye | Liquid |
T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz; Strobilanthes cusia; Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi; Corydalis bungeana | Clearing away heat, detoxification, reducing swelling | Orally | Sealed storage |
Use of Taraxacum spp. plants in traditional medicine.
| Plant Species | Functions | Countries | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| T. androssovii Schischkin | Wounds, stomach disorders | Turkey | [ |
| T. cyprium H. Lindb. | Anti-cough, expectorant, dyspepsia | Cyprus | [ |
| T. fedtschenkoi Hand.- Mazz. | Wounds, stomach disorders | Turkey | [ |
| T. macrolepium Schischkin | Wounds, stomach disorders | Turkey | [ |
| T. mongolicum Hand.-Mazz | Tuberculosis, fever, acne | China | [ |
| T. oellgaardii C. C. Haw. synonym, T. officinale (L.) Weber ex F. H. Wigg | Fever, cough, dysmenorrhea, headache, constipation, stomach, pain, digestive, stomachache, skin problems, toothache, wounds, swelling, digestive disorders, peptic ulcer, migraine, abdominal complaints, blisters and rash, treatment of gastrointestinal, diseases, eczema | India, Mexico, Pakistan, Kosovo, Romania, Bulgaria, Argentina, Italy, Serbia, Bolivia, Georgia, Peru, Turkey | [ |
| T. platycarpum Dahlst. | Furuncles | Korea | [ |
| T. Stevenii (Spreng.) DC. | Toothache, abdominal spasms | Turkey | [ |
The bioactivity of extracts from different species of Taraxacum.
| Extracts/Compounds | Species | Formulation/Dosage | Results | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anti-bacteria | ||||
| Ethanol extracts | T. mongolicum | In vitro; 1 g·mL−1 | T. mongolicum has a higher nutritional value, better antimicrobial effects and is an edible plant. | [ |
| Ethanol extracts from flowers | T. mongolicum | In vitro; Gram-negative bacteria (125 to 250 μg·mL−1) and Gram-positive bacteria (62.5 to 250 μg·mL−1) | The anti-bacterial test results showed that this fraction strongly inhibited the growth of all of the microorganisms, especially P. aeruginosa and B. subtilis (with MIC values of 125 μg·mL−1 and 62.5 μg·mL−1, respectively) | [ |
| Aqueous and ethanol extracts | T. mongolicum | In vitro; 0.125, 0.25, 0.5 g·mL−1 | It could inhibit these bacteria at different level in which ethanolic extracts of P. oleracea L. generally had higher anti-bacterial activities than aqueous extracts. | [ |
| Water extracts | T. mongolicum | In vivo; 20 mg·kg−1 | The possibility of a multifactorial drug−drug interaction existed between extracts and ciprofloxacin. Thus, the implications of concomitant dosing of the two agents should not be overlooked. | [ |
| Extracts from leaves | T. officinale | In vitro | It was found to be effective against all the tested Bacterial pathogens P. aeruginosa, E. coli, S. aureus, B. Subtilis and M. luteus. | [ |
| Extracts from roots | T. officinale | In vitro | It exhibited considerable α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities. | [ |
| Extracts from leaves | T. officinale | In vitro | It displayed excellent antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and E. coli. | [ |
| Peptides | T. officinale | In vitro | It displayed high antimicrobial activity both against fungal and bacterial pathogens. | [ |
| Ethanol extracts from leaves | T. officinale | In vitro | It had shown an antimicrobial activity against the bacterial strains of E. coli and S. abony, but had not shown any antimicrobial activity against S. aureus. | [ |
| Endophytic fungi | T. coreanum | In vitro | The results indicated that the endophytic fungis had the ability to antifungal. | [ |
| Anti-oxidant | ||||
| Methanol extracts | T. coreanum | In vitro | Its anti-oxidant activity was presented in a dose-dependent pattern. | [ |
| Extracts | T. officinale | In vitro | It inhibited oxidative stress through elevated de novo synthesis of anti-oxidative enzymes and suppression of iNOS expression by NF-B inactivation. | [ |
| Methanol extracts | T. mongolicum | In vitro | The anti-oxidant activity of T. mongolicum was presented in a dose-dependent pattern. | [ |
| Extracts | T. officinale | In vitro | Dandelion root was a valuable source of dietary fibers and natural anti-oxidants. | [ |
| Ethanol extracts | T. officinale | In vivo; 50,100, and 200 mg·kg−1 (20 days) | The study indicated efficacy of dandelion extract on RBC (group) and HB (group) in doses of 50,100, and 200 mg·kg−1 and in 200 mg·kg−1 on WBC (group) to achieve normal body balance. | [ |
| Methanol extracts | T. officinale | In vitro | Its anti-oxidant activity was presented in a dose-dependent pattern. | [ |
| Methanol extracts | T. obovatum | In vivo and in vitro | The results found the extracts to be the most promising species with anti-oxidative capacity and only T. lacistrum to present reliable cytotoxicity over HeLa and HepG2 cell lines, with an interesting SI. A proper species determination, using its distribution or deep botanical description, was required for plants of the genus Taraxacum, as pharmacological abilities mainly vary between species. | [ |
| Methanol extracts | T. marginellum | In vivo and in vitro | ||
| Methanol extracts | T. hispanicum | In vivo and in vitro | ||
| Methanol extracts | T. lambinonii | In vivo and in vitro | ||
| Methanol extracts | T. lacistrum | In vivo and in vitro | ||
| Ethanol from flowers | T. officinale | In vitro; 50, 100, 150 μg·mL−1 | The prevention of living cells from peroxyl radical-induced oxidation in the presence of dandelion flower extract suggested that the standardized extract had biological anti-oxidant activity. | [ |
| Extracts | T. mongolicum | In vitro | The extracts suppressed the damage to osteoblasts under oxidative stress and are potential anti-oxidant materials for preventing bone diseases. | [ |
| Methanol extracts | T. mongolicum | In vivo and in vitro | The extracts had significantly inhibitory activities on monoamine oxidase-A/B. | [ |
| Ethanol extracts from the roots and leaves | T. officinale | In vitro; 400, 500, and 600 µg·mL−1 | The extracts showed effective anti-oxidant activity correlating with total flavonoid and polyphenol contents. | [ |
| Ethanol extracts from fruit | T. officinale | In vivo; 1, 5, 10, and 20 μg·mL−1 | The extracts protected against SNP-induced decreases in cellular viability and increased in lipid peroxidation in the cortex, hippocampus, and striatum of rats. | [ |
| Ethanol extracts from leaves | T. officinale | In vivo; 0.1, 0.5 mg·kg−1 | The results clearly demonstrated the hepatoprotective effect of extracts against the toxicity induced by acetaminophen. | [ |
| Granules of leaves and roots | T. officinale | In vivo; 250 g·day−1 (4 weeks) | The treatment with dandelion root and leaf positively changed plasma anti-oxidant enzyme activities in cholesterol-fed rabbits. | [ |
| Methanol extracts | T. sect. Ruderalia | In vitro | The vegetative parts gave higher anti-oxidant activity, which could be related to its higher content in phenolic acids. | [ |
| Extracts from flowers | T. officinale | In vitro; 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.5 µg·mL−1 | The extracts possessed both anti-oxidant and cytotoxic properties which could, in part, be attributed to the presence of luteolin and luteolin 7-glucoside. | [ |
| Anti-cancer | ||||
| Methanol extracts from shoots/roots | T. coreanum | In vitro |
Calu-6; IC50 = 140.2/101.6 mg·kg−1 | [ |
| Methanol extracts from shoots/roots | T. mongolicum | In vitro |
Calu-6; IC50 = 83.4/66.4 mg·kg−1 | [ |
| Methanol extracts from shoots/roots | T. officinale | In vitro |
Calu-6; IC50 = 165.6/978.4 mg·kg−1 | [ |
| Ethanol extracts | T. mongolicum | In vitro | It induced G2/M phase arrest and activated apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells through ER stress. | [ |
| Methanol–water extracts from roots | T. japonicum | In vivo | An extract of the roots of the plant could be a valuable chemopreventive agent against chemical carcinogenesis. | [ |
| Flavonoids extraction | T. officinale | In vitro | The anti-oxidant activity of the purified flavonoids displayed strong ablilty. | [ |
| Extracts | T. officinale | In vitro; 2–0.02 mg·mL−1 | The extracts induced cytotoxicity through TNF-α and IL-1α secretion in HepG2 cells. | [ |
| Anti-inflammatory | ||||
| Ethanol extracts | T. officinale | In vivo; 50, 100 and 200 mg·kg−1 | The extract possessed acute anti-inflammatory activity. | [ |
| Polysaccharides | T. officinale | In vivo; 304, 92 mg·kg−1 (7 days) | The polysaccharides had a hepatoprotective effect by modulating inflammatory responses and ameliorating oxidative stress. | [ |
| Ethanol extracts | T. coreanum | In vitro and in vivo; 0, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 mg·mL−1 | The extracts possessed potent anti-inflammatory activity in vitro and in vivo, which occurred at least partly through inhibition of pro-inflammatory signaling and mediator release. | [ |
| Chloroform extracts | T. officinale | In vitro | The fraction significantly suppressed production of NO, PGE2, and two pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β) in a dose-dependent manner with 50% inhibitory concentration values of 66.51, 90.96, 114.76, and 171.06 μg·mL−1, respectively. | [ |
| Water extracts | T. mongolicum | In vitro; 10, 100, 1000 μg·mL−1 | Treatment of extracts significantly inhibited NO production in LPS-stimulated MACT cells. | [ |
| Water extracts | T. mongolicum | In vivo | T. mongolicum could exert some of its anti-inflammatory and pharmacological effects by affecting the activity of PI3K/Akt/mTOR in LPS-induced acute lung injury in mice. | [ |
| Organic acid | T. mongolicum | In vivo; 5 mg·kg−1 | Organic acid could improve LPS-induced histopathological damage of tracheal tissues through the regulation of TLR4/NF-κB and TLR4/IKK/NF-κB signaling pathways and could be beneficial for the treatment of acute tracheobronchitis. | [ |
| Methanol extracts | T. officinale | In vitro; 50, 100, 200, 400 μg·mL−1 | The results of RAW 264.7 macrophage cells indicated the extracts had excellent anti-inflammatory effects. | [ |
| Methanol extracts | T. hallaisanense | |||
| Methanol extracts | T. ohwianum | |||
| Methanol extracts | T. coreanum | |||
| Methanol extracts | T. platycarpum | |||
| Ethanol extracts | T. officinale | In vitro | The extracts possessed marked anti-inflammatory activity. | [ |
| Other effects | ||||
| Methanol extracts | T. mongolicum | In vitro; 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000 μg·mL−1 | By the results of cytotoxicity of TAM on the B16F10 cell, little cytotoxicity was exhibited from every concentration from 5 g·mL−1 to 1000 g·mL−1. | [ |
| 1β,3β-dihydroxy-eudesman-11(13)-en-6α,12-olide | T. mongolicum | In vitro | This compound was found to have an inhibitory activity on nitric oxide production with an IC50 of 38.9 µM in activated RAW 264.7 cells. | [ |
| 1β,3β-dihydroxyeudesman-6α,12-olide | T. mongolicum | In vitro | This compound was found to have an inhibitory activity on nitric oxide production with an IC50 of 32.4 µM in activated RAW 264.7 cells. | [ |
| Water extracts | T. mongolicum | In vitro | The results showed no significantly cytotoxic effects on the MAC-T cells at 1–1000 μg·mL−1 of extracts. | [ |
| Ethanol extracts | T. mongolicum | In vitro; 0, 50, 100, 200, and 400 mg·mL−1 | It possessed the most effective hypolipidemic activity in HepG2 cells. | [ |
| Chlorogenic acids | T. antungense | In vitro | TaHQT1 and TaHQT2 function in the biosynthesis of 5-caffeoylquinic acid, but the genes showed tissue-specific expression patterns, suggesting a mechanism for the regulation of 5-caffeoylquinic acid production. | [ |
| Ethanol extracts | T. mongolicum | In vitro | The results demonstrated the potential estrogenic activities of the extract, providing scientific evidence supporting their use in traditional medicine. | [ |
| Ethanol extracts | T. mongolicum | In vitro | The extracts at 50–100 µg·mL−1 improved D-galactosamine, thioacetamide and tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP)-injured rat hepatocytes, and produced protection rates of 42.2, 34.6, and 43.8% at 100 µg·mL−1, respectively. | [ |
| Water–ethanol extracts from roots | T. officinale | In vivo; 200, 600 mg·kg−1 (10 days) | Hepatic Cu/Zn SOD activity decreased in intoxicated mice and normalized in extract-treated groups. | [ |
| Extracts | T. officinale | In vivo; 50 mg·kg−1 (30 days) | The body weight of mice and rats was decreased after administration of extracts. | [ |
| Extracts | T. officinale | In vivo; 100 mg·kg−1 (20 days) | The extracts which were used against histopathological changes in the kidney caused by toxication showed a corrective effect, which were supported by biochemical parameters. | [ |
| Water extracts of leaves | T. officinale | In vitro; 25 mg·kg−1 (14 days) | The study revealed that leaf extract could afford a significant protection against CCl4-induced hepatocellular injury. | [ |
| Extracts of leaves | T. officinale | In vitro; 0.2 g·mL−1 | The methylene chloride inhibited as much as 97% of proliferation of the SGT cells and only about 7% of the RAW 246.7 cells. Ethyl acetate and butanol fractions inhibited 42.03% and 24.35% proliferation of the SGT cells, respectively, and only 12% and 8% of the RAW 246.7 cells. | [ |
| Taraxinic acid | T. coreanum | in vitro | The induction of HL-60 cell maturation by taraxinic acid may have potential as a therapeutic approach for the treatment of leukemia. | [ |
| Methanol extracts | T. platycarpum | In vitro | The triterpene fraction had an effect on the proliferation of normal skin fibroblasts at a concentration of 10 or 5.0 μg·mL−1, but some compounds showed cytotoxicity and anti-proliferative activity toward fibroblasts at the same concentration. | [ |
| The water extracts from roots and leaves | T. officinale | In vivo; 50, 100, and 200 mg·kg−1 | The results clearly demonstrated the antidepressant effects of extracts in animal models of behavioral despair and suggested the mechanism involved in the neuroendocrine system. | [ |
| Methanol extracts from leaves | T. officinale | In vivo; 150, 300 mg·kg−1 | The results revealed that leaf extracts had protective effects against CCl4- induced liver toxicity and damage. | [ |
| Granules of leaves and roots | T. officinale | In vivo; 250 g·day−1 (4 weeks) | The treatment with dandelion root and leaf positively changed lipid profiles in cholesterol-fed rabbits. | [ |
| Ethanol extracts | T. officinale | In vivo; 1 g·mL−1 (1 day) | It showed promising potential as a diuretic in humans. | [ |
| Extracts from leaves | T. officinale | In vivo; 2 g·kg−1 (10 weeks) | The extracts may represent a promising approach for the prevention of high-fat diet-induced nonalcoholic fatty liver. | [ |
| Root extracts | T. officinale | In vivo; 250, 500, 750 mg·kg−1 | The administration of extracts ameliorated CCl4 induced liver damage. | [ |
| Desacetylmatricarin | T. platycarpum | In vitro | The results showed a potent inhibitory activity upon the β-hexosaminidase release from RBL-2H3 cells in a dose-dependent manner and the IC50 was 7.5 μM. | [ |
| Extracts | T. officinale | In vivo; 100 mg·kg−1 | n-Butanol fraction-induced increase in gastric emptying was related to smooth muscle contraction. | [ |
| Water extracts | T. officinale | In vivo; 2.5, 5, and 10 mg·kg−1 | The extracts protected against lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice. | [ |
| Ethanol extracts | T. officinale | In vivo; 150 mg·kg−1 (1 week) | The extracts exhibited hepatoprotective activity in CCl4- induced hepatic damage in mice. | [ |
| Water extracts | T. officinale | In vivo; 10, 100 mg·kg−1 (10 days) | The extracts improved fatigue-related indicators and immunological parameters in mice. | [ |
References
1. Li, Y.; Chen, Y.; Sun-Waterhouse, D. The potential of dandelion in the fight against gastrointestinal diseases: A review. J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2022; 293, 115272. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2022.115272]
2. Zhang, S.; Li, C.; Gu, W.; Qiu, R.; Chao, J.; Pei, L.; Ma, L.; Guo, Y.; Tian, R. Metabolomics analysis of dandelions from different geographical regions in China. Phytochem. Anal.; 2021; 32, pp. 899-906. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pca.3033] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33641186]
3. Li, C.; Tian, Y.; Zhao, C.; Li, S.; Wang, T.; Qiao, B.; Fu, Y. Application of fingerprint combined with quantitative analysis and multivariate chemometric methods in quality evaluation of dandelion (Taraxacum mongolicum). R. Soc. Open Sci.; 2021; 8, 210614. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.210614]
4. Olas, B. New Perspectives on the Effect of Dandelion, Its Food Products and Other Preparations on the Cardiovascular System and Its Diseases. Nutrients; 2022; 14, 1350. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu14071350]
5. Di Napoli, A.; Zucchetti, P. A comprehensive review of the benefits of Taraxacum officinale on human health. Bull. Natl. Res. Cent.; 2021; 45, pp. 1-7. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s42269-021-00567-1]
6. Huang, Y.; Wu, P.; Chen, X.D. Mechanistic insights into the influence of flavonoids from dandelion on physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of cooked potato starch. Food Hydrocoll.; 2022; 130, 107714. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.107714]
7. Lis, B.; Olas, B. Pro-health activity of dandelion (Taraxacum officinale L.) and its food products—History and present. J. Funct. Foods; 2019; 59, pp. 40-48. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2019.05.012]
8. Altundag, E.; Ozturk, M. Ethnomedicinal studies on the plant resources of east Anatolia, Turkey. Procedia—Soc. Behav. Sci.; 2011; 19, pp. 756-777. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.05.195]
9. Dokos, C.; Hadjicosta, C.; Dokou, K.; Stephanou, N. Ethnopharmacological survey of endemic medicinal plants in Paphos district of Cyprus. Ethnobot. Leafl.; 2009; 13, pp. 1060-1068.
10. Chaudhary, M.I.; He, Q.; Cheng, Y.Y.; Xiao, P.G. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants from tian mu Shan biosphere reserve, Zhejiang-province, China. Asian J. Plant Sci.; 2006; 5, pp. 646-653.
11. Trak, T.H.; Giri, R.A. Inventory of the plants used by the tribals (Gujjar and bakarwal) of district kishtwar, Jammu and Kashmir (India). Indian J. Sci. Res.; 2017; 13, pp. 104-115.
12. Gheno-Heredia, Y.A.; Nava-Bernal, G.; Martínez-Campos, Á.R.; Sánchez-Vera, E. Las plantas medicinales de la organización de parteras y médicos indígenas tradicionales de Ixhuatlancillo, Veracruz, México y su significancia cultural. Polibotánica; 2011; 31, pp. 199-251.
13. Bhatia, H.; Sharma, Y.P.; Manhas, R.; Kumar, K. Traditional phytoremedies for the treatment of menstrual disorders in district Udhampur, J&K, India. J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2015; 160, pp. 202-210. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.11.041] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25479156]
14. Mahmood, A.; Mahmood, A.; Mujtaba, G.; Mumtaz, M.S.; Kayani, W.K.; Khan, M.A. Indigenous medicinal knowledge of common plants from district Kotli Azad Jammu and Kashmir Pakistan. J. Med. Plant. Res.; 2012; 6, pp. 4961-4967. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.5897/JMPR12.703]
15. Mustafa, B.; Hajdari, A.; Pajazita, Q.; Syla, B.; Quave, C.; Pieroni, A. An ethnobotanical survey of the Gollak region, Kosovo. Genet. Resour. Crop. Evol.; 2011; 59, pp. 739-754. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10722-011-9715-4]
16. Pieroni, A.; Nedelcheva, A.; Dogan, Y. Local knowledge of medicinal plants and wild food plants among Tatars and Romanians in Dobruja (South-East Romania). Genet. Resour. Crop. Evol.; 2014; 62, pp. 605-620. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10722-014-0185-3]
17. Rahman, I.U.; Ijaz, F.; Iqbal, Z.; Afzal, A.; Ali, N.; Afzal, M.; Khan, M.A.; Muhammad, S.; Qadir, G.; Asif, M. A novel survey of the ethno medicinal knowledge of dental problems in Manoor Valley (Northern Himalaya), Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2016; 194, pp. 877-894. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.10.068]
18. Kozuharova, E.; Lebanova, H.; Getov, I.; Benbassat, N.; Napier, J. Descriptive study of contemporary status of the traditional knowledge on medicinal plants in Bulgaria. Afr. J. Pharm. Pharmacol.; 2013; 7, pp. 185-198. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.5897/AJPP12.871]
19. Bhatia, H.; Sharma, Y.P.; Manhas, R.; Kumar, K. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the villagers of district Udhampur, J&K, India. J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2014; 151, pp. 1005-1018. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.12.017]
20. Ummara, U.; Bokhari, T.Z.; Altaf, A.; Younis, U.; Dasti, A.A. Pharmacological study of Shogran valley flora, Pakistan. Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res.; 2013; 4, pp. 1-9.
21. Trillo, C.; Arias Toledo, B.; Galetto, L.; Colantonio, S. Persistence of the use of medicinal plants in rural communities of the Western Arid Chaco [Córdoba, Argentina]. Open Complement. Med. J.; 2010; 2, pp. 80-89. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1876391X01002020080]
22. Guarrera, P.M. Traditional phytotherapy in Central Italy (Marche, Abruzzo, and Latium). Fitoterapia; 2005; 76, pp. 1-25. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2004.09.006] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15664457]
23. Pieroni, A.; Giusti, M.E.; Quave, C.L. Cross-cultural ethnobiology in the Western Balkans: Medical ethnobotany and ethnozoology among Albanians and Serbs in the Pešter Plateau, Sandžak, South-Western Serbia. Hum. Ecol.; 2011; 39, pp. 333-349. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10745-011-9401-3]
24. Macía, M.J.; García, E.; Vidaurre, P.J. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2005; 97, pp. 337-350. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.11.022]
25. Dangwal, L.R.; Sharma, A.; Rana, C.S. Ethnomedicinal plants of the Garhwal Himalaya used to cure various diseases: A case study. N. Y. Sci. J.; 2010; 3, pp. 28-31.
26. Bhatt, D.; Kumar, R.; Joshi, G.; Tewari, L. Indigenous uses of medicinal plants by the Vanraji tribes of Kumaun Himalaya, India. J. Med. Plant Res.; 2013; 7, pp. 2747-2754.
27. Bussmann, R.W.; Paniagua Zambrana, N.Y.; Sikharulidze, S.; Kikvidze, Z.; Kikodze, D.; Tchelidze, D.; Hart, R.E. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med. Aromat. Plants.; 2016; 5, pp. 1-18.
28. Rana, P.K.; Kumar, P.; Singhal, V.K.; Rana, J.C. Uses of Local Plant Biodiversity among the Tribal Communities of Pangi Valley of District Chamba in Cold Desert Himalaya, India. Sci. World J.; 2014; 2014, pp. 1-15. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/753289]
29. Fakir, H.; Korkmaz, M.; Güller, B. Medicinal plant diversity of western Mediterrenean region in Turkey. J. Appl. Biol. Sci.; 2009; 3, pp. 33-43.
30. Kim, H.; Song, M.-J.; Potter, D. Medicinal efficacy of plants utilized as temple food in traditional Korean Buddhism. J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2006; 104, pp. 32-46. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.08.041]
31. Özdemir, E.; Alpınar, K. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in western part of central Taurus Mountains: Aladaglar (Nigde-Turkey). J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2015; 166, pp. 53-65. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.02.052]
32. Dias, M.I.; Barros, L.; Alves, R.C.; Oliveira, M.B.P.; Santos-Buelga, C.; Ferreira, I.C. Nutritional composition, antioxidant activity and phenolic compounds of wild Taraxacum sect. Ruderalia. Food Res. Int.; 2014; 56, pp. 266-271. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2014.01.003]
33. Hänsel, R.; Kartarahardja, M.; Huang, J.-T.; Bohlmann, F. Sesquiterpenlacton-β-d-glucopyranoside sowie ein neues eudesmanolid aus Taraxacum officinale. Phytochemistry; 1980; 19, pp. 857-861. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(80)85126-0]
34. Zielińska, K.; Kisiel, W. Sesquiterpenoids from roots of Taraxacum laevigatum and Taraxacum disseminatum. Phytochemistry; 2000; 54, pp. 791-794. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)00088-1]
35. Ahmad, V.U.; Yasmeen, S.; Ali, Z.; Khan, M.A.; Choudhary, M.I.; Akhtar, F.; Zahid, M. Taraxacin, a new guaianolide from Taraxacum wallichii. J. Nat. Prod.; 2000; 63, pp. 1010-1011. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np990495+] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10924189]
36. Kim, Y.-H.; Choo, S.-J.; Ryoo, I.-J.; Ahn, J.-S.; Yoo, I.-D. Eudesmanolides from Taraxacum mongolicum and their inhibitory effects on the production of nitric oxide. Arch. Pharmacal Res.; 2011; 34, pp. 37-41. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12272-011-0104-5] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21468913]
37. Li, W.; Lee, C.; Kim, Y.H.; Ma, J.Y.; Shim, S.H. Chemical constituents of the aerial part of Taraxacum mongolicum and their chemotaxonomic significance. Nat. Prod. Res.; 2017; 31, pp. 2303-2307. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2017.1292511] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28278637]
38. Shi, S.Y.; Zhou, Q.; Peng, H.; Zhou, C.X.; Hu, M.H.; Tao, Q.F.; Hao, X.J.; Stöckigt, J.; Zhao, Y. Four new constituents from Taraxacum mongolicum. Chin. Chem. Lett.; 2007; 18, pp. 1367-1370. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2007.09.005]
39. Kisiel, W.; Barszcz, B. Further sesquiterpenoids and phenolics from Taraxacum officinale. Fitoterapia; 2000; 71, pp. 269-273. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(99)00158-6]
40. Kisiel, W.; Michalska, K. Sesquiterpenoids and phenolics from Taraxacum hondoense. Fitoterapia; 2005; 76, pp. 520-524. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2005.04.016] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15972248]
41. Michalska, K.; Kisiel, W. Sesquiterpene Lactones from Taraxacum obovatum. Planta Medica; 2003; 69, pp. 181-183. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2003-37702]
42. Michalska, K.; Kisiel, W. A Guaianolide Sulfate Conjugate and Other Constituents from Taraxacum alpinum. Pol. J. Chem.; 2007; 81, 515. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/chin.200740173]
43. Michalska, K.; Kisiel, W. Sesquiterpene lactones from Taraxacum erythrospermum. Biochem. Syst. Ecol.; 2008; 36, pp. 444-446. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bse.2007.10.001]
44. Michalska, K.; Kisiel, W. Sesquiterpenoids from Taraxacum serotinum. Biochem. Syst. Ecol.; 2009; 37, pp. 519-521. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bse.2009.04.008]
45. Michalska, K.; Marciniuk, J.; Kisiel, W. Sesquiterpenoids and phenolics from roots of Taraxacum udum. Fitoterapia; 2010; 81, pp. 434-436. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2009.12.004]
46. Zidorn, C.; Ellmerermuller, E.; Stuppner, H. Eudesmanolides and inositol derivatives from Taraxacum linearisquameum. Phytochemistry; 1999; 51, pp. 991-994. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(99)00163-6]
47. Warashina, T.; Umehara, K.; Miyase, T. Constituents from the Roots of Taraxacum platycarpum and Their Effect on Proliferation of Human Skin Fibroblasts. Chem. Pharm. Bull.; 2012; 60, pp. 205-212. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1248/cpb.60.205]
48. Ho, C.; Choi, E.J.; Yoo, G.S.; Kim, K.M.; Ryu, S.Y. Desacetylmatricarin, an anti-allergic component from Taraxacum platycarpum. Planta Med.; 1998; 64, pp. 577-578. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-957520]
49. Kashiwada, Y.; Takanaka, K.; Tsukada, H.; Miwa, Y.; Taga, T.; Tanaka, S.; Ikeshiro, Y. Sesquiterpene glucosides from anti-leukotriene B4 release fraction of Taraxacum officinale. J. Asian Nat. Prod. Res.; 2001; 3, pp. 191-197. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10286020108041390] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11491394]
50. Schütz, K.; Kammerer, D.R.; Carle, R.; Schieber, A. Characterization of phenolic acids and flavonoids in dandelion (Taraxacum officinale WEB. ex WIGG.) root and herb by high-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom.; 2004; 19, pp. 179-186. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/rcm.1767]
51. Chen, H.-J.; Inbaraj, B.S.; Chen, B.-H. Determination of Phenolic Acids and Flavonoids in Taraxacum formosanum Kitam by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Coupled with a Post-Column Derivatization Technique. Int. J. Mol. Sci.; 2011; 13, pp. 260-285. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms13010260]
52. Mo, E.J.; Ahn, J.H.; Jo, Y.H.; Kim, S.B.; Hwang, B.Y.; Lee, M.K. Inositol Derivatives and Phenolic Compounds from the Roots of Taraxacum coreanum. Molecule; 2017; 22, 1349. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules22081349]
53. Bylka, W.; Matlawska, I.; Frański, R. Essential oil composition of Taraxacum officinale. Acta Physiol. Plant.; 2009; 32, pp. 231-234. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11738-009-0381-5]
54. Hook, I.; Sheridan, H.; Wilson, G. Volatile metabolites from suspension cultures of Taraxacum officinale. Phytochemistry; 1991; 30, pp. 3977-3979. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(91)83448-T]
55. Chen, M.; Wu, J.; Shi, S.; Chen, Y.; Wang, H.; Fan, H.; Wang, S. Structure analysis of a heteropolysaccharide from Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz. and anticomplementary activity of its sulfated derivatives. Carbohydr. Polym.; 2016; 152, pp. 241-252. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.06.110]
56. Schütz, K.; Muks, E.; Carle, R.; Schieber, A. Separation and quantification of inulin in selected artichoke (Cynara Scolymus L.) cultivars and dandelion (Taraxacum officinale WEB. ex WIGG.) roots by high-performance anion exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection. Biomed. Chromatogr.; 2006; 20, pp. 1295-1303. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bmc.694]
57. Li, X.-H.; He, X.-R.; Zhou, Y.-Y.; Zhao, H.-Y.; Zheng, W.-X.; Jiang, S.-T.; Zhou, Q.; Li, P.-P.; Han, S.-Y. Taraxacum mongolicum extract induced endoplasmic reticulum stress associated-apoptosis in triple-negative breast cancer cells. J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2017; 206, pp. 55-64. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.04.025] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28461119]
58. Shi, S.; Huang, K.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, S. Preparative isolation and purification of two flavonoid glycosides from Taraxacum mongolicum by high-speed counter-current chromatography. Sep. Purif. Technol.; 2008; 60, pp. 81-85. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2007.07.047]
59. Shi, S.; Zhao, Y.; Zhou, H.; Zhang, Y.; Jiang, X.; Huang, K. Identification of antioxidants from Taraxacum mongolicum by high-performance liquid chromatography–diode array detection–radical-scavenging detection–electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance experiments. J. Chromatogr. A; 2008; 1209, pp. 145-152. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2008.09.004]
60. Shi, S.; Zhang, Y.; Huang, K.; Liu, S.; Zhao, Y. Application of preparative high-speed counter-current chromatography for separation and purification of lignans from Taraxacum mongolicum. Food Chem.; 2008; 108, pp. 402-406. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.10.069]
61. Shi, S.; Zhang, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Huang, K. Preparative isolation and purification of three flavonoid glycosides from Taraxacum mongolicum by high-speed counter-current chromatography. J. Sep. Sci.; 2008; 31, pp. 683-688. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jssc.200700409]
62. Shi, S.; Honghao, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Kelong, H.; Liu, S. A High-Speed Counter-Current Chromatography-- HPLC--DAD Method for Preparative Isolation and Purification of Two Polymethoxylated Flavones From Taraxacum mongolicum. J. Chromatogr. Sci.; 2009; 47, pp. 349-353. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/chromsci/47.5.349] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19476701]
63. Williams, C.A.; Goldstone, F.; Greenham, J. Flavonoids, cinnamic acids and coumarins from the different tissues and medicinal preparations of Taraxacum officinale. Phytochemistry; 1996; 42, pp. 121-127. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(95)00865-9]
64. Kikuchi, T.; Tanaka, A.; Uriuda, M.; Yamada, T.; Tanaka, R. Three Novel Triterpenoids from Taraxacum officinale Roots. Molecules; 2016; 21, 1121. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules21091121] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27618885]
65. Komissarenko, N.; Derkach, A. Coumarins of taraxacum-officinale. Khimiya Prir. Soedin.; 1981; 4, 519.
66. Peng, S.; Dai, W.; Yu, H.; Wang, Y.; Wang, X.; Wang, X.; Peng, S. Anti-bacterial activity of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Portulaca oleracea L. and Taraxacum mongolicum against pathogenic bacteria of cow mastitis. Int. J. Appl. Res. Vet. Med.; 2014; 12, pp. 210-213.
67. Wang, L.; Li, L.; Gao, J.; Huang, J.; Yang, Y.; Xu, Y.; Liu, S.; Yu, W. Characterization, antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects of selenized polysaccharides from dandelion roots. Carbohydr. Polym.; 2021; 260, 117796. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.117796]
68. Liu, J.; Zhang, N.; Liu, M. A new inositol triester from Taraxacum mongolicum. Nat. Prod. Res.; 2014; 28, pp. 420-423. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2013.867443] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24432736]
69. Ma, C.; Zhu, L.; Wang, J.; He, H.; Chang, X.; Gao, J.; Shumin, W.; Yan, T. Anti-inflammatory effects of water extract of Taraxacum mongolicum hand.-Mazz on lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in acute lung injury by suppressing PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2015; 168, pp. 349-355. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.03.068]
70. Oh, S.M.; Kim, H.R.; Park, Y.J.; Lee, Y.H.; Chung, K.H. Ethanolic extract of dandelion (Taraxacum mongolicum) induces estrogenic activity in MCF-7 cells and immature rats. Chin. J. Nat. Med.; 2015; 13, pp. 808-814. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1875-5364(15)30084-4]
71. Jia, Y.-Y.; Guan, R.-F.; Wu, Y.-H.; Yu, X.-P.; Lin, W.-Y.; Zhang, Y.-Y.; Liu, T.; Zhao, J.; Shi, S.-Y.; Zhao, Y. Taraxacum mongolicum extract exhibits a protective effect on hepatocytes and an antiviral effect against hepatitis B virus in animal and human cells. Mol. Med. Rep.; 2014; 9, pp. 1381-1387. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2014.1925] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24481875]
72. Yang, N.; Dong, Z.; Tian, G.; Zhu, M.; Li, C.; Bu, W.; Feng, L. Protective effects of organic acid component from Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz. against LPS-induced inflammation: Regulating the TLR4/IKK/NF-κB signal pathway. J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2016; 194, pp. 395-402. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.08.044] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27566210]
73. Yang, N.; Li, C.; Tian, G.; Zhu, M.; Bu, W.; Chen, J.; Feng, L. Organic acid component from Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz alleviates inflammatory injury in lipopolysaccharide-induced acute tracheobronchitis of ICR mice through TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. Int. Immunopharmacol.; 2016; 34, pp. 92-100. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2016.02.028]
74. Kao, T.; Loh, C.; Inbaraj, B.S.; Chen, B. Determination of carotenoids in Taraxacum formosanum by HPLC–DAD–APCI-MS and preparation by column chromatography. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal.; 2012; 66, pp. 144-153. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2012.03.035]
75. Kenny, O.; Brunton, N.P.; Walsh, D.; Hewage, C.M.; McLoughlin, P.; Smyth, T.J. Characterisation of Antimicrobial Extracts from Dandelion Root (Taraxacum officinale) Using LC-SPE-NMR. Phytotherapy Res.; 2015; 29, pp. 526-532. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ptr.5276]
76. Kenny, O.; Smyth, T.; Hewage, C.; Brunton, N.; McLoughlin, P. 4-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid derivatives of inositol from dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) root characterised using LC–SPE–NMR and LC–MS techniques. Phytochemistry; 2013; 98, pp. 197-203. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.11.022]
77. Melendezmartinez, A.; Britton, G.; Vicario, I.M.; Heredia, F.J. HPLC analysis of geometrical isomers of lutein epoxide isolated from dandelion (Taraxacum officinale F. Weber ex Wiggers). Phytochemistry; 2006; 67, pp. 771-777. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2006.02.002]
78. Demin, G.A.O. Analysis of nutritional components of Taraxacum mongolicum and its antibacterial activity. Pharmacogn. J.; 2010; 2, pp. 502-505. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0975-3575(10)80039-2]
79. Qiao, H.; Sun, T.J. Antibacterial activity of ethanol extract and fractions obtained from Taraxacum mongolicum flower. Res. J. Pharmacogn.; 2014; 1, pp. 35-39.
80. Zhu, M.; Wong, P.Y.; Li, R.C. Effects of Taraxacum mongolicum on the bioavailability and disposition of ciprofloxacin in rats. J. Pharm. Sci.; 1999; 88, pp. 632-634. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/js980367q]
81. Iqbal, Z.; Afzal, M.; Afzal, A.; Rahman, I.U.; Ahmed, B.; Anjum, N.; Bibi, A. In vitro antibacterial study of Taraxacum officinale leaves extracts against different bacterial pathogenic strains. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem.; 2014; 3, pp. 15-17.
82. Mir, M.A.; Sawhney, S.S.; Jassal, M.M.S. In-vitro antidiabetic studies of various extracts of Taraxacum officinale. Pharma Innov.; 2015; 4, 61.
83. Tettey, C.; Ocloo, A.; Nagajyothi, P.; Lee, K. An in vitro analysis of antiproliferative and antimicrobial activities of solvent fractions of Taraxacum officinale (Dandelion) leaf. J. Appl. Pharm. Sci.; 2014; 4, pp. 41-45. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2014.40309]
84. Astafieva, A.A.; Rogozhin, E.I.; Odintsova, T.I.; Khadeeva, N.V.; Grishin, E.V.; Egorov, T.A. Discovery of novel antimicrobial peptides with unusual cysteine motifs in dandelion Taraxacum officinale Wigg. flowers. Peptides; 2012; 36, pp. 266-271. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2012.05.009] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22640720]
85. Ionescu, D.; Predan, G.; Rizea, G.D.; Mihele, D.; Dune, A.; Ivopol, G.; Ionita, C. Antimicrobial Activity of some Hydroalcoholic Extracts of Artichoke (Cynara Scolymus), Burdock (Arctium Lappa) and Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). Bull. Transilv. Univ. Brasov. Ser. II For. Wood Ind. Agric. Food Eng.; 2013; 6, pp. 113-120.
86. Paul, N.C.; Kim, W.K.; Woo, S.K.; Park, M.S.; Yu, S.H. Diversity of endophytic fungi associated with Taraxacum coreanum and their antifungal activity. Mycobiology; 2006; 34, pp. 185-190. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4489/MYCO.2006.34.4.185]
87. Chon, S.-U. Antioxidant Activity and Cytotoxicity of Different Taraxacum Species in Korea. Korean J. Crop. Sci.; 2012; 57, pp. 51-59. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.7740/kjcs.2012.57.1.051]
88. Park, C.M.; Park, J.Y.; Noh, K.H.; Shin, J.H.; Song, Y.S. Taraxacum officinale Weber extracts inhibit LPS-induced oxidative stress and nitric oxide production via the NF-κB modulation in RAW 264.7 cells. J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2011; 133, pp. 834-842. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.11.015]
89. Chon, S.U.; Bae, C.H.; Lee, S.C. Antioxidant and cytotoxic potentials of methanol extracts from Taraxacum officinale FH Wigg. at different plant parts. Korean J. Plant Resour.; 2012; 25, pp. 232-239. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.7732/kjpr.2012.25.2.232]
90. Petkova, N.T.; Ivanov, I.; Topchieva, S.; Denev, P.; Pavlov, A. Biologically active substances and in vitro antioxidant activity of different extracts from dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) roots. Sci. Bulletin. Ser. F. Biotechnol.; 2015; 19, pp. 190-197. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.13140/rg.2.1.2500.6563]
91. Modaresi, M.; Resalatpour, N. The Effect of Taraxacum officinale Hydroalcoholic Extract on Blood Cells in Mice. Adv. Hematol.; 2012; 2012, pp. 1-4. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/653412] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22844289]
92. Mingarro, D.M.; Plaza, A.; Galán, A.; Vicente, J.A.; Martínez, M.P.; Acero, N. The effect of five Taraxacum species on in vitro and in vivo antioxidant and antiproliferative activity. Food Funct.; 2015; 6, pp. 2787-2793. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C5FO00645G] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26158347]
93. Hu, C.; Kitts, D.D. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) flower extract suppresses both reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide and prevents lipid oxidation in vitro. Phytomedicine; 2005; 12, pp. 588-597. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2003.12.012]
94. Seo, J.-E.; Kim, G.-H. Antioxidant Activity and Differentiation Effect of Taraxacum mongolicum Extracts against Hydrogen Peroxide-induced Oxidative Damage of MC3T3-E1 Osteoblast Cells. Korean J. Food Cook. Sci.; 2012; 28, pp. 311-318. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.9724/kfcs.2012.28.3.311]
95. Hwang, K.H.; Park, T.K. The inhibitory activity of the Taraxacum mongolicum on monoamine oxidase. Korean J. Pharmacogn.; 2006; 37, pp. 229-234.
96. García-Carrasco, B.; Fernandez-Dacosta, R.; Dávalos, A.; Ordovás, J.M.; Rodriguez-Casado, A. In vitro Hypolipidemic and Antioxidant Effects of Leaf and Root Extracts of Taraxacum Officinale. Med. Sci.; 2015; 3, pp. 38-54. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/medsci3020038]
97. Colle, D.; Arantes, L.P.; Rauber, R.; de Mattos, S.E.C.; Rocha, J.B.T.D.; Nogueira, C.W.; Soares, F.A.A. Antioxidant properties of Taraxacum officinale fruit extract are involved in the protective effect against cellular death induced by sodium nitroprusside in brain of rats. Pharm. Biol.; 2012; 50, pp. 883-891. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2011.641981]
98. Colle, D.; Arantes, L.P.; Gubert, P.; da Luz, S.C.A.; Athayde, M.L.; Rocha, J.B.T.; Soares, F.A.A. Antioxidant Properties of Taraxacum officinale Leaf Extract Are Involved in the Protective Effect Against Hepatoxicity Induced by Acetaminophen in Mice. J. Med. Food; 2012; 15, pp. 549-556. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2011.0282]
99. Choi, U.-K.; Lee, O.-H.; Yim, J.H.; Cho, C.-W.; Rhee, Y.K.; Lim, S.-I.; Kim, Y.-C. Hypolipidemic and Antioxidant Effects of Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) Root and Leaf on Cholesterol-Fed Rabbits. Int. J. Mol. Sci.; 2010; 11, pp. 67-78. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms11010067] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20162002]
100. Hu, C.; Kitts, D.D. Antioxidant, prooxidant, and cytotoxic activities of solvent-fractionated dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) flower extracts in vitro. J. Agric. Food Chem.; 2003; 51, pp. 301-310. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf0258858] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12502425]
101. Takasaki, M.; Konoshima, T.; Tokuda, H.; Masuda, K.; Arai, Y.; Shiojima, K.; Ageta, H. Anti-carcinogenic Activity of Taraxacum Plant. I. Biol. Pharm. Bull.; 1999; 22, pp. 602-605. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1248/bpb.22.602]
102. Sun, Z.; Su, R.; Qiao, J.; Zhao, Z.; Wang, X. Flavonoids Extraction from Taraxacum officinale (Dandelion): Optimisation Using Response Surface Methodology and Antioxidant Activity. J. Chem.; 2014; 2014, 956278. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/956278]
103. Koo, H.-N.; Hong, S.-H.; Song, B.-K.; Kim, C.-H.; Yoo, Y.-H.; Kim, H.-M. Taraxacum officinale induces cytotoxicity through TNF-α and IL-1α secretion in Hep G2 cells. Life Sci.; 2004; 74, pp. 1149-1157. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2003.07.030] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14687655]
104. Jeon, H.-J.; Kang, H.-J.; Jung, H.-J.; Kang, Y.-S.; Lim, C.-J.; Kim, Y.-M.; Park, E.-H. Anti-inflammatory activity of Taraxacum officinale. J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2008; 115, pp. 82-88. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.09.006] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17949929]
105. Park, C.M.; Youn, H.J.; Chang, H.K.; Song, Y.S. TOP1 and 2, polysaccharides from Taraxacum officinale, attenuate CCl4-induced hepatic damage through the modulation of NF-κB and its regulatory mediators. Food Chem. Toxicol.; 2010; 48, pp. 1255-1261. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2010.02.019]
106. Lee, M.H.; Kang, H.; Lee, K.; Yang, G.; Ham, I.; Bu, Y.; Choi, H.Y. The aerial part of Taraxacum coreanum extract has an anti-inflammatory effect on peritoneal macrophages in vitro and increases survival in a mouse model of septic shock. J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2013; 146, pp. 1-8. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.12.009]
107. Koh, Y.-J.; Cha, D.-S.; Ko, J.-S.; Park, H.-J.; Choi, H.-D. Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Taraxacum officinale Leaves on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Responses in RAW 264.7 Cells. J. Med. Food; 2010; 13, pp. 870-878. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2009.1249]
108. Lee, K.H.; Hsu, K.C.; Wang, Y.S.; Yeh, C.C.; Chen, J.Y.; Chang, C.L.; Chi, C.H. Effects of Taraxacum mongolicum Extract on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Nitric Oxide and Cytokines Production by Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells. Intern. J. Appl. Res. Vet. Med.; 2013; 11, pp. 144-152.
109. Lee, M.H.; Song, S.H.; Ham, I.H.; Bu, Y.M.; Kim, H.C.; Choi, H.Y. Anti-inflammatory effect and contents from the aerial part and root of the various Taraxacum spp. distributed in Korea. Korea J. Herbol.; 2010; 25, pp. 77-84.
110. Jang, M.-H.; Ahn, T.-W. Inhibitory effects of Taraxacum mongolicum with phreatic water on melanin synthesis. Integr. Med. Res.; 2014; 4, pp. 76-93. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.imr.2014.08.001]
111. Liu, Y.-J.; Shieh, P.-C.; Lee, J.-C.; Chen, F.-A.; Lee, C.-H.; Kuo, S.-C.; Ho, C.-T.; Kuo, D.-H.; Huang, L.-J.; Way, T.-D. Hypolipidemic activity of Taraxacum mongolicum associated with the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase in human HepG2 cells. Food Funct.; 2014; 5, pp. 1755-1762. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C4FO00183D]
112. Liu, Q.; Yao, L.; Xu, Y.; Cheng, H.; Wang, W.; Liu, Z.; Ning, W. In vitro evaluation of hydroxycinnamoyl CoA: Quinate hydroxycinnamoyl transferase expression and regulation in Taraxacum antungense in relation to 5-caffeoylquinic acid production. Phytochemistry; 2019; 162, pp. 148-156. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2019.02.014] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30897352]
113. Domitrović, R.; Jakovac, H.; Romić, Ž; Rahelić, D.; Tadić, Ž. Antifibrotic activity of Taraxacum officinale root in carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage in mice. J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2010; 130, pp. 569-577. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.05.046]
114. Râcz–Kotilla, E.; Râcz, G.; Solomon, A. The action of Taraxacum officinale extracts on the body weight and diuresis of laboratory animaLS. Planta Medica; 1974; 26, pp. 212-217. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0028-1099379] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4427955]
115. Karakuş, A.; Değer, Y.; Yıldırım, S. Protective effect of Silybum marianum and Taraxacum officinale extracts against oxidative kidney injuries induced by carbon tetrachloride in rats. Ren. Fail.; 2016; 39, pp. 1-6. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0886022X.2016.1244070] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27845613]
116. Al-Malki, A.L.; Abo-Golayel, M.K.; Abo-Elnaga, G.; Al-Beshri, H. Hepatoprotective effect of dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) against induced chronic liver cirrhosis. Med. Plants Res.; 2013; 7, pp. 1494-1505.
117. Choi, J.H.; Shin, K.M.; Kim, N.Y.; Hong, J.P.; Lee, Y.S.; Kim, H.J.; Lee, K.T. Taraxinic Acid, a Hydrolysate of Sesquiterpene Lactone Glycoside from the Taraxacum coreanum N AKAI, Induces the Differentiation of Human Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia HL-60 Cells. Biol. Pharm. Bull.; 2002; 25, pp. 1446-1450. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1248/bpb.25.1446]
118. Li, Y.C.; Shen, J.D.; Li, Y.Y.; Huang, Q. Antidepressant effects of the water extract from Taraxacum officinale leaves and roots in mice. Pharm. Biol.; 2014; 52, pp. 1028-1032. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2013.876432]
119. Ahmad, D.; Gulfraz, M.; Ahmad, M.S.; Nazir, H.; Gul, H.; Asif, S. Protective action of Taraxacum officinale on CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Afr. J. Pharm. Pharmacol.; 2014; 8, pp. 775-780.
120. Clare, B.A.; Conroy, R.S.; Spelman, K.; Cand, P.; Zhang, N.; Pang, L.; Dong, N.; Xu, D. The Diuretic Effect in Human Subjects of an Extract of Taraxacum officinale Folium over a Single Day. J. Altern. Complement. Med.; 2009; 15, pp. 929-934. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1089/acm.2008.0152]
121. Davaatseren, M.; Hur, H.J.; Yang, H.J.; Hwang, J.-T.; Park, J.H.; Kim, H.-J.; Kim, M.J.; Kwon, D.Y.; Sung, M.J. Taraxacum official (dandelion) leaf extract alleviates high-fat diet-induced nonalcoholic fatty liver. Food Chem. Toxicol.; 2013; 58, pp. 30-36. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2013.04.023]
122. Fallah, H.H.; Zareei, A.M.; SA, Z.; SM, A. The effects of Taraxacum officinale L. and Berberis vulgaris L. root extracts on carbon tetrachloride induced liver toxicity in rats. J. Med. Plants; 2010; 1, pp. 45-52.
123. Jin, Y.-R.; Jin, J.; Piao, X.-X.; Jin, N.G. The effect of Taraxacum officinale on gastric emptying and smooth muscle motility in Rodents. Neurogastroenterol. Motil.; 2011; 23,
124. Liu, L.; Xiong, H.; Ping, J.; Ju, Y.; Zhang, X. Taraxacum officinale protects against lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice. J. Ethnopharmacol.; 2010; 130, pp. 392-397. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.05.029]
125. Mahesh, A.; Jeyachandran, R.; Cindrella, L.; Thangadurai, D.; Veerapur, V.; Muralidhara Rao, D. Hepatocurative potential of sesquiterpene lactones of Taraxacum officinale on carbon tetrachloride induced liver toxicity in mice. Acta Biol. Hung.; 2010; 61, pp. 175-190. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1556/ABiol.61.2010.2.6]
126. Lee, B.-R.; Lee, J.-H.; An, H.-J. Effects of Taraxacum officinale on Fatigue and Immunological Parameters in Mice. Molecules; 2012; 17, pp. 13253-13265. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules171113253] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23135630]
127. Díaz, K.; Espinoza, L.; Madrid, A.; Pizarro, L.; Chamy, R. Isolation and identification of compounds from bioactive extracts of Taraxacum officinale Weber ex FH Wigg.(Dandelion) as a potential source of antibacterial agents. Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med.; 2018; 2018, 2706417. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/2706417]
128. Qu, J.; Ke, F.; Liu, Z.; Yang, X.; Li, X.; Xu, H.; Li, Q.; Bi, K. Uncovering the mechanisms of dandelion against triple-negative breast cancer using a combined network pharmacology, molecular pharmacology and metabolomics approach. Phytomedicine; 2022; 99, 153986. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2022.153986] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35183931]
129. Baek, H.Y. In vitro free radical scavenging and hepatoprotective activities of Taraxacum mongolicum. Korean J. Pharmacogn.; 2003; 34, pp. 324-326.
130. Akhtar, W.; Ali, G.; Ashraf, N.; Fatima, I.; Kayani, W.K.; Shaheen, H.; Khames, A. Efficiency of Multiple Extraction Solvents on Antioxidant, Cytotoxic, and Phytotoxic Potential of Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex FH Wigg. from Poonch Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med.; 2022; 2022, 5118553. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/5118553] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35698643]
131. Fallah, H.H.; Zaree, A.M.; Naghdi, H.B.; SM, A.; Mohammadi, R.S. The protective effect of medicinal herbs extracts including Cynara Scolymus L.; cichorium intybus L. Taraxacum officinal L. and Berberis vulgaris L. in single and in combination form in CCI4 induced rat liver toxicity. J. Med. Plants; 2012; 1, pp. 78-85.
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.
Details
1 Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Gansu Medical College, Pingliang 744000, China;
2 Sanitation Test Center, Pingliang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Pingliang 744000, China;