Spatial distribution characteristics of urban private gardens under the influence of shiyin concept (seclusion in the city): Case studies of urban private gardens in Suzhou from the end of the 14th century to the middle of the 18th century

Abstract

This study examined the spatial distribution characteristics of urban private gardens under the influence of the shiyin concept (seclusion in the city) by studying urban private gardens in Suzhou from the end of the 14th century to the middle of the 18th century. Under the influence of shiyin, private gardens were constructed within the city. The urban spatial distribution features of 38 private gardens were analyzed through space syntax and related methods. The results show that (1) locationally, the private gardens were located more in main functional areas instead of suburban areas, and (2) structurally, the urban private gardens were integrated globally and separated locally in the urban space system. Combined with the discussion of shiyin, the results show that the reclusion aspect of shiyin is not related to the location distribution of urban private gardens, but is reflected more at the structural level, with urban private gardens locally separated from urban space systems. This study provides a new perspective to discuss urban private gardens in terms of urban space and suggests a focus on local structural features of private gardens at the medium and micro level of urban space (such as streets and blocks).

Introduction Research background and purposes

The end of the 14th century to the middle of the 18th century (Ming dynasty to early Qing dynasty) was rich in Chinese garden culture, and the number of urban private gardens surged in this historical period. This trend is particularly striking in the Jiangnan area [Note 1] after the 16th century, when widespread enthusiasm for garden construction swept the prosperous center.¹

The concept of shiyin was developed in the Ming dynasty and is a crucial clue for the characteristics of urban private gardens in this period. Meaning seclusion in the city, the idea of shiyin is an essential aspect of Chinese traditional reclusion culture.² Reclusion in traditional Chinese society describes the withdrawal of a scholar from participation in an official career.³ Reclusion culture in traditional Chinese society is the direct source of ideas for Chinese private gardens. Private gardens are the essential substance carrier of the reclusion culture.⁴

Under the influence of shiyin, the private garden became incorporated into cities. Before the Ming dynasty, traditional reclusion culture established a framework of opposition between the countryside and the city, with a private garden as a rural space relative to a more urban space. However, after the Ming dynasty, private gardens were constructed in cities under the influence of the concept of shiyin.

Scholars have explored the transformation of the relationship between private gardens and cities in the Ming dynasty under the influence of the concept of shiyin from different perspectives, such as urban landscape and daily life.^5,6 Most discussions have focused on the culture and social significance of urban private gardens and regard the city as a social or cultural concept beyond the physical. However, there has been little effort to explore the private gardens at the level of urban space (on the physical dimension). With this background, this study focused on the spatial distribution characteristics of private gardens in the urban space.

From a perspective of urban space, under the influence of shiyin, the transformation of private gardens into urban space was manifested in two aspects. First, locationally, the locations of private garden shifted from the outside of the city to the interior. Second, structurally, the private garden transformed from being in opposition to the urban space system to being a part of it. Here, the spatial distribution of urban private gardens is discussed from aspects of location and structure.

In this study, analysis at the structural level is based on space syntax theory, a set of theories to model and analyze the overall space configuration of cities as interconnected spatial units. Using quantitative description, space syntax considers the aggregation or dispersion of spatial units as the structural characteristics of the overall space configuration.⁷ Space syntax focuses on the structural relationship between the global and local in a space system based on the idea that the structural features of space configuration express the mutual influences of space and society concepts.⁸ Space syntax is widely used in quantitative research of urban space. This study uses the space syntax method, considering the city as a whole spatial system and urban private gardens as a part (a type of urban space) and exploring the mutual spatial structural relationships.

This study focused on urban private gardens in Suzhou from the end of the 14th century to the middle of the 18th century (Ming dynasty to early Qing dynasty). First, Suzhou was a typical garden city in this period, with abundant sample cases. Suzhou is located in Jiangsu province of China (Figure 1A) with over 2500 years of history [Note 2]. By the end of the 9th century (late Tang Dynasty), Suzhou had shaped the grid-like urban form composed of canals and alleys⁹ which exists until now (Figure 1B,C).¹⁰ Since the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), the urban private garden has played a significant role in Suzhou's cityscape and daily life,¹¹ such as the description in Shen Chaocchu's poetry, “Fair Suzhou city, with half-city gardens” [Note 3]. Nowadays, there are still many historical private garden sites in Suzhou (Figure 1D). Secondly, since the Ming dynasty, the development and influence of the concept of shiyin were important in the geographical area of Jiangnan, with Suzhou as the center.³ Additionally, in this 400-year time period, although Suzhou experienced historical and dynastic changes, the urban spatial structure did not change fundamentally. Thus, Suzhou provides a relatively stable background to analyze urban private gardens.

Figure 1. Overview of spatial conditions in Suzhou's historical urban area. (A) Location information of Suzhou. (B) Air view map of Suzhou (drawn by Yanagi-jo, first published in about 1938–1939). (C) Images of canals and alleys in Suzhou. (D) Typical historical sites of private gardens in Suzhou

Thus, urban private gardens in Suzhou from the end of the 14th century to the middle of the 18th century (Ming dynasty to early Qing dynasty) were studied, focusing on the spatial distribution characteristics of urban private gardens. Space syntax and related methods were used to quantitatively analyze the spatial distribution characteristics of urban private gardens from aspects of location and structure. The analysis facilitated the discussion of shiyin and Chinese traditional reclusion culture and the relationship of this concept to the spatial distribution features of urban private gardens. The analysis and discussion hope to provide a new perspective to discuss urban private gardens as part of urban space.

Literature review

In related research, scholars have focused on the transformation of the relationship between private gardens and cities after the Ming dynasty. Hammond studied garden records written by Wang Shizhen (1526–1590) and discussed urban private gardens based on the relationship between urban landscape and urban culture.⁵ Wu explored the correspondence between the location distribution of urban private gardens and urban daily life.⁶ These studies mainly focused on the culture and social significance of urban private gardens and regard the city as a social or cultural concept that transcends the material, with little discussion of private gardens as components of physical urban spaces. Other scholars focused on the urban space characteristics of urban private gardens. Mote summed up the concepts of form, time, and space of historical Suzhou and regarded urban private gardens as spatial representations of the pursuit of rural life in the utilization of urban space.¹² Xu analyzed the development history of Suzhou from the perspectives of form and space,¹³ with analysis of Canglang Ting (Surging waves pavilion) and Le Pu (Pleasure patch) from the perspectives of boundary and center.¹⁴ These discussions provided essential background for this study. However, these discussions of urban space consider only individual examples of private gardens. The goal of this work was to consider urban private gardens in a specific period as a whole concept and analyze the relevant urban spatial characteristics.

Space syntax correlation methods as proposed by Hillier et al. were used to analyze the structural characteristics of urban private gardens. This method to analyze space focuses on the spatial configuration formed by the interconnection of spatial units and regards it as a whole space system.⁷ Based on the spatial configuration, space syntax reveals the aggregated and discrete structural properties of space units in a space system through a series of quantitative methods.⁸ The concept of space syntax is widely used in urban space studies and can effectively describe the structural characteristics of cities and specific urban space types. For example, this approach was effectively applied by Hanson to study the order and structure of London.¹⁵ This approach has also been applied to the study of historic sites, as it can effectively reveal the structural features of a specific type of historic site in an urban space system and interpret the structural features with related historical (social, cultural, and design) concepts. Excellent examples of application of this approach to historic sites include Zhu's analysis of Beijing and the Forbidden City in the Ming and Qing Dynasties¹⁶ and Psarra's research on Venice and the piazza.¹⁷

Under the framework of space syntax theory, this paper utilized segment analysis. Space syntax theory employs the interconnected axial map to represent the urban street network system.⁷ In segment analysis, the elementary component of the system is defined as the street segment between two intersection points based on the axial map.¹⁸ Moreover, it incorporates angular configurations to detect the linear or semi-linear connections within the system.¹⁹ Segment analysis utilized metric radius (instead of topological distance) to distinguish between the global and local systems. It calculates angular turns of all nodes (or segments) within a specific metric radius from each one in the system to identify the local relationship among the segments (within a specific metric radius).²⁰ Segment analysis provides a finer-grained representation of the urban system. It is utilized in structural characteristics studies in different urban spaces.^21–24

Research Materials and Methods Research materials

The primary research material in this study included (1) spatial data of Suzhou and (2) urban private garden cases.

The spatial data of Suzhou in this period were obtained from historical maps, including Suzhou Fu Chengtu (City Map of Suzhou) in 1509 [Note 4], Suzhou Fu Chengnei Shuidao Zongtu (Map of Water System in Suzhou) in 1639 [Note 5], and Qianlong Gusu Chengtu (City Map of Suzhou in Qianlong Period) in 1745 [Note 6] (Figure 2). Of these, Qianlong Gusu Chengtu is the most important source of spatial data on Suzhou for this study given its comprehensive and accurate description of Suzhou's urban space.²⁵

Figure 2. Suzhou historical maps (used in this study) and their basic information

The private garden cases come from previous studies and records of historical and local chronicles and include a total of 38 gardens (Table 1, Figure 3). The criteria for case selection were as follows:

1. The selected private gardens were located within the city limits, with the Suzhou city wall as the boundary.
2. These gardens were constructed by literati, scholars who are closely related to the concept of shiyin.
3. The relevant historical documents of the selected gardens include clear descriptions of their locations and construction times.

Table 1 Basic information of selected garden cases

Ref.	Gardens	Location	Builder	Construction period
01	Pan Yuanshao's residence	Panru lane	Pan Yuanshao	Late Yuan and early Ming dynasty (The second half of the 14th century)
02	Zhang's Mei garden	West of Anqiwang temple near the Qi gate	Yang Weizhen	Late Yuan and early Ming dynasty (The second half of the 14th century)
03	Fei garden	Shenjia lane	Shen Jun	Yongle period (1403–1424)
04	Mochi garden	Kongfusi lane	Kong Yong	Jingtai period (1450–1457)
05	Fengxi Thatched cottage	Jiangjiaqiao lane	Han Yong	Jingtai period (1450–1457)
06	Xu Youzhen residence	Sanmiaoguan lane	Xu Youzhen	Tianshun period (1457–1464)
07	East Manor	East of Tianci Zhuang	Wu Mengrong	Chenghua period (1465–1487)
08	Wan garden	Qiqiao lane	Qianmenghu	Hongzhi period (1488–1505)
09	Tingyun mansion	Caojia lane	Wen Lin	Hongzhi period (1488–1505)
10	Taohua hut	Liaojia lane	Tang Yin	Hongzhi period (1488–1505)
11	Zhuozheng garden	Northeast street near Lou gate	Wang Xianchen	Zhengde period (1506–1521)
12	Yilao garden	Wuqu lane (transformed as chief secretary in Qing danasty)	Wang Ao	Zhengde period (1506–1521)
13	Wufeng garden	West of Liuyi bridge	Yang Cheng	Jiajing period (1522–1566)
14	Qiuzhi garden	Xiaocaojia lane	Zhang Fengyi	Jiajing period (1522–1566)
15	Xiaoqi garden	Xiaocaojia lane	Zhang Fengyi	Jiajing period (1522–1566)
16	Yuejia garden	Qilin lane	Huangfu Pang	Jiajing period (1522–1566)
17	Qiayin garden	North Xianzi lane	Gui Shenchu	Jiajing period (1522–1566)
18	Zuiying hall	Wanyaqian lane (East of Baolin temple)	Yuan Zugeng	Jiajing period (1522–1566)
19	North garden	Houbanchang street	Su Huaiyu	Wanli period (1573–1620)
20	Youhuai hall	Street near Lou gate	Huang Zuyan	Wanli period (1573–1620)
21	Shishi garden	Qingjia lane	Shen Shixing	Wanli period (1573–1620)
22	Qu garden	Shenyaqian lane	Shen Shixing	Wanli period (1573–1620)
23	Xiangcao mound	Gaoshi lane	Wen Zhenheng	Tianqi period (1621–1627)
24	Guanjia Yuan	Huxiangshi lane	Guan Zhengxin	Late Ming dynasty (1630s and 1640s)
25	Erzhi garden	Wulang lane	Xu Yan	Late Ming dynasty (1630s and 1640s)
26	Fangcao garden	Shipi lane	Gu Ningyuan	Late Ming dynasty (1630s and 1640s)
27	Chuncao spare house	Shuanglin lane	Jin Xiaoming	Late Ming dynasty (1630s and 1640s)
28	Mi Yuan	East of Sunlao bridge	Zhang Shiwei	Late Ming dynasty (1630s and 1640s)
29	Yuanqiao mansion	Xuanqiao lane	Xu Bo	Late Ming dynasty (1630s and 1640s)
30	Xiugu garden	Houbanchang street	Jiang Gai	Shunzhi period (1644–1661)
31	Ya garden	Shijia lane	Gu Xianyu	Shunzhi period (1644–1661)
32	She garden	Xinqiao lane	Lu Jin	Kangxi period (1662–1722)
33	Yi garden	Gunxiu lane	You Tong	Kangxi period (1662–1722)
34	Hongdou mountain villa	North of Lengxiang stream	Hui Zhouxi	Kangxi period (1662–1722)
35	Yi garden	Lvqiu lane	Gu Sixie	Kangxi period (1662–1722)
36	Xiuye garden	Lvqiu lane	Gu Sili	Kangxi period (1662–1722)
37	Fengchi garden	Niujia lane	Gu Yan	Yongzheng period (1723–1735)
38	Shen Deqian's residence	Kuojiatou lane	Shen Deqian	Yongzheng period (1723–1735)

Figure 3. Location in Suzhou of the selected cases

Research methods

The spatial distribution characteristics of the urban private garden were analyzed from perspectives of location and structure.

To analyze the location, the city was divided into the main urban functional area and the suburban area based on the urban plan of Suzhou, focusing on the distribution of private garden cases in different areas. Before the Ming Dynasty, private gardens were usually regarded as a kind of rural space, with locations far from the main functions of the city.

To analyze the structure through space syntax theory, the Suzhou area was transformed into a segment map using the segment analysis method in space syntax theory. In space syntax, a segment refers to a part between adjacent points of an axis (or street or route), and a segment map is an abstract diagram describing the space system with segments as units.¹⁸

In this study, the segment of the entrance of private gardens was considered the research object to analyze the structural distribution characteristics of private gardens in the urban space system. The normalized angular integration (NAIN) [Note 7] values were calculated from the segment map using Depthmap software. The NAIN values were calculated for the whole system (to reflect the global characteristics) and for areas with a radius of 1000 m (NAIN1000), reflecting the local structural characteristics. The analysis included the average and maximum values of NAIN and NAIN1000 and the regression distribution characteristics of NAIN and NAIN1000 with trend lines.

Then, this study discussed the analysis results from the perspective of the relationship between spatial distribution features of urban private gardens and the concept of shiyin. Figure 4 shows the research framework of this study.

Figure 4. Research framework

Results Locational distribution

At the level of location, the distribution characteristics of urban private gardens were analyzed based on the urban plan of Suzhou. Since the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279), Suzhou has maintained a relatively stable physical space form.¹³ Ganjiang Road and Wolong Street are the horizontal and vertical axes of the city. The canal network is embedded in the urban space, presenting an overall distribution of three horizontal and four vertical axes²⁶ (Figure 5). At the regional level, Suzhou's main functional areas (residential, administrative, and commercial) were located within the coverage of the primary canal network. The urban space outside the primary canal network was suburban, functionally close to the countryside, and mainly used for farming (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Diagram of Suzhou plan

The distributions of cases in different areas were analyzed based on the distinction between urban main functional areas and suburban areas. Figure 6 shows the distribution of urban private gardens in different areas. Twenty-three gardens were located in the main functional areas of the city, accounting for 61%, and 15 gardens were located in suburban areas, accounting for 39%. Therefore, more urban private garden cases were distributed in the main functional areas of the city.

Figure 6. Locational distribution of urban private gardens in different areas

Structural distribution

To analyze the structure, the distribution characteristics of urban private gardens were determined based on the segment map of Suzhou using NAIN (normalized angular integration) as the description parameter. The value of NAIN measures the degree of integration (or separation) of a specific segment in a spatial system and reflects the degree of accessibility from a specific segment to all others. Here, NAIN and NAIN1000 values were calculated to reflect the system's global and local structural characteristics, respectively. Figure 7 shows the distribution of the NAIN and NAIN1000 values of the Suzhou segment map calculated by Depthmap software.

Figure 7. The distribution of the NAIN and NAIN1000 values of the Suzhou segment map calculated by Depthmap software

The segments of the entrances of urban private gardens were analyzed, and Figure 8 shows the average and maximum values of NAIN and NAIN1000 of these gardens, compared with those of the whole system. The average NAIN value of private gardens was 1.26, which is higher than the average value (1.14) of the whole system. The maximum value was 1.77, the same as the maximum value of the whole system (1.78). The average NAIN1000 value of the gardens was 1.04, basically the same as the average value (0.99) of the whole system. The maximum NAIN1000 value was 1.57, significantly lower than the whole system's maximum value (1.89). The average and maximum value data show that in the urban spatial system of Suzhou, the private gardens exhibit a higher integration degree in the global sense (NAIN value). However, in the local sense (NAIN1000), the selected gardens have a lower integration degree relative to the global area.

Figure 8. Comparison between garden cases and overall system in average and max values (of NAIN and NAIN1000)

Figure 9 presents the regression distributions of NAIN values (x-axis) and NAIN1000 values (y-axis), and these data reflect the relationship between the global and the local in a space system. Data above the trend line correspond to segments with a higher NAIN1000 value at the same NAIN value, so these segments are more inclined to integrate locally in the space system and vice versa. Of the private gardens, 63.2% (24 cases) fall below the trend line, and 10.5% of the cases (10 cases) exhibit values positioned above the trend line. On the whole, the selected gardens have lower NAIN1000 values at the same NAIN value. The data show, compared to integration in the global sense, urban private gardens are separated in the urban spatial system of Suzhou in the local sense.

Figure 9. Distribution of garden cases in scatter plot between NAIN and NAIN1000

Based on the analysis of structure, the urban private gardens exhibit global integration, but tend to be locally separated in the urban space system.

Discussion

As described above, the rise of the concept of shiyin promoted the development of urban private gardens during the Ming Dynasty. The concept of shiyin means seclusion in the city and is an essential aspect of traditional Chinese reclusion culture. This concept first appeared in the Eastern Jin dynasty (317–420) [Note 8]. Literati of previous dynasties had expressed ideas related to shiyin, but it was during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) when this concept became more broadly used. During the Jiajing period (1522–1566), the concept of shiyin gradually stabilized into a regional cultural consensus of the literati in the Jiangnan area.²

Before the Ming Dynasty, reclusion was embedded in the opposition framework between the countryside and the city. Traditional reclusion culture treats the city as the material space symbol of the primary function of the city (political life and secular life). As the essential substance carrier of the reclusion culture, private gardens are located far from the primary functions of the city. Wen Zhenheng (1585–1645) wrote, “It is best to live amongst hills and water, next best in a village and after that on the outskirts of a town” [Note 9].²⁷

Under the concept of shiyin (after the Ming Dynasty), the idea of reclusion changed so that it was attainable in a city. Gu Chunqian Xiansheng Zhuan (biography of Gu Chunqian) [Note 10] was written by Wen Zhengming (1470–1559) in 1542, and fully describes the concept of shiyin, pointing out that recluses do not have to leave the city and reside in the countryside.² Cities became potential sites for reclusion, and private gardens became parts of the city for this purpose. As Wen Zhenheng (1585–1645) said, “Those of my generation who cannot follow in the footsteps of the early Han Dynasty (206BC-AD220) hermits Wu Shi and Tang Bing and dwell amidst crags and ravines and must exist amidst the bustle of market noise, need have our gates and courts fresh and elegant” [Note 11].²⁷

In terms of urban space, there are two key aspects of this transformation of private. First, locationally, the private gardens shifted from outside of the city to the interior. Second, structurally, the private gardens evolved from opposing the urban space system to becoming a part of it.

The analysis results reveal that locationally, under the influence of the shiyin concept, private gardens were located more in the main functional areas instead of suburban areas. This feature differs from the distribution of private gardens under the traditional reclusion culture, in which gardens were located far from the primary functions of the city. Structurally, the urban private gardens were integrated globally and separated locally in the urban space system. Regarding structure, reclusion is a process of separation, rather than integration. Structurally, the reclusion in shiyin reflects local separation within the urban spatial distribution of the city.

To summarize, in the sense of urban space, the reclusion in the concept of shiyin is not related to the location distribution of urban private gardens. Reclusion in the shiyin concept is more reflected at the structural level, with local separation of urban private gardens in urban space systems. These findings provide a new perspective to consider urban private gardens in terms of urban space. To some extent, urban private gardens are the material reflection of reclusion in the concept of shiyin. The results suggest that the discussion of urban private gardens in urban space should focus on local structural features at the medium and micro level of urban space, such as streets and blocks.

Conclusion

The spatial distribution characteristics of urban private gardens under the influence of the shiyin concept were studied by analyzing urban private gardens in Suzhou from the end of the 14th century to the middle of the 18th century (Ming dynasty to early Qing dynasty). Space syntax and related methods were used to analyze the urban spatial distribution features of 38 private gardens from aspects of location and structure. The results show that (1) locationally, the private gardens were more in main functional areas instead of suburban areas, and (2) structurally, urban private gardens were integrated globally and separated locally in the urban space system.

The analysis results were used to discuss the relationship between the urban spatial distribution of private gardens and the concept of shiyin. In the sense of urban space, the reclusion in the shiyin concept is not related to the location distribution of urban private gardens. Instead, the reclusion in the shiyin concept is reflected more at the structural level, with urban private gardens locally separated from urban space systems.

Through analysis and discussion, this study provided a new perspective to discuss urban private gardens in terms of urban space. The discussion of urban private gardens in urban space should focus on local structural features at the medium and micro level of urban space (such as streets and blocks). This perspective could be applied to analysis of private gardens in other cities to further explore this concept.

The analysis and discussion in this study are based on quantitative research methods. For a more in-depth interpretation, more historical materials and a deepening in the historical dimension are required to more fully explore these important concepts.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science under Grant No. 21K14325. The first author was supported by CSC (China Scholarship Council) scholarship.

Disclosure

The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Notes:

^{Note 1)}There is not a precise definition of the scope of the Jiangnan area, and this area during the Ming dynasty is generally regarded as a geographical concept with a stable center and a blurred edge. Its center is Taihu Lake and includes six cities: Suzhou, Songjiang, Changzhou, Hangzhou, Jiaxing, and Huzhou.²⁸

^{Note 2)}As described in Wudi Ji (Recording of Wu Area) written by Lu Guangwei (birth and death unknown) in about 876, Suzhou city (also named Helv city) was first built in about 514 BC by Wu Zixu (559 BC- 484 BC).⁹

^{Note 3)}This sentence comes from Shen Chaochu's Yi Jiangnan (Jiangnan in Memory) poem. Shen Chaochu (1649–1702) is a famous poet who lived in the Qing Dynasty's Kangxi period (1662–1722).

^{Note 4)}Suzhou Fu Chengtu (City Map of Suzhou) is recorded in the first volume of Gusu Zhi (Suzhou Chronicle), edited by Wang Ao (1450–1524) in 1506.²⁹

^{Note 5)}Suzhou Fu Chengnei Shuidao Zongtu (Map of Water System in Suzhou) is recorded in Wuzhong Shuili Quanshu (Recording of Water Conservancy in Wu Area) written by Zhang Guowei (1595–1646), first published in 1639.³⁰

^{Note 6)}Qianlong Gusu Chengtu (City Map of Suzhou in the Qianlong Period) was drawn by Fu Chun (birth and death unknown), first published in 1745, and the current version was reprinted in 1783.³¹

^{Note 7)}Normalized angular integration (NAIN) is an improved algorithm of angular integration to weaken the influence of the number of segments.²⁰

^{Note 8)}In the poem Fan Zhaoyin (Rejecting Serving for The Government), written by Wang Jukang in the Eastern Jin dynasty (317–420), there is an expression, “the lesser hermit seclusion in the country, the greater hermit does so in the city.”²

^{Note 9)}This passage is from Volume 1 of Changwu Zhi (The Elegant Life of The Chinese Literati), written by Wen Zhenheng (1585–1645).²⁷

^{Note 10)}Gu Chunqian Xiansheng Zhuan (Biography of Mr. Gu Chunqian) is included in volume 17 of Fu Tian Ji, an anthology of poems and essays by Wen Zhengming (1470–1559).³²

^{Note 11)}Same as Note 9.