A comprehensive review on lumpy skin disease

Abstract

The virus that causes lumpy skin disease is the deadliest known viral disease (LSDV). The Poxvirdae family includes the lumpy skin virus with a 151kb genome. It is an encapsulated, host-specific virus. It first appeared in Zambia in 1929 and at first was only seen in African nations, but it has since expanded to the continents of Asia and Europe. The high grade fever that precedes skin nodules on the neck, legs, and tail regions, viral pneumonia, mastitis, diarrhoea, and keratitis are all characteristics of LSDV. Based on the type of strain, the host's sex, age, and immunological condition, it can have high morbidity (up to 85%) and low mortality (up to 5%) rates. Although LSDV significantly lowers the productivity (milk and meat) of affected cattle, it is of significant economic significance. Due to the spread's impact on roughly 5 million farmers, its introduction into Pakistan in 2022 resulted in a significant economic loss. Because the insect vectors are most active in the summer, the rate of transmission is high. The major transmitters are hard ticks. Several serological approaches, such as virus neutralisation, ELISA, and conventional and real-time PCR methodologies, have been established for its diagnosis. For the time being, LSDV cannot be treated. Drugs that treat inflammation and secondary infections can lessen the severity of illness and prevent additional infections. The only way to stop the damage caused by LSDV is thorough vaccination with 100% coverage, which can be accomplished by isolating or slaughtering the infected cattle to stop the disease's spread.

Headnote

Abstract

The virus that causes lumpy skin disease is the deadliest known viral disease (LSDV). The Poxvirdae family includes the lumpy skin virus with a 151kb genome. It is an encapsulated, host-specific virus. It first appeared in Zambia in 1929 and at first was only seen in African nations, but it has since expanded to the continents of Asia and Europe. The high grade fever that precedes skin nodules on the neck, legs, and tail regions, viral pneumonia, mastitis, diarrhoea, and keratitis are all characteristics of LSDV. Based on the type of strain, the host's sex, age, and immunological condition, it can have high morbidity (up to 85%) and low mortality (up to 5%) rates. Although LSDV significantly lowers the productivity (milk and meat) of affected cattle, it is of significant economic significance. Due to the spread's impact on roughly 5 million farmers, its introduction into Pakistan in 2022 resulted in a significant economic loss. Because the insect vectors are most active in the summer, the rate of transmission is high. The major transmitters are hard ticks. Several serological approaches, such as virus neutralisation, ELISA, and conventional and real-time PCR methodologies, have been established for its diagnosis. For the time being, LSDV cannot be treated. Drugs that treat inflammation and secondary infections can lessen the severity of illness and prevent additional infections. The only way to stop the damage caused by LSDV is thorough vaccination with 100% coverage, which can be accomplished by isolating or slaughtering the infected cattle to stop the disease's spread.

Keywords: Capripoxvirus; ELISA; Keratitis; Transstadial transfer; Transboundary illness; Virus neutralization

Introduction

Cattle are susceptible to the infectious disease lumpy skin virus [LSD], which is brought on by the lethal lumpy skin disease virus [LSDV] [1]. This illness, which affects only certain animals like cattle, is acute or subacute and is characterised by fever and the sudden emergence of solid, powerful skin nodules that cause necrosis. They may also be found on the mucosae of the respiratory and digestive tracts, as well as on skeletal muscles. Subcutaneous oedema of the limbs, ventral body regions, and lymphadenistis are additional symptoms of the illness [2]. Lumpy skin virus is a member of the Capripoxvirus family Poxvirdae and subfamily Chordopoxviniae [3]. The Chorodopoxvirinae subfamily of the Poxviridae contains eight genera, including the Capripoxvirus (CaPVs) genus, which includes viruses including the lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), the sheep poxvirus (SPPV), and the goat pox virus (GTPV) [4]. There are many names for the lumpy skin virus, including "LSD," "Pseudo-urticaria," "Neethling virus illness," "exanthema nodularisbovis," and "Knopvelsiekte." A small number of hosts, including cattle and water buffaloes, are susceptible to this nonzoonotic, vector-borne, and transboundary illness [3]. The diverse blood-feeding arthropods that spread this disease include biting flies, mosquitoes, and ticks [5].

The symptoms of this disease in cattle include fever, lymph node swelling, circumscribed skin nodules, severe emaciation, infertility, and decreased milk output [3]. Throughout Asia, Europe, and the Middle East, this lumpy skin disease has become a devastating menace to large domesticated animals. The disease frequently spreads across borders, which has made news thanks to the world organisation for animal health (OIE). This illness is a very contagious sickness that affects socioeconomic conditions across. When compared to buffaloes and other ruminants, cattle have higher rates of morbidity and death [1]. Because to its effects on meat and milk production, animal draught power, and reproductive efficiency, this disease lowers the economic worth of animals (abortion and infertility). Although the disease is native to African nations, reports of it have recently come from other parts of the world. The first LSD case was documented in 1929 in Zambia before spreading to northern and southern Africa. Israel, Kuwait, Oman, and Yemen

later contract the disease. The OIE claims that the disease has spread to nations in Europe and Asia, including India and Pakistan [3].

The Capri-poxvirus strains and the host, which is the breed of cattle, determine the lethality or severity of the disease LSD. LSD was only legal in Africa before 1989, but it has now become widespread in other continents like Europe and Asia [5]. In nonruminant hosts, LSDV does not finish the cell cycle replication. Even when maintained close to diseased cattle, LSD has not been reported in sheep or goats, but these animals do develop skin lesions that are not disease-related. When an outbreak of LSD occurred in Egypt in 1988, water buffalo were also affected, but their fatality rates were lower (1.6% vs. 30.8%) [4].

Fever, sadness, skin nodules, a decrease in milk production, and abortion are among side effects of LSD infection. Clinical symptoms in LSD-infected animals might range from subtle to severe. Watery eyes, increased nasal and salivary secretions, decreased milk supply, appetite loss, and enlarged superficial lymph nodules are some of the symptoms [6]. The influence of re-evaluating the disease biology, its viral transmission mechanism, and modern preventative and adaptive control strategies is demonstrated by the disease's periodic outbreaks and reappearances in various parts of the world [1].

History

In Zambia, LSD was first clinically recognised in 1929. (Northern Rhodesia). At first, it was believed that LSD was caused by either poisoning or a hypersensitivity to insect bites. Between 1943 and 1945, the symptoms were also observed in the republics of South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Botswana; during this time, the nature of the illness was understood or known in these outbreaks [5].

In South Africa in 1949, a pandemic infection that afflicted 8 million cattle caused financial losses. Throughout the 1950s and the 1980s, LSD spread throughout Africa, affecting livestock in Kanya, Sudan, Tanzania, Somalia, and Cameroon. The LSD outbreak in Israel was assumed to be caused by infected Stomoxiscalcitrans that was transported by wind from Ismailiya in Egypt during August and September of 1989 over a period of 37 days, infecting 14 of the 17 dairy cows in Peduyium. The cattle, sheep, and goats were therefore put to death. LSD reports have been made in the previous ten years from the Middle East, Europe, and west Asia [7]. Between 2007 and 2011, central Ethiopia and the South African continent saw a significant LSD outbreak. These epidemics were labelled as active, and four districts-Adama, Wenji, Mojo, and Welenchiti-were the subject of investigations. There were 1,675 outbreaks reported in the five years between 2007 and 2011, accounting for 62,176 illnesses and 4,372 fatalities. Oromia (1,066), Almhara (365), and Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region were the regions with the greatest epidemic rates (123). The most occurrences were recorded in 2010 between the months of September and December. The mortality rates were, respectively, 4.97% and 13.61% (296). Three nations- Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan-joined LSD between 2012 and 2013. LSD was discovered in Turkey in October 2013, Iran in 2014, and Iraq in 2015 [5]. Bangladesh was the first country to announce an outbreak of LSD in South Asian countries, which occurred in July 2019. In the Kazakhstan-bordering Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in August 2019, the disease spread to Western China and India. The LSD was once more recorded in China in June 2020, coming from the provinces of Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Anhui, Zhejiang, and Taiwan province of China, indicating the disease is always present [8]. To Bangladesh's department of livestock services, the LSD was reported in July 2019. This outbreak resulted in around 500,000 head infections. United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization [7] urged mass immunization.

By September 2022, more than 80,000 cows have perished in India in just under 3 months. More than 37,000 illnesses and 1,000 cattle deaths were reported by July 25th, 2022, as this LSD pandemic extended to 14 of of Gujarat's 33 districts. In the province of Rajisthan, 1,200 cattle deaths and more than 25,000 illnesses were reported on the first day of August. Bovine migration was prohibited between states and across districts. The laboratories of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research have developed a local vaccination. By September 2022, around 15 million doses of a goat pox vaccine had been given [7] .Early in 2022, the lumps and boiling skin sickness, which affects thousands of animals, finally made it to Pakistan. Sindh received the first LSD case report in January 2022. Flies and mosquitoes are the primary vectors for its dissemination. The Landhi dairy colony, Karachi, and other areas have been affected, according to the dairy and cattle farm Association, which made this confirmation on February 2 [9].

Lumpy skin virus structure

The enveloped virus Lumpy Skin Disease Virus (LSDV), which belongs to the family Poxviridae and genus Capri-poxvirus, is the cause of lumpy skin viral illness. The lipid envelope around LSDV has a diameter of about 230-260 nm and contains double-stranded genomic DNA in the viral core [10]. A bricked, oval-shaped nucleocapsid with lateral bodies makes up the LSDV. The only LSDV type, neethling virus, is phylogenetically related to goat and sheep poxviruses [11].

The LSDV genome is 151 kb in size and consists of 156 genes, 146 of which encode conserved proteins crucial for transcription, mRNA synthesis, virion structure, and assembly. 73% of the viral genome is covered by A+T, which is evenly distributed. 95% of the coding density, or around 53 to 2025 amino acids, is represented by 146 conserved genes. At least 26 of the conserved genes (LSDV039, LSDV077, LSDV082, LSDV083), RNA polymerase subunits, mRNA transcription initiation, and post-transcriptional modification enzymes are involved in DNA replication. Leporipoxviruses are connected phylogenetically to three proteins that are involved in nucleotide metabolism: dUTPpyrophosphatase, thymidine kinase, and the small subunit of ribonucleotide reductase [12].

Lumpy transmission

Like other viruses, the distribution of the LSDV is extremely narrow. Bosindicus and Bostaurus cattle as well as Bubalusbubalis buffaloes are all affected [13]. Australian, African, European, and Asian nations are currently reported to be experiencing viral outbreaks. The International Organization of Animal Health (OIE) classifies LSD as a notifiable disease because of its financial impact [14]. LSDV is a consistent agroterrorism agent because to its quick proliferation. Arthropods, one of the common vectors used by viruses to propagate, although other factors, such as tainted food and water, are also significant. Due to the virus' long-lasting persistence in skin lesions, it is thought that they are the primary cause of direct contact transmission [15]. During the summer, when they are most active, LSD is transmitted by blood-feeding insects. Given that the virus is present in several tick organs, including the salivary glands, midgut, and hemocytes, hard ticks play a part in viral transmission. Ticks 7?. appendiculatus, A. hebraeum, and R. decoloratus may play a part in mechanical transmission and transstadial transfer, respectively, according to molecular data. As transmission is directly tied to insects being bitten, Aedesaegypti and Culicoides punctatus may play a role [16]. Semen from infected calves is essential for transmission since the virus has been found in bovine semen using PCR and viral isolation techniques [17].

Virulence of lumpy skin virus

Capri-poxviruses are a persistent danger to sheep, goats, and cattle all across the world. All breeds, ages, and sexes of cattle are affected by LSDV, while breastfeeding and pregnant cows are particularly susceptible.Infected hosts of LSD have low death rates and significant rates of morbidity. Low host productivity, like as milk production, is a result of increased morbidity. Research has found that various epidemics have fatality rates that range from 1% to 5% and morbidity rates that range from 3% to 85% [18].

Fever, nasal discharge, salivation, lachrymation, aberrant lymph nodes, reduced milk production, and weight loss are some of the clinical signs of LSDV. The neck, tail, and legs may also develop 2-7 cm skin nodules shortly after a fever [19]. While there were no nodules seen on the skin of the foetus, LSDV can potentially lead to abortion. It can result in serious illnesses such keratitis, diarrhoea, lameness, pneumonia, mastitis, and myiasis [20]. The host animal's susceptibility is influenced by its age, breed, and immunological condition rather than its virulence. Young calves, sick cows, and cows that are breastfeeding are especially vulnerable because their hormonal immunity is weakened [21].

Diagnosis

While clinical characteristics like skin nodules are sufficient for LSDV diagnosis, real-time PCR and conventional techniques can be employed for confirmation. It is possible to build a real-time methodology to distinguish LSDV from sheep and goat poxviruses [22].

LSDV and vaccination strains may also be distinguished using the Restricted Fragment Length Polymorphism method [23]. Although molecular approaches are more accurate and quick, other diagnostic methods can also be used to identify viruses, including viral neutralization, electron microscopy, virus isolation, and serological techniques like ELISA and fast antibody or antigen. Although though western blotting is extremely sensitive and specific, the viral neutralization is only verified using serological methods, which are employed for LSDV detection [24].

Treatment

It appears that lumpy-skin sickness has no cure. Viruses are the cause of lumpy skin disease (LSD), which has no recognized treatment.Cattle assistance is the only method of LSD therapy. This involves treating skin lesions and wounds with medicines to stop secondary skin infections and pneumonia as well as wound care sprays. Animals afflicted by LSD may benefit from using anti-inflammatory medications to maintain their appetite. Although it could be advantageous, endovenous fluid administration may not be very feasible in the field. As lumpy skin disease virus has no known cures, it is important to use effective vaccinations to protect against dangerous diseases [25]. Apart than warning signs and supportive care like wound-healing sprays and antibiotic medicines to control the peripheral bacterial infections of the skin erosion, LSD prevention measures are seldom used in epidemic scenarios. Essentially, there are no effective antiviral medications that can be used to treat LSD, therefore immunisation is the only reliable method of controlling the condition [1].

Therapy options include vaccination, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory pain reliever use to treat the inflammatory disease, paracetamol usage for high fevers, antiviral treatment with methylene blue, antibiotic use to treat secondary infections [26].

Control

Because biting flies and other blood-sucking species are probably the main means of disease transmission, quarantining or restricting movement are not likely to be effective methods of controlling lumpy skin disease (LSV). Realistically speaking, insect control was less successful than using pesticides and repellents alone to stop the spread of LSD. Quarantines, killing or depopulating affected and exposed animals, appropriate case disposal, cleaning and disinfecting the base, and bug control can all be used to suppress LSD outbreaks [27].

In order to effectively control LSD, the following preventative measures must be put in place: I Movement restriction: In order to stop the transmission of the illness across borders, it is imperative that LSD-infected animals not be moved at all. If an animal with the disease is found within a nation, it should be isolated for examination to stop the sickness from spreading quickly, ii] Prevent vector movement: Due to strong winds, vectors may migrate and spread illness. The illness can also be prevented by employing vector control techniques including the use of vector traps and pesticides, iii] Vaccination: There is currently an LSD live-attenuated vaccine on the market. Several businesses developed various vaccinations based on various LSD virus strains. It is either based on SIS Neethling type or on Neethling strains like Lumpy Skin Disease Vaccination for Cattle or Bovivax. Vaccines for sheep pox and goat pox can also be used to prevent LSD since the two viruses are closely related. According to OIE, many viral strains are employed as vaccine strains. The South African homologous Neethling strain of the Lumpy Skin Disease virus transits 60 times in lamb kidney cells and 20 times on the chorioallantoic membrane of embrocated chicken eggs, conferring protection for approximately three years. A sheep pox vaccination against LSD uses the Kenyan sheep pox virus transit 18x in lamb testis cells or foetal calf muscle cells. Local responses can be brought on by vaccine strains (heterologous). In places where sheep pox and goat pox are prevalent, these vaccinations are not advised because they might induce illness in some sheep and goat populations [3]. Fly control The amount of flies in your farm or herd is nearly impossible to manage. It is therefore advisable to stop flies from biting your animals. Cattle should be immersed in an insecticide-containing substance. Ensure sure the dive contains pesticides that are efficient against vector insects. The directions on the product's rear labels should be carefully read and followed. On cattle, fly repellents can be sprayed. Not all cattle will be protected from LSD infection by fly control. The only way and the best way to ensure that all cattle are protected is by vaccination only [20]. Prevention is the cheapest, easiest and best method of control of the disease [20].

Long-term immunisation with 100% coverage should be made mandatory for disease control and prevention since the LSD virus, which is stable, may remain in the environment for an adequate amount of time. Animals should receive vaccinations or immunisations before being brought onto the impacted farm. Calves reared from moms that are immunised or naturally infected should begin receiving vaccinations at the age of 3 to 4 months. Bulls that are breeding or pregnant may be inoculated once a year, or 12 months later [3].

Effect on worldwide

The Russian Federation was affected by the virus that causes lumpy skin disease in 2015. After afterwards, it returned with a higher prevalence in 16 Southern and Central Russian areas. 313 outbreaks were reported to the OIE, according to studies. In 2016, the recorded morbidity rate was 1%-19%, up from a range of 0.4%-100% in 2015 and 0.4%-100% in 2014. 11,003 (19.02%) of the 57,825 vulnerable animals affected by the outbreaks showed clinical indications, and 1,196 (10.86%) of them perished from LSDV [28].

In Bangladesh's Chattogram area in July 2019, an outbreak of the LSDV began, and it quickly spread throughout the whole nation. A total of six outbreaks in Bangladesh were noted throughout the inquiry. On September 15, 2019, OIE received a report of Bangladesh's first epidemic. The vast population of cattle and widespread dispersion of LSD in Bangladesh made it one of the most economically significant developing livestock diseases in that country [29].

LSD was discovered in Ethiopia for the first time in the country's northwest in 1981, but it has since spread to nearly all of its areas and agro-ecological zones, with sero-prevalence rates ranging from 23 to 31% for animals and 26-64% for herds. The illness was found to have caused local Zebu cattle and Holstein-Friesian cross-bred cattle, respectively, to suffer 33.93% and 13.41% morbidity and 7.43% and 1.25% death. As livestock accounts for 35.6% of Ethiopia's agricultural GNP, it is a significant component of the economy (GDP). The LSD had a significant influence on production losses and control costs; the losses were mostly caused by illness and death of cattle, and they were largest in highly productive animals. After milk loss and draught loss at the animal and herd levels, mortality loss accounted for the highest portion of the economic losses. The least expensive LSD control expenses. A median overall economic loss of USD 1176 (USD 2735 for commercial herds and USD 489 for subsistence herds) per LSD-affected herd [30].

At Makash village, Atyrau oblast, which is 49 kilometres from the Russian Federation's border, LSD was first discovered in Kazakhstan in July 2016. LSD was mostly found in breastfeeding cows and severely malnourished animals in Kazakhstan. The herds' morbidity rates during the main epidemics ranged from 50% to 100%. The addition of additional animals, the size of the herd, and the sale of animals during LSD outbreaks are all significant contributors to the incidence of LSD. 10.2% and 49.2%, respectively, of the animals in the herd had LSD [30].

In five districts of the state of Odisha, LSD in cattle was first detected in August 2019. On November 18th, the OIE was notified of the discovery. With 192.49 million cow and 109.85 million buffalo, India is one of the world's top producers of milk. These enormous animal populations provide a considerable contribution to the country's agrarian economy and support millions of small and marginal dairy farmers. Most frequently, cattle (mainly cows) are raised for milk production in backyard smallholdings with a few animals (1-5) under a system of free-range grazing. The lone outbreak at a farm was reported from frozen cow to bull semen farm (FSB, Khapuriya), which produces frozen bovine sperm and is house to 133 bulls of Red Sindhi, Haryana, Jersey breed, and other cross-bred cattle [31]. Significant emaciation, hide damage, male and female sterility, mastitis, a decrease in milk output, and miscarriages are the main causes of the losses. Moreover, it has an impact on the whole trade in live animals and animal products, which causes significant financial losses for the meat, milk, leather, and other related businesses [3].

Two cows from the Bani Kenanah region are where LSD initially became known to exist. This region, which is a part of the Irbid governorate, is situated on the Jordanian border with Syria and Israel. LSDV began to spread quickly over the whole governorate of Irbid in the north of Jordan after the disease first appeared in the two cows. The majority of the impacted farms, according to studies, were small-scale, family-run operations. The governorate of Irbid does, however, have a very limited number of big dairy cow farms and the most of the farms are small-scale. According to this study, the total morbidity and death rates were 26% and 1.9%, respectively. Lumpy skin disease has a significant financial impact on the cattle industry since it reduces body weight, milk output, and hide quality and value by an estimated 50% [32]

The first instance of lumpy skin condition was documented in Kenya in 1957. Since then, sporadic reports of LSD outbreaks have been made in different regions of Kenya. In herds of only domestic or imported cattle, comparisons of the economic cost of LSD were made. The average decrease in milk output during LSD outbreaks was calculated at 1.5 1 (range 0-4) per farm per day for farms retaining native cattle and 9.9 1 (range 0-35 1) per farm per day for farms holding alien breeds of cattle, taking direct expenses into account. This equated to an average overall loss of 4,725 KSH (47 USD), with a range of 2,520 to 10,080 KSH (25-100 USD) milk decrease loss per farm for those retaining native breeds of cattle. Comparatively, the projected average total loss as a result of decreased milk production for farms harboring exotic breeds of cattle was 26,886 KSH/266 USD, with a range of 2,520 to 88,200 KSH/25-873 USD. For indigenous and exotic breeds of cattle, the per-head loss was comparable to a mean loss of 831 KSH/8 USD (range: 0-3,780 KSH/37 USD) and 6,440 KSH/64 USD (range: 0-88,200 KSH/0-873 USD) correspondingly [33].

Current situation in Pakistan

In Pakistan, Lumpy skin illness first appeared in 2022, according to reports. Animals with nodules on their skin may experience varyingly high death and morbidity rates as a result. Many domestic and wild animals are affected by the illness, with cows and buffaloes being particularly vulnerable. High fever, skin lesions with nodules, and mucous membranes on the digestive and respiratory systems are the major symptoms. Due to decreased milk and meat output, infertility in males, and miscarriages in females, the lumpy skin disease epidemic causes serious economic losses for Pakistan's livestock owners. The frequency of illness was substantially greater in crossbred and female cattle than in male cattle [34]

Almost 5 million dairy farmers and meat vendors in Pakistan are suffering greatly from an outbreak of Lumpy Skin Disease that affects their animals. The Sindh livestock agency estimates that by the end of April 2022, 36,000 or so animals were LSD-infected. Only 300 cows have perished, which is the only good news. Small-scale cow producers who depend on the sale of a few litres of milk for their livelihood have been hurt. As the majority of these farmers lack literacy, they are unaware of the preventative actions that are essential to halt the spread of LSD. Just 300 cows have passed away, which is one good. Small-scale cow producers who rely on selling a few litres of milk a day to make a living have been hurt. Most of these farmers are uneducated and unaware of the preventative actions required to halt the spread of LSD. As a result, the Sindh livestock department has started instructing cow producers in the right ways to isolate sick animals, apply medicines to wounds, and clean cuts. In Karachi in March 2022, livestock were instantly given vaccination doses from the local government's supply of 30,000 doses. For the remainder of the province, the federal authorities quickly imported four million doses of vaccination from Turkey. As a result, two weeks are spent immunising two million cows throughout numerous Sindh districts. The government of Sindh plans to create its own vaccine. The required funds has been given to researchers from Dow Medical University Karachi, and they are certain they can complete this task in nine months. To address the vaccine shortage, the Pakistani government is importing another shipment of vaccines from Jordan and compensating cow producers to lessen their losses. The sale of milk and meat from infected animals is prohibited by law, and studies reveal that no direct cases of LSD transmission to people have yet to be documented [35].

Conclusion

The condition that causes lumpy skin is called LSDV. The poxviridae family includes LSDV. It has a 15 Ikb genome and is an enveloped virus. Because of its severe impacts on the production of cow products like meat and milk, LSDV is extremely significant economically. Depending on the strain and immunological condition of the host, its effects change from one host to the next. Its clinical signs include fever, nasal discharge, viral pneumonia, and the development of 2-7 nodules on the skin of infected cattle. The primary LSDV transmission agents are hard ticks. Several PCR-based approaches have been developed for successful diagnosis, but serological techniques can also be employed to confirm the presence of the LSDV. The only method to stop it from spreading is by vaccination with 100% coverage. At present there is no treatment available for LSDV. Antibiotics and inflammatory drugs used to reduce the outrageous effects of disease. Authors'

contributions Conceived

and designed the experiments: L Khan & A Khan, Performed the experiment and analyzed the data: L Khan, Contributed materials and analysis tools: A Ullah, Revised the manuscript: M Gul, MB Riaz, M Saleem, R Khan, HK Khushmir & S Shireen, Wrote the paper: L Khan. Acknowledgement

Authors

would like to thank The University of Swabi and The University of Agriculture, Peshawar for their cooperation to provide opportunity and facilities to conduct this review successfully. References

Sidebar

Citation

Luqman Khan, Irshad Ali Khan, Mehran Gul, Muhammad Bin Riaz, Abbas Khan, Muskan Saleem, Rizwan Khan, Asmat Ullah, Hammad Khan Khushmir, SummiyaShireen and Abdur Rehman. A comprehensive review on lumpy skin disease. Pure and Applied Biology. Vol. 13, Issue 3, pp341-350.

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