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Abstract
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; also known as hyperkinetic disorder) is a common neurodevelopmental condition that affects children and adults worldwide. ADHD has a predominantly genetic aetiology that involves common and rare genetic variants. Some environmental correlates of the disorder have been discovered but causation has been difficult to establish. The heterogeneity of the condition is evident in the diverse presentation of symptoms and levels of impairment, the numerous co-occurring mental and physical conditions, the various domains of neurocognitive impairment, and extensive minor structural and functional brain differences. The diagnosis of ADHD is reliable and valid when evaluated with standard diagnostic criteria. Curative treatments for ADHD do not exist but evidence-based treatments substantially reduce symptoms and/or functional impairment. Medications are effective for core symptoms and are usually well tolerated. Some non-pharmacological treatments are valuable, especially for improving adaptive functioning. Clinical and neurobiological research is ongoing and could lead to the creation of personalized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for this disorder.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that typically starts in childhood. This Primer summarizes the epidemiology, mechanisms, diagnosis and treatment of ADHD.
Details
; Bellgrove, Mark A. 2
; Brikell, Isabell 3 ; Cortese, Samuele 4 ; Hartman, Catharina A. 5 ; Hollis, Chris 6
; Newcorn, Jeffrey H. 7 ; Philipsen, Alexandra 8
; Polanczyk, Guilherme V. 9
; Rubia, Katya 10 ; Sibley, Margaret H. 11
; Buitelaar, Jan K. 12
1 Norton College of Medicine at SUNY Upstate Medical University, Departments of Psychiatry and of Neuroscience and Physiology, Syracuse, USA (GRID:grid.411023.5) (ISNI:0000 0000 9159 4457)
2 Monash University, School of Psychological Sciences, Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Melbourne, Australia (GRID:grid.1002.3) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 7857)
3 Karolinska Institutet, Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Stockholm, Sweden (GRID:grid.4714.6) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0626); University of Bergen, Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, Bergen, Norway (GRID:grid.7914.b) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 7443); Aarhus University, Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus, Denmark (GRID:grid.7048.b) (ISNI:0000 0001 1956 2722)
4 University of Southampton, Centre for Innovation in Mental Health, School of Psychology, Faculty of Environmental and Life Sciences, Southampton, UK (GRID:grid.5491.9) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 9297); University of Southampton, Clinical and Experimental Sciences (CNS and Psychiatry), Faculty of Medicine, Southampton, UK (GRID:grid.5491.9) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 9297); Solent NHS Trust, Southampton, UK (GRID:grid.451387.c) (ISNI:0000 0004 0491 7174); New York University Child Study Center, Hassenfeld Children’s Hospital at NYU Langone, New York City, USA (GRID:grid.137628.9) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 8753); University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, DiMePRe-J-Department of Precision and Rigenerative Medicine-Jonic Area, Bari, Italy (GRID:grid.7644.1) (ISNI:0000 0001 0120 3326)
5 Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Interdisciplinary Center Psychopathology and Emotion regulation (ICPE), Groningen, Netherlands (GRID:grid.4830.f) (ISNI:0000 0004 0407 1981)
6 University of Nottingham, National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) MindTech MedTech Co-operative and NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Institute of Mental Health, Mental Health and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Nottingham, UK (GRID:grid.4563.4) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 8868)
7 Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Department of Psychiatry, New York, USA (GRID:grid.59734.3c) (ISNI:0000 0001 0670 2351)
8 University Hospital Bonn, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Bonn, Germany (GRID:grid.15090.3d) (ISNI:0000 0000 8786 803X)
9 Universidade de São Paulo, Department of Psychiatry, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, São Paulo, Brazil (GRID:grid.11899.38) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0722)
10 Psychology & Neurosciences, King’s College London, Department of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK (GRID:grid.13097.3c) (ISNI:0000 0001 2322 6764); Technical University, Department of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Transcampus Professor KCL-Dresden, Dresden, Germany (GRID:grid.4488.0) (ISNI:0000 0001 2111 7257)
11 University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, USA (GRID:grid.34477.33) (ISNI:0000000122986657)
12 Cognition and Behaviour, Radboudumc, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Nijmegen, Netherlands (GRID:grid.10417.33) (ISNI:0000 0004 0444 9382); Karakter Child and Adolescent Psychiatry University Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands (GRID:grid.461871.d) (ISNI:0000 0004 0624 8031)