STUDENTS' IC LEVELS IN CLIL AND EMI PROGRAMMES: COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SPANISH AND UKRAINIAN MA STUDENTS

Abstract

Internationalization of higher education resulted in the introduction of various innovations into the study process, including English language instruction, novel teaching methodologies, diverse classroom assessment techniques, and more. The evolving nature of global education and the need for individuals to navigate and thrive in diverse, multicultural environments underscores the significance of intercultural competence for all individuals involved in this educational context. The aim of this study is to measure and compare the students' Intercultural Competence (IC) levels in English-Medium Instruction (EMI) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) settings to detect whether CLIL programmes are more effective for students' IC development. The research is conducted within tertiary education settings in Ukraine (Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University) and Spain (Universidad Complutense de Madrid) correspondingly. This comparative approach focuses on assessing students' IC using both quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative data (collected through a self-rating IC scale) and qualitative data (obtained from students' interviews) were analysed for a comprehensive understanding of IC in both contexts.

Headnote

Abstract: Internationalization of higher education resulted in the introduction of various innovations into the study process, including English language instruction, novel teaching methodologies, diverse classroom assessment techniques, and more. The evolving nature of global education and the need for individuals to navigate and thrive in diverse, multicultural environments underscores the significance of intercultural competence for all individuals involved in this educational context. The aim of this study is to measure and compare the students' Intercultural Competence (IC) levels in English-Medium Instruction (EMI) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) settings to detect whether CLIL programmes are more effective for students' IC development. The research is conducted within tertiary education settings in Ukraine (Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University) and Spain (Universidad Complutense de Madrid) correspondingly. This comparative approach focuses on assessing students' IC using both quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative data (collected through a self-rating IC scale) and qualitative data (obtained from students' interviews) were analysed for a comprehensive understanding of IC in both contexts.

Keywords: intercultural competence, internationalization, EMI, CLIL, tertiary education, master students.

Introduction

Rapid internationalization of education caused by globalization and digitalization processes predetermines changes in the teaching methods and approaches. Numerous studies of the effective means to create educational programmes, supporting students in obtaining the necessary skills to be successful on the job market, prove the importance of intercultural competence (IC) development, through language learning in particular.

The pragmatic phenomenon of language use across the cultures reflects the ability to be interculturally competent. Language knowledge is a tool for learning both one's own and another culture. Therefore, knowledge of the language of another culture is inevitable for intercultural competence, as it provides an adequate understanding of the cultural characteristics of another country. Language knowledge allows the individual to adapt their behaviour to the behaviour of others, which means that they develop a higher ability to intercultural communication, i.e. to adequate mutual understanding of communication participants belonging to different cultures. Language knowledge also forms personal qualities of the participant of communication - openness, tolerance and willingness to communicate with representatives of another culture. Furthermore, research approves the interconnection between foreign language learning and cultural awareness1. Thus, foreign language learning and teaching as fields of major opportunities of culture learning are under the scope of this investigation.

At present higher educational institutions implement two major programmes incorporating the use of a foreign language in learning of academic subjects: English Medium Instruction (EMI) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). Being alike in foreign language usage in the process of learning, these approaches differ in the learning objectives. CLIL approach is characterized by explicit both content and language learning objectives, as well as a dominant role of content, communication, cognition and culture components in the learning process. While EMI programmes focus on content, while language learning objectives are not explicit. Therefore, our research aims at measuring and comparing the students' IC levels in EMI and CEIL settings to detect whether the key role of culture within CEIL approach makes CEIL programmes to be more relevant and effective for students' IC development.

Theoretical background

Trends in modern society, integration and globalization processes, resulted in the learners' needs to obtain the professional competence which includes generated theoretical and practical knowledge, skills and abilities to interact with representatives of other cultures, in order to effectively implement the goals and objectives in the professional sphere. It predetermined the study of intercultural communication in the 1950s2. Among numerous studies we can find the works of Condon & Yousef3, Gudykunst & Kim4, and others devoted to various aspects of intercultural communication and intercultural competence within more than 50 years. These investigations provide the techniques for the development of competence in intercultural interaction of the individual regardless of the sphere and peculiarities of their activities.

Origins and development of the notion "intercultural competence" and its elements

The term "intercultural competence" evolutionized from studying the specifics of intercultural communication into the independent scientific discipline in the process of active research in this field and the publication of numerous books by such researchers as Bennet5, Byram6, Deardorff7, Hall8, Smith9, Samovar and Porter10, Condon and Yousef11, Gudy kunst and Kim12 and others.

IC is defined as "an ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations"13, which incorporates the ability of handling problems induced by intercultural contact"14.

It is considered that intercultural competence comprises knowledge, skills, abilities, attitudes and the experience of intercultural communication as an activity15.

According to Byram16, the structure of intercultural competence consists of the following components: 1) the ability to overcome misunderstandings that arise in the process of intercultural interaction; 2) the ability to explain the mistakes of intercultural interaction; 3) the desire and readiness to discover something new; 4) the ability to gain knowledge about another cultural reality and use them to penetrate into foreign culture; 5) the ability to establish and maintain communication between native and foreign language culture; 6) to accept the peculiarities of other people's culture, to critically evaluate one's own culture; 7) the curiosity and openness towards other individuals; 8) the readiness to accept other opinions; 9) the ability to determine the level of ethnocentrism; 10) the ability to overcome ethnocentric attitudes and prejudices. In addition, the structure of intercultural competence can be complemented by the people's values formed due to belonging to certain social groups and a certain society.

Gudykunst17 provides a generalized three-component model of intercultural competence: 1) motivational factors (the needs of participants of interaction, their mutual attraction, the openness of the individual to the new information, etc.); 2) knowledge factors (expectations, general information networks, ideas about different points of view, knowledge about the existence of alternative interpretations, knowledge of similarities and differences); and 3) skills factors (the ability to empathize, to adapt communication, to be tolerant to ambiguity, to change behaviour and to gather new relevant information).

Intercultural competence development in educational processes

In the 21st century responsibility for providing students with "the knowledge and skills necessary to become productive members of society"18 is taken by the educational systems. Students are prepared to be capable to behave and communicate effectively across the cultures, to work in different settings and demonstrate "attitudes that move beyond ethnocentric thinking" 19 . The effectiveness of the resulting internationalization of tertiary education provides opportunities for teachers and students, as well as universities in general. It is considered that international and intercultural learning experience will help to expand students' employability chances20.

Rubenfeld et al.21 emphasize the possibility of personal changes through foreign language learning. It was mentioned that L2 learning has a positive impact on students' representation of the L2 community, thus it may serve as a way to discover, understand and accept another culture, as well as to become conversant with beliefs, know-how, and values. Byram et al.22 mentioned the importance to teach "language-and-culture as an integrated whole". Although many curricula do emphasize the importance of developing intercultural competence, in practice there are still gaps in this area (for instance in the differences between CLIL and EMI programmes in development of IC), and more attention to intercultural dimension is needed in teacher training, inspectors' reports, and so forth.

IC development and EMI

According to Jenkins23 in terms of EMI implementation the key point for students is their "studying not English, but through English" and language itself serves as a communicational tool. Thus, it could be stated that EMI is understood as an approach where English is used as a lingua franca (ELF) for educational purposes in the university24.

The EMI course at university can follow with several learning outcomes for students. It could include language proficiency development, or its learning as a skill for a global market, to be able to cope with cultural differences, to solve cultural misunderstandings, etc. Despite EMI popularity in tertiary education as well as IC need for global market, the main focus of the mentioned educational approach is still on disciplinary rather than cultural competence25.

The use of language as a medium of instruction proceeds with the emphasis on instructors as multicultural managers in the classroom whose language and communicative competence delivery play the key role in a content classroom. Therefore, the university EMI classes are teacher - centered, students' interaction is also facilitated by teachers, and the expected learning outcome is students' disciplinary competence, which to some extent includes language proficiency and intercultural communicative competence, but does not deal with them equally as for instance in CLIL classroom.

IC development and CLIL

The issue of language and content integration has become very important in the internationalization of higher education in Europe. The main goal of CLIL in Europe is intercultural development of individuals, who are able to interact with representatives of other cultures "on a basis of flexibility, mutual respectfulness and understanding"26. Despite the fact that interculturai competence "is not 'automatically' inherent in CLIL", it is "one of the greatest potentials of CLIL"27.

Studies that have been conducted with regard to CLIL and its effects in higher education28 emphasize on students' linguistic and cognitive skills simultaneous development. As it is mentioned by Hansen-Pauly29 CLIL as an approach which helps to "transform knowledge into understanding" has been foregrounded as a tool for intercultural learning. In this direction, CLIL is practically the only dual-aimed methodology that aims at integrative learning in which cultural awareness is one of its key elements. Furthermore, CLIL also adapts to the cultural environment of the place where it had been implemented what makes it a universal approach30.

In comparison with EMI where the main objective usually is content learning while the language learning objectives are implicit31, CLIL, emphasizes on its dual focus on integrative learning of content and foreign language. Furthermore, it was stated by Coyle's 4Cs Framework32 that culture and communication are determinant elements of language learning in CLIL setting. Consequently, students have an opportunity to better comprehend and understand the culture of the language being studied, which leads to the development of intercultural competence of students.

Methodology

Research context and participants

All the participants in this study were Master's students of two national universities: Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM) (Spain) and Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University (PNU) (Ukraine). These universities adhere to the norms and standards of the Bologna system, a European framework for higher education. A total of 22 Master's students from the target universities, took part in the study by completing questionnaires and participating in online interviews as part of the research process.

Data collection and procedure

The researchers employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both qualitative (for collecting and analyzing data obtained from interviews) and quantitative (for statistical analysis using Google Sheets and the Mann-Whitney U test) research methods.

The study was conducted on the basis of an anonymous questionnaire comprising 12 close-ended statements statements that portrayed various situations commonly encountered in immersion environments, encompassing scenarios that students had experienced or could potentially encounter. It was developed taking into account the 24-item scale coined by Chen and Starosta33 for measuring the ICC. It aimed at capturing the students1 attitudes toward situations that are likely to occur in immersion environments, including those they have already encountered and those they might encounter in the future.

A standardized open-ended interview of five qualitative questions aimed to uncover the participants' individual comprehension of intercultural competence (IC) and their perspectives regarding the role of culture and communication in its development.

The study followed a sequential approach, beginning with the completion of the quantitative questionnaire aimed at examining the intercultural competence of students who had undergone language learning through English-Medium Instruction (EMI) or Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). Subsequently, the qualitative interviews were conducted to investigate differences and commonalities in the Master's students' understanding of intercultural competence and their perspectives on the subject. Following the completion of the questionnaires, the participants proceeded with the interviews. The data collection process was facilitated through Google Forms Questionnaire, and the resulting data was automatically organized into Google Sheets. Subsequently, statistical analyses were carried out using specialized formulas to determine the mean and standard deviation values, employing the "AVERAGE" and "STDEV" functions, respectively.

Results

This section is subdivided into two distinct subsections: students' questionnaire results and interview analysis. The former subsection scrutinizes the level of intercultural competence (IC) awareness among students enrolled in selected Spanish and Ukrainian universities who have undergone language instruction through EMI or CLIL. It presents a statistical overview of the gathered questionnaire data. The latter subsection offers a comprehensive summary of the outcomes derived from open-ended questions posed to the students during interviews.

Students' questionnaire results

The table below displays the mean and standard deviation values for two groups of students: UCM MA students and PNU MA students. These values are associated with each statement in the questionnaire.

Based on the findings presented in Table 1, it is evident that both groups of students share a keen interest in exploring diverse cultures. This mutual interest is further reflected in their responses to the second statement of the questionnaire, suggesting a lack of significant challenges for students when it comes to traveling or residing abroad. Moreover, despite the infrequent presence of international students in the Ukrainian university (refer to students' interview), students there exhibit a noteworthy readiness to engage with individuals from varied linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The responses to the fourth statement reveal a consensus among students from both groups regarding their inclination towards tolerance of other cultures and values. Likewise, statements 5, 7, 8, 9, and 11 exhibit closely aligned mean and standard deviation values across both groups of MA students. This underscores a parallel perspective on interacting with peers (7 and 11), possessing cultural proficiency (8), undertaking English language acquisition (9), and navigating specific situational emotions (5). While there is a slight discrepancy in standard deviation values for statements 6, 10, and 12 between UCM and PNU students' responses, it is worth noting that, as per the two-tailed U test, these distinctions do not hold statistical significance.

In summary, based on the results of the Mann-Whitney U test, it is evident that Ui, which falls outside the critical region for both mean and standard deviation values, does not provide sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis (A = B). Therefore, all the findings are statistically insignificant at the 0.05 significance level. This implies that the reflections of students from both Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University are remarkably similar, contrary to the initial expectations.

Students' interview results

In this section, we will analyze the responses gathered from interviews conducted with two distinct groups of students using content analysis. Specifically, we interviewed MA students who willingly participated in these interviews. The objective was to delve into their attitudes regarding intercultural competence by eliciting their responses to the following questions: 1) How can you define being interculturally competent?; 2) What do you think is the role of culture in language learning?; 3) How many international students have studied in your group? Would you like to be a part of international classroom? Explain; 4) During your studies, have you been encouraged to study about different cultures? Describe your experience; 5) In your opinion, is communication an important part of intercultural competence? Explain. Consequently, we will discuss their perspectives on various aspects, including cultural studies and language acquisition, communication, and intercultural competence.

The first question aims at analyzing how students perceive themselves as interculturally competent. It is crucial to ascertain the fundamental understanding of intercultural competence (IC) among respondents in order to comprehend how they conceptualize it. As stated by some researchers, "learning to communicate in a foreign language will often encompass learning about the cultural norms and habits (e.g., food, weather) of the foreign language being studied,"34 particularly for EMI and CLIL students. Consequently, in our interviews, all students were asked to mention at least one of the key elements associated with IC35. These elements are integral to successful communication and cultural awareness, and they include:

(1) SPS2. Being able to interact successfully with people who belong to different cultures.

(2) SPS4. As having the necessary knowledge and abilities to communicate effectively with people from other cultures.

(3) UKR4. Being acquainted with the culture of different countries.

(4) UKR10. The capacity to adapt myself in any intercultural situation.

The respondents acknowledge possessing various abilities associated with intercultural competence (IC). They affirm the capacity to be tolerant, to support, to be competent, to manage communication, to adapt themselves, and possess knowledge, being familiar with peculiarities of other countries or nations, to be interested in other cultures. Given that all these students are enrolled in English Philology/Linguistics programs and are participating in English-medium instruction courses, it can be inferred that certain facets of IC are inherently integrated into their foreign language learning process. This observation substantiates Byram's assertion36 regarding the significance of intercultural competence as a crucial educational objective, particularly in the context of foreign language teaching.

It is notable that, despite the overall comprehension of the concept of "being interculturally competent," some students still tend to associate culture primarily with countries and nations. However, it's crucial to acknowledge that the concept of culture, and by extension, intercultural competence, is far more intricate and multifaceted37. This observation underscores the need for further clarification and heightened awareness among students regarding the nuances of intercultural competence. It is evident that both universities would benefit from providing additional education and guidance in this regard to ensure a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.

The question concerning the role of culture in language learning revealed an unanimous acknowledgment of the interconnectedness and substantial significance of culture in the realm of language studies among all participants. This aligns with Douglas Brown's assertion that "culture is really an integral part of the interaction between language and thought. Cultural patterns, customs, and ways of life are expressed in language; culture-specific world views are reflected in language."38 Furthermore, the participants recognized language not only as a tool for communication but also as a representative cultural component. For instance:

(5) SPSS. The language is part of the culture. To learn one, you need to know at least the basic about the other.

(6) UKR4. If language education will be to successfully incorporate the presentation of cultural information in language classroom, it would greatly increase the benefits of language study.

The presence of international students in the classroom can bring both challenges and advantages, benefiting not only newcomers but also all participants of the educational process. The third question posed to the participants (How many international students have studied in your group? Would you like to be a part of international classroom?) revealed a notable disparity in the responses. Specifically, four students from PNU noted the absence of international students in their groups but expressed a desire to be part of an international classroom. In contrast, students from UCM reported the presence of approximately 10 international students in their Master's course. This discrepancy in experiences highlights the varying internationalization levels between the two universities. Nevertheless, students from both universities who provided detailed responses to the second sub-question emphasized the advantages of studying alongside foreign students. They highlighted the opportunities for cultural exploration, language skill improvement, and broadening of their world views. Interacting with host students in an internationalized higher education classroom can indeed be highly beneficial, as pointed out by Crose39. The university that facilitates such a scenario plays a significant role in fostering cultural understanding and the establishment of cross-border relationships through the internationalization of both the classroom and the broader university community, as stated by Crose40.

The data obtained from the responses to the fourth question indicates that all students had been encouraged to study about different cultures or had taken courses related to intercultural studies to some extent:

(7) SPS4. Yes. It wasn't hard because it was all culture close to mine: all East-European culture. It would have been more difficult I think, if it was an Asian culture for example. I could integrate myself really easily.

(8) UKRI. I have been encouraged to study about different cultures. I even had a class called ICC. I learned a lot about other cultures and the way I should behave with them.

One student (SPS2) noted attending college with a tricultural orientation, which suggests a comprehensive approach to cultural education. Additionally, three students (SPS3, SPS4, UKR4) expressed their personal enthusiasm for studying various cultures, indicating a proactive interest in cultural diversity. However, it is worth mentioning that one student from UCM mentioned the insufficient encouragement of multicultural studies, suggesting that there may be room for improvement in promoting multicultural education in that particular context.

The responses provided in the interviews contribute to our understanding of the students' overall familiarity and awareness of intercultural education. Interestingly, the results suggest that these aspects are nearly equivalent for participants from both universities.

The final section of the interviews delved into the significance of communication in intercultural competence. The responses from all interviewees consistently affirm that communication is an essential part of IC. Students expressed the following views:

(9) UKRI. Communication is an essential part of ICC. Those notions are interrelated and connected with each other. In my opinion, one cannot gain knowledge in the field of ICC without communication. It is extremely important to talk to other people, exchange thoughts and of course listen others.

(10) SPS1. Yes, because you must know how to interact with people from different cultures.

(11) SPS3. Yes, of course. I would say it is the base of it, since it allows to actually show if someone is interculturally competent through words.

(12) SPS4. Yes of course. Without communication it's almost impossible to learn any culture. We all need to interact with each other to understand the opinion and the way the others are thinking. Moreover, they are some little things we can't learn on tv or find in the books or internet, we have to learn it with the people, so a direct communication is a need.

(13) UKR4. Yes, in order to express your opinion.

As mentioned in previous sections, the majority of scholars in the field of intercultural competence, including Dear dr off41, Knapp and Knapp-Potthoff42, Matsumoto and Juan43, Triandis44, and others, consistently emphasize the critical role of communication skills in achieving successful intercultural interaction. In fact, some scholars even equate the concepts of international competence and international communicative competence. It's evident that the participants also underscore the importance of communication within intercultural competence, effectively associating intercultural competence with linguistic skills, as noted by Gierke et al.45. Moreover, this connection between communication and intercultural competence may be a notable outcome of studying a foreign language and its content through EMI or CLIL approaches.

In summary, in the context of foreign language learning, it can be concluded that both groups of students, hailing from Spanish and Ukrainian universities, possess a general understanding of intercultural competence (IC) and recognize its significance, particularly in the realm of communication. As pointed out by Aguilar46, intercultural competence is considered one of the common outcomes in immersion and CLIL educational settings, as the integration of culture in language learning has been a recurring theme in literature on these approaches. The responses provided by students indicate that international competence is indeed cultivated within their foreign language studies, and it stands as a key element of learning within their internationalized university environments. However, the students' answers and the subsequent analysis reveal certain shortcomings in language programs or the universities themselves, where there may be a lack of adequate emphasis on IC education. These deficiencies will be further elaborated upon in the concluding remarks.

Discussion

This section presents the conclusions drawn from the results of the conducted study and suggests potential avenues for future research in the field of intercultural competence (IC) in tertiary education. The choice of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University for this study was not arbitrary; it was based on the authors' familiarity with their educational systems, which allowed for a more precise analysis. Consequently, the study reviewed intercultural theories to provide a solid theoretical foundation. Subsequently, both quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed from students' surveys and interviews. The primary objective of this analysis was to investigate the impact of English-Medium Instruction (EMI) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) programs on students' development of intercultural competence within tertiary education settings in Ukraine and Spain correspondingly. Specifically, it sought to compare two institutions offering EMI or CLIL courses, with a focus on the role of foreign language studies in students' IC development. Here, the research has been conducted within the context of specific universities and language programs. However, future research could expand on these findings and explore the broader implications for IC development in tertiary education. This could involve investigating the effectiveness of various pedagogical approaches, curricular designs, or intercultural training programs across different universities and settings. Furthermore, exploring the impact of IC on students' academic and career success could be another valuable area of research in this field.

The analysis of the questionnaire data reveals several noteworthy findings:

1. Interest in Discovering Different Cultures: MA students from both Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM) and Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University (PNU) share a common interest in exploring different cultures.

2. Tolerance in Intercultural Communication: Students from both UCM and PNU exhibit tolerance and open-mindedness when communicating with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds.

3. Similar Views on Intercultural Competence (IC): Participants from both Spanish and Ukrainian universities hold similar views regarding the importance of IC, English language learning, and their attitudes toward specific situations.

4. Challenges in Intercultural Interaction for PNU Students: PNU students occasionally encounter difficulties when interacting with people from other cultures. This difference may be attributed to the fact that PNU students might have fewer opportunities for intercultural exposure compared to their UCM counterparts.

These findings provide valuable insights into the perspectives and experiences of MA students in both universities regarding intercultural competence and communication. They also suggest areas where educational programs or support services could be enhanced to further promote intercultural competence among students, particularly at PNU, where students may face more challenges in this regard.

The data gathered from the interviews provide substantial support for several key findings:

1. Understanding of Intercultural Competence (IC): MA students from both Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM) and Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University (PNU) demonstrate a clear understanding of the concept of IC. They are aware of the elements comprising IC and recognize the pivotal role of communication in achieving successful intercultural interaction.

2. Benefits of International Classmates: Students from both UCM and PNU concur on the advantages of having international students as their classmates. However, students from PNU highlight the limited presence of foreign students in their educational environment.

3. Opportunities for Studying Different Cultures: MA students at both universities have opportunities to explore various cultures, not only through interaction with individuals from diverse backgrounds but also by attending classes that focus on intercultural studies.

These findings underscore the shared understanding and experiences of MA students from both universities concerning intercultural competence. The presence of international students is viewed as valuable, although there is a notable difference in their numbers between the two institutions. Additionally, the provision of courses related to intercultural studies contributes to the students' exposure to and understanding of different cultures.

The results show that interviewees participated in courses that covered topics related to culture and civilizations, including Linguoculturology classes, among others. This involvement in educational activities centered around intercultural content underscores the significance of cultural knowledge in the development of intercultural competence, as noted by Gierke47. As emphasized by Jones48, the internationalization of curriculum, achieved by incorporating intercultural content in domestic settings, empowers students to acquire new knowledge and critically engage with global issues. This approach not only broadens their understanding of the world but also cultivates a thoughtful and discerning perspective on global matters.

Implications

The implications drawn from this study extend beyond the specific context of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University. They offer valuable insights and recommendations that can inform the broader field of intercultural competence (IC) in tertiary education and research. These implications encompass both the findings and the limitations of the study. Universities globally can enrich their curriculum by integrating intercultural content and activities, fostering the development of students' intercultural competence. Strategies to increase the presence of international students, particularly in Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University (PNU), can offer local students more opportunities for intercultural interactions, aligning with their desire for diverse classmates. Researchers conducting online interviews should be cognizant of potential limitations, such as the Hawthorne effect, and explore strategies to elicit more in-depth responses, thereby enhancing data quality in online settings. Future studies employing content analysis should consider structured interview formats with follow-up questions to encourage participants to provide more detailed responses, especially when dealing with brief or incomplete answers. Given the small sample size, caution is warranted when generalizing findings to a larger population. Future research should prioritize larger and more diverse participant groups for increased robustness and generalizability. Universities should consider early internationalization of their curriculum, incorporating intercultural content to facilitate students' acquisition of new knowledge and encourage critical reflection on global issues, fostering a broader understanding of the world. These implications provide valuable guidance for future research and educational practices in promoting intercultural competence among students in tertiary education settings. Researchers and educators can leverage these insights to design more effective intercultural programs and initiatives, address limitations in data collection, and continue exploring the complexities of intercultural competence development on a global scale.

Conclusions

The analysis of the questionnaire and interviews data show that MA students at both programmes share a common interest in exploring different cultures; exhibit tolerance and open-mindedness when communicating with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds; hold similar views regarding the importance of IC; demonstrate a clear understanding of the concept of IC and its elements; recognize the pivotal role of communication in achieving successful intercultural interaction; concur on the advantages of having international students as their classmates; and have opportunities to explore various cultures, not only through interaction with individuals from diverse backgrounds but also by attending classes that focus on intercultural studies. Nevertheless, MA students from PNU (Ukraine) highlight the limited presence of foreign students in their educational environment and occasionally encounter difficulties when interacting with people from other cultures as they have fewer opportunities for intercultural exposure compared to their UCM (Spain) counterparts.

These findings provide valuable insights into the perspectives and experiences of MA students in both universities regarding intercultural competence and communication. They also suggest areas where educational programs or support services could be enhanced to further promote IC among students, particularly at PNU, where students may face more challenges in this regard. The findings underscore the shared understanding and experiences of MA students from both universities concerning IC. The presence of international students is viewed as valuable, although there is a notable difference in their numbers between the two institutions. The results demonstrate that CLIL programme does not predetermine higher levels of IC development. The provision of courses and educational activities related to intercultural studies, as well as internationalization of curriculum contribute to the students' exposure to and understanding of different cultures even in EMI settings. For instance, the courses that covered topics related to culture and civilizations, including Linguoculturology classes, among others motivate EMI students to acquire new knowledge, enable to critically engage with global issues, broaden their understanding of the world and model a thoughtful perspective on global matters.

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all the participants who generously shared their time and insights for this study as their contributions were invaluable in shaping the findings and implications of this research. We extend our appreciation to the faculty and staff of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University for their support and cooperation throughout the research process. This research did not receive financial support from governmental, commercial, or non-profit organizations.

Footnote

1 M. Byram, (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.; D. K. Deardorff, (2006). Assessing Intercultural Competence in Study Abroad Students. In M. Byram, and A. Feng, (Eds.) 2006. Living and Studying Abroad. Research and Practice, (pp. 232-256). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters; C. Maíz-Arevalo, & E. Orduna-Nocito, (2021). Developing intercultural Communicative Competence: A cornerstone in EMI in-service training programmes in higher education. Revista Alicantina De Estudios Ingleses, (34), 159.

2 E. Hall, (1959), The silent language. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc.; Smith, M.B. (1966). Explorations in competence: A study of Peace Corps teachers in Ghana. American Psychologist, 21(6), 555-566.

3 J.C., Condon, & F.S., Yousef, An introduction to intercultural communication. Bobbs-Merill, (1975).

4 W. Gudykunst, (1997), Communication with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication. Boston: McGrawHill; W.B. Gudykunst, & Y.Y. Kim, (1984). Communication with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication. New York: Random House.

5 M.J. Bennett, Becoming interculturally competent. In J.S. Wurzel (Ed.) Toward multiculturalism: A reader in multicultural education. Newton, MA: Intercultural Resource Corporation, 2004.

6 M. Byram, Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, 1997.

7 D.K. Deardorff, Assessing Intercultural Competence in Study Abroad Students. In Byram, M. and Feng, A. (Eds.) 2006. Living and Studying Abroad. Research and Practice, (pp. 232-256). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

8 E. Hall, The silent language. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc, 1959.

9 M. B. Smith, Explorations in competence: A study of Peace Corps teachers in Ghana. American Psychologist, 21(6), 1966, 555-566.

10 L.A. Samovar, & R.E. Porter, Intercultural communication a reader. Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1994.

11 J.C. Condon, & F.S. Yousef, An introduction to intercultural communication. Bobbs-Merill, 1975.

12 W.B. Gudykunst, & Y.Y. Kim, Communication with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication. New York: Random House, 1984.

13 D.K. Deardorff, Assessing Intercultural Competence in Study Abroad Students. In Byram, M. and Feng, A. (Eds.). Living and Studying Abroad. Research and Practice, (pp. 232-256). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 2006, p. 247.

14 Y. Guo, (), The concept and development of intercultural competence. In Tsai, Y., & Houghton, S. (Ed.), Becoming intercultural: Inside and outside the classroom (pp. 23-47). Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2017, p. 27.

15 M. Byram, G. Zarate, Investigating Cultural Studies in Foreign Language Teaching. Clevedon, Philadelphia, cop., 1991, p. 15.

16 M. Byram, Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 1997, p. 5.

17 W. Gudykunst Communication with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication. Boston: McGrawHill, 1997.

18 P. Garrett-Rucks, Intercultural competence in instructed language learning: Bridging theory and practice. Information Age Publishing, Inc., 2016, p. 4.

19 Ibid., p. 4.

20 E. Arnó-Maciá, & M. Aguilar, ESP, EMI AND interculturality: How internationalised are university curricula in Catalonia? ESP Today, 6(2), 184-207,2018, p. 185.

21 S. Rubenfeld, R. Clement, J. Vinograd, D. Lussier, Amireault Valérie, Auger Réjean, & M. Lebrun, Becoming a cultural intermediary. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 26(2), 182-203, 2007, p. 184.

22 P.M. Byram, A. Nichols, & D.D. Stevens, (Eds.). Developing intercultural competence in practice. ProQuest Ebook Central, 2001, p. 1.

23 J. Jenkins, English medium instruction in higher education: The role of English as lingua franca. Springer International Handbooks of Education, 1-18, 2018, p. 13.

24 See Ibid.

25 TAEC EMI Handbook (2019). TAEC Erasmus+ project (2017-2020), p. 11.

26 Coyle, 2009, as cited in Méndez García, M. del. (2012). The potential of CLIL for intercultural development: A case study of Andalusian bilingual schools. Language and Intercultural Communication, 12(3), 196-213, p. 199.

27 Ibid., p. 199.

28 See D. Coyle, (2006), Developing CLIL: towards a theory of practice. In Monographs, 6. CLIL in Catalonia, from theory to practice, pp. 5-29. Barcelona: APAC; Dalton-Puffer, C., T. Nikula, & U. Smit, (2010). Language use and language learning in CLIL classrooms. John Benjamins Publishing Company.

29 Hansen-Pauly, 2009, as cited in B. Strotmann, V. Bamond, Lago J.M., López M. Bailen, S. Bonilla, & F. Montesinos, (2014). Improving bilingual higher education: Training university professors in content and language integrated learning. Higher Learning Research Communications, 4(1), 91-97, p. 92.

30 D. Coyle, P. Hood, & D. Marsh, (2010). CLIL: Content and language integrated learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

31 B. Strotmann, V. Bamond, Lago J. M. López, M. Bailen, S. Bonilla, & F. Montesinos, (2014), Improving bilingual higher education: Training university professors in content and language integrated learning. Higher Learning Research Communications, 4(1), 91-97, p. 93.

32 Coyle, 1999, 2007, as cited in B. Strotmann, V. Bamond, Lago J.M. López, M. Bailen, S. Bonilla, & F. Montesinos, (2014), Improving bilingual higher education: Training university professors in content and language integrated learning. Higher Learning Research Communications, 4(1), 91-97, p. 93.

33 G.M. Chen, & W.J. Starosta, (2000), The development and validation of the intercultural sensitivity scale. Human Communication, 3,1-15.

34 M. Byram, (2014), Twenty-five years on: From cultural studies to intercultural citizenship. Language, Culture and Curriculum, T7, 209-225; Byram, Gribkova, & Starkey, 2002, as cited in M. Aguilar, (2008). Dealing with Intercultural Communicative Competence in the Foreign Language Classroom. In: Soler, E.A., Jordà, M.S. (eds) Intercultural Language Use and Language Learning. Springer, Dordrecht, p. 31.

35 See D.K. Deardorff, (2006), Assessing Intercultural Competence in Study Abroad Students. In Byram, M. and Feng, A. (Eds.) 2006. Living and Studying Abroad. Research and Practice, (pp. 232-256). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

36 Byram, 1997, as cited in D.K. Deardorff, J. Hey I, & H. Wit, de. (2012). The sage handbook of international higher education. SAGE Publications, p. 5.

37 G. Hofstede, (2001), Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations, 2nd ed. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA; C. Kluckhohn, (1951) Values and Value-Orientations in the Theory of Action: An Exploration in Definition and Classification. In: Parsons, T. and Shils, E., Eds., Toward a General Theory of Action, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 388-433; Kroeber, A., and T. Parsons. (1958). The concept of culture and of social system. American Sociological Review 23: 582-583.

38 Brown, 1980, as cited in G. Boylan, & S. Huntley, (2003). Foreign language learning and cultural awareness. El Guiniguada, 12, 37-44, p. 39.

39 B. Crose, (2011), Internationalization of the Higher Education Classroom: Strategies to Facilitate Intercultural Learning and Academic Success. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 23(3), 388-395, p. 389.

40 Ibid., p. 388.

41 D.K. Deardorff, (2006), Assessing Intercultural Competence in Study Abroad Students. In M. Byram, and A. Feng, (Eds.) 2006. Living and Studying Abroad. Research and Practice, (pp. 232-256). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

44 H. C. Triandis, (2003): Forty-five years of researching the culture and behaviour link: An intellectual autobiography. In Tjosvold, D., & Leung, K. (Eds). Cross-cultural management: Foundations and future (pp. 11-27). Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

42 K. Knapp, & A. Knapp-Potthoff, (1990). Interkulturelle Kommunikation. [Intercultural communication], Zeitschrift fur Fremdsprachen forschung, 1, 62-93.

43 D. R. Matsumoto, & L. Juang, (2003). Culture and psychology: People around the world. Thomson Wadsworth.

45 L. Gierke, N. Binder, M. Heckmann, Ö. Odaǧ, A. Leiser, & camp; К. К. Kędzior, (2018). Definition of intercultural competence (IC) in undergraduate students at a private University in the USA: A mixed-methods study. PLOS ONE, 13(4).

46 M. Aguilar, Integrating intercultural competence in ESP and EMI: From theory to practice. ESP Today, 6(1), 2018, 25-43.

47 L. Gierke, N. Binder, M. Heckmann, Ö. Odaǧ, A. Leiser, & camp; K.K. Kędzior, (2018). Definition of intercultural competence (IC) in undergraduate students at a private University in the USA: A mixed-methods study. PLOS ONE, 13(4).

48 Jones, 2010, as cited in ibid., p. 10.

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