ABSTRACT
Purpose: This article aims to present and analyze the green hydrogen chain in Brazil, highlighting the main challenges in relation to its implementation, as well as the potential ones in the sector.
Theoretical framework: The theoretical framework discusses the topic of green hydrogen, which is derived from renewable energy sources such as solar, wind and biomass, and presents possible forms of production, storage and possible distribution routes.
Method: The methodology presented refers to the analysis of the green hydrogen supply chain in three stages: upstream, midstream and downstream. It focuses on the balance between production, storage and distribution, using clean energy sources. Production occurs through water electrolysis, with storage adapted to demand and efficient distribution. This approach aims to promote sustainability in the energy market.
Results and conclusion: Analysis of the green hydrogen supply chain reveals challenges in storage and distribution due to high energy consumption. Despite the difficulties, opportunities such as investments in research and development and the potential of renewable energies offer ways to make green hydrogen a viable alternative. Restructuring the supply chain is essential to face these challenges and enable the replacement of fossil fuels, contributing to decarbonization and energy sustainability.
Research implications: This work's main objective is to present the possibilities of green hydrogen, demonstrating the main characteristics, such as supply chain, difficulties in relation to production.
Originality/value: This work presents a detailed approach to the complete green hydrogen chain, highlighting important points such as technological challenges and the need for greater investments. These are factors of great importance for the success of this energy transition.
Keywords: Green Hydrogen, Hydrogen Economy, Decarbonization, Energy Transition, Supply Chain Management.
RESUMO
Objetivo: Este artigo tem como objetivo apresentar e analisar a cadeia do hidrogênio verde no Brasil, destacando os principais desafios em relação à sua implementação, bem como os potenciais do setor.
Referencial teórico: O referencial teórico discute o tema do hidrogênio verde que é derivado das fontes de energias renováveis como solar, eólica e biomassa e apresenta as possíveis formas de produção, armazenamento e possíveis rotas de distribuição.
Método: A metodologia apresentada refere-se à análise da cadeia de suprimentos do hidrogênio verde em três etapas: upstream, midstream e downstream. Foca-se no equilíbrio entre produção, armazenamento e distribuição, utilizando fontes de energia limpa. A produção ocorre por eletrólise da água, com armazenamento adaptado à demanda e distribuição eficiente. Essa abordagem visa promover a sustentabilidade no mercado energético.
Resultados e conclusões: A análise da cadeia de suprimentos do hidrogênio verde revela desafios no armazenamento e distribuição, devido ao alto consumo de energia. Apesar das dificuldades, oportunidades como investimentos em pesquisa e desenvolvimento e o potencial das energias renováveis oferecem caminhos para tornar o hidrogênio verde uma alternativa viável. A reestruturação da cadeia de suprimentos é essencial para enfrentar esses desafios e permitir a substituição dos combustíveis fósseis, contribuindo para a descarbonização e a sustentabilidade energética.
Implicações da pesquisa: As implicações da pesquisa destacam a necessidade de investimentos em pesquisa e desenvolvimento para superar desafios tecnológicos no armazenamento e distribuição do hidrogênio verde, bem como a necessidade de políticas públicas e parcerias estratégicas para promover seu crescimento e competitividade frente aos combustíveis fósseis, contribuindo para a descarbonização.
Originalidade/valor: Este trabalho apresenta uma abordagem detalhada da cadeia completa do hidrogênio verde, destacando pontos importantes como desafios tecnológicos e a necessidade de maiores investimentos. Esses são fatores de grande importância para o sucesso dessa transição energética.
Palavras-chave: Hidrogênio Verde, Economia do Hidrogênio, Descarbonização, Transição Energética, Gestão da Cadeia de Suprimentos.
1 INTRODUCTION
Currently, it is evident that the world is going through an energy crisis of great magnitude, as it should be noted that fossil fuels currently represent 80% of electrical energy generation worldwide (NEMMOUR et al ., 2023). The great demand for renewable energy contributes to the future depletion of these sources, as they are non-renewable energy sources. However, the massive use of fossil fuels contributes to the environmental imbalances that the world currently faces, such as the constant threat of global warming. In this context, green hydrogen appears to be one of the most viable alternatives to replace fossil fuels in vogue, ensuring continuous sustainable economic development that does not compromise the natural environment (ALMEIDA et al., 2019).
There are several factors that place green hydrogen in an economically privileged position as an energy alternative: it is an energy vehicle, that is, it does not act as an energy found free in nature, like other forms of energy, for example, solar; In addition to all these factors, it is clean energy, without toxic by-products. In this sense, such a resource can be stored and used in different ways, allowing for optimal or satisfactory solutions for using this element (MA et al ., 2023).
In this sense, the objective of this work is to present the green hydrogen supply chain, highlighting how this energy vector has positive potential in the Brazilian energy scenario, marked by the development and continuous use of clean and renewable energy.
The development of the work was structured into 5 sections, described below. The first section presents a brief introduction to the subject covered. In the second section, the theoretical foundation is presented. In the third section, the development is portrayed, where green hydrogen was discussed in its general aspects, highlighting the supply chain; then, the difficulties and opportunities of the green hydrogen supply chain were discussed; Soon after, final considerations about the work and acknowledgments were made; finally, the references of the studies carried out, which are found in the last topic of this study.
2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
It is currently clear that some forms of energy generation have negative impacts on the environment and human society. One of the main reasons for concern is due to global warming, the main cause of which is due to the increase in carbon dioxide emission rates into the atmosphere, due to the oxidation of compounds with a high carbon content (FERNANDES, 2021). In this sense, the search for clean sources of energy generation is necessary.
One of the promising ways of generating energy is through green hydrogen as an energy vector. The differentiation between fossil hydrogen and its sustainable and clean production, green hydrogen, is clear. Firstly, it is appropriate to state the competitive potential of renewable energies compared to non-renewable energies, with a special focus on hydrogen (NABUCO, 2022). Veras (2015) states that a Hydrogen Economy (HE) is a possible reality to replace the dominant energy system.
There are several ways of storing hydrogen. Some of them are cylinders of compressed hydrogen gas, reservoirs of liquid hydrogen, metal hydrides, alkali hydrides and microspheres. One of the main forms of storage is through metal hydrides: a system that reduces the cost of storage, as it does not need to house the hydrogen at very high pressures or be in a cryogenic state (SANTOS, 2022). Furthermore, there are, in parallel to metal hydrides, other convenient ways of storing hydrogen. High-pressure compressed hydrogen gas cylinders, for example, are one of the most used storage systems and also one of those that has made the most progress in reducing weight and volume, in order to facilitate the transport of the chemical element (NETO , 2021).
Once the storage of green hydrogen is understood, the next step is its extremely difficult distribution due to its chemical properties as a fuel, which is why storage has significant relevance in this scenario (FERREIRA, 2022; AMARAL, 2021; LINS, 2013). Even so, its transportation can be carried out by trucks, gas pipelines and ships, depending on some factors such as the distance to be covered, the terrain that will be overcome, the final objective of green hydrogen, in addition to consumer demand (AIE, 2021).
Regarding trucks, they can be made of compressed gas or cryogenic liquid. The former are suitable for short displacements and reduced amounts of green hydrogen. Cryogenic liquid trucks are for relatively larger quantities and distances of green hydrogen, in addition to an even more expensive cost also varying mainly with the price of electricity in the region. (LINS, 2013); For large quantities or distances, gas pipelines represent an excellent alternative from an economic point of view, since their construction and maintenance costs are comparatively low. The longest reference gas pipeline is 400 km between France and Belgium (LINS, 2013). Each transformation process has advantages and disadvantages, as well as different costs depending on the method chosen ( HYDROGEN COUNCIL, 2021).
It is clear that, in recent years, there has been a movement among countries in search of renewable sources for energy production. Initially, during the Industrial Revolution, the main source of fuel for the perpetuation of industrial activities was mineral coal, inserting fossil fuels as the protagonist of the new global dynamics (NABUCO, 2022). Since then, several other energy sources have been used, such as oil, natural gas, among countless others.
The use of fossil fuels remained massive until the 1970 oil crisis, a period in which the search for alternative sources became intensified: during the 1970s, the Brazilian government stimulated hundreds of projects with the aim of seeking new sources of energy, conducted, among other entities, by the CNPq at the time (BARAT, 1984; NAZARETH, 1984).
In this sense, new alternative forms of fuel production have become a reality. One of the major programs in this vein was the Alcohol Program, a program responsible for the massive replacement of petroleum by alcohol in cars. However, this program did not take into account forms of rationalization in the production of this fuel and, along with other reasons, deviated from its main objectives (BARAT, 1984; NAZARETH, 1984).
Given this reality, the development of a Hydrogen Economy, mainly through green hydrogen, is a possible reality in the Brazilian scenario. A series of moves in this direction were carried out, such as the Science, Technology and Innovation Program for the Hydrogen Economy (ProH2), launched in 2002, whose objective is to establish guidelines towards a national energy policy, in order to increase diversity of energy matrices (VERAS, 2015).
It is well known that Brazil has technologies capable of producing hydrogen as an energy vector. One of the priority ways is through the electrolysis of water, using renewable sources to generate electricity and, therefore, without any carbon-based pollution (CGEE, 2010). Veras (2015) states that the development of technologies in this sense helps to position Brazil as a power in the global market for services related to energy and hydrogen.
As mentioned previously, there are many possibilities for hydrogen production in the Brazilian reality. Knob (2013) advocates that the use of electrolysis be combined with other renewable energy and fuel cell energy, with the primary aim of improving energy efficiency. The best fuel cell currently is the alkaline electrolytic cell (KNOB, 2013).
Hydrogen can be stored at fueling stations for common hydrogen-powered vehicles and at industrial-scale production and distribution sites. Aiming at these factors, it is understood that there are three main types of storage technology: pure physical in liquid or gaseous state, chemical and surface adsorption (ABREU et al. , 2022; VEIGA, 2022).
Within these three types of technology, there are five main methods of storing hydrogen: compressed hydrogen gas reservoirs, liquid hydrogen vessels, metal and alkaline hydrides, carbon adsorption and microspheres. Physical storage is that which involves compressing or liquefying hydrogen to place it in tanks and other containers that facilitate transportation. Highpressure compressed hydrogen gas cylinders and liquid hydrogen reservoirs are examples of physical storage technologies (NETO, 2021).
Hydrogen in pressure vessels or cryogenic liquid hydrogen vessels are one of the most common and developed storage systems in existence today. Hydrogen can be stored in different types of reservoirs, but the most common and efficient form is cylindrical, as this is the format that most guarantees the efficiency of the volume of hydrogen stored. The vessels are constructed in such a way as to force the entry of hydrogen through high pressure or through cryogenic freezing. This allows the very low density of the element (0.089 kg * m-3) to be overcome and for it to be stored in reservoirs with a very small volume (AMARAL, 2021).
On the other hand, chemical storage is one that makes use of hydrogen's affinity with other chemical elements to bind it to the structure of other compounds. This type of technology is used in metal and alkali hydrides in microspheres. Metal hydrides are metals that absorb gaseous hydrogen under high pressure and at a certain temperature, and then release it when under low pressure and high temperature. This is one of the most common and cheapest forms of storage that exist today. Microspheres have a conservation logic similar to that of metal hydrides, in which they use heat and high pressure to force hydrogen into small spheres (NETO, 2021).
Alkaline hydrides also have a conservation logic similar to that of metal hydrides, but they have more advantages, as they do not need wide variations in temperature and high pressures to operate. Surface adsorption storage is one in which molecular hydrogen bonds to materials with a high specific surface area. This connection can be made in carbonaceous materials and porous polymers, for example (NETO, 2021; ABREU et al. , 2022 ) . For trucks, they can be compressed gas trucks (CGH2) when hydrogen is compressed and transported in gaseous form, thus representing a suitable alternative for small and short distances (LINS, 2013). Furthermore, since there is no need to change its shape, costs are very low and are basically limited to truck and fuel maintenance (EPE, 2021).
There are also cryogenic liquid trucks where it is necessary for the hydrogen to be liquefied and transported in cryogenic locations, which ends up increasing the density of the substance (ESPÍNOLA, 2007). Among the advantages involved in the process are high purity and greater safety due to liquefaction, which ends up allowing greater distances. On the other hand, as a disadvantage, there is the higher density, the losses associated with the liquefaction process and the higher expenses. Applications in this scenario are placed at car or truck gas stations (HYDROGEN COUNCIL, 2021 ).
Finally, there is the liquid organic hydrogen carrier (THOL), a situation that occurs when hydrogen is bonded to a liquid organic hydrogen carrier. The main advantages associated with this method are the greater ease of storage and use of transport infrastructure for common fuels on the market, however, a dehydrogenation process must then be carried out and there is a more limited transport capacity. It is also concluded that the costs in this case are lower than those of the previous method analyzed (KARAYEL et al ., 2023)
When distances or quantities begin to become very high, it becomes necessary to use piping. The common natural gas pipeline is the main type for transporting H2V and can carry hydrogen mixed with natural gas over longer distances of up to 5000km, thus transport becomes much simpler, taking advantage of the entire structure and existing security and control teams (HYDROGEN COUNCIL, 2020; ABOHAMZEH, 2021; CAPURSO, 2022). On the other hand, the hydrogen will not be pure in this process and, just like in THOL, it will need to be separated if necessary depending on the objective (BEZERRA, 2021).
Furthermore, there are gas pipelines, when gaseous hydrogen is transported in these pipes, however, transport becomes easier with larger molecules, therefore, using ammonia as a carrier makes the process 97% cheaper (HYDROGEN COUNCIL, 2020; ABOHAMZEH, 2021; CAPURSO, 2022). Therefore, the huge difference economically highlights this alternative as being a very advantageous choice and the best for very high quantities, even though the hydrogen does not have high purity using this method (LINS, 2013).
Underwater pipelines are also for very long distances and transport hydrogen in liquid form. Compared to maritime transport by ships, economically, pipelines represent a much more viable alternative, but there is an extreme dependence on geographic viability to the destination ( HYDROGEN COUNCIL, 2021).
In addition to the transport options presented above, there is also air and sea transport using liquid hydrogen; however, economically, they are not very advantageous choices, therefore they should only be used as a last resort when none of the above is possible (ESPÍNOLA, 2007).
3 GREEN HYDROGEN SUPPLY CHAIN
The development of a supply chain is of great importance for successful advancement in any aspect of the market. In the energy sector, given the global competitiveness scenario, this need is also evident. The continuous search for a renewable source has proven to be extremely important, as there is a need to replace it with forms that emit less or no amount of carbon dioxide, a factor that has driven large investments in the energy sector across the planet. Scenarios related to building a supply chain for green hydrogen have been promising, which has been boosting the energy industry ( SHAMOUSHAKI; KOH, 2023).
The green hydrogen supply chain must be well planned and requires a perfectly balanced schedule for its production, storage and distribution, as it can only be called "green" if the logistics of these three elements in the chain also come from clean energy sources. . Figure 1 shows the green hydrogen supply chain divided into its three distinct moments: upstream , midstream and downstream (OTONI, 2023).
The upstream moment refers to the first moment in the chain, in which the receipt of raw materials, equipment and other inputs necessary to manufacture the product begins. The second moment is called midstream , and is the moment in the chain focused on the production process and logistics of intermediate storage of the finished product. The last moment of the process, the downstream stage , is responsible for final storage, distribution of the product to customers and customer service (DONATO, VIEIRA, ANDRADE, ALBUQUERQUE E SANTOS; 2023).
3.1 Production of Green Hydrogen
The process of generating green hydrogen takes place through the electrolysis of water, a process that requires the use of electrolyzers responsible for breaking down the water molecule together with electrical energy, the driving force responsible for this process (MONTEIRO, 2021). In order for hydrogen generation to be completely clean, it is essential that the electrical energy used comes from a renewable source (MONTEIRO, 2021). There are a set of electrolyzers that are responsible for this process, but two are most used: alkaline electrolyzer and the PEM (Polymeric Electrolytic Membrane) electrolyzer (BRASIL, 2021).
Naturally, there are a number of ways to produce hydrogen, with different efficiencies and production methods. However, in addition to the economic advantage of green hydrogen, there is the conversion efficiency of this resource, with a rate of 67%, being among the highest (BRASIL, 2021). In this sense, the productive and environmental advantage of this resource becomes evident. The image below exemplifies the aforementioned processes.
3.2 Storage of Green Hydrogen
After completion of the production process, the hydrogen is stored in one of the three types of storage technology mentioned above: physical storage, chemical storage and surface adsorption storage. The type of technology required is chosen according to the distance traveled to the customer, volume of hydrogen requested, time required for storage and unloading speed ( AMARAL, 2021 ).
Therefore, it can be understood that storage can take different forms in the supply chain depending on its purpose, but there are two main types of storage: fixed and mobile. Fixed storage is that intended for stationary applications, in which the hydrogen is stored in the same production environment, as it can be used there or sent immediately afterwards by a means of transport adapted to its specific conditions (MICENA, 2021) .
Mobile storage is adapted to transport hydrogen in vehicles of different proportions, from fuel cell cars to large ships. It is also used in the supply chain to transport products between production, storage and distribution centers. This division in storage is necessary to meet the specific demands and purposes of consumers, due to the properties of hydrogen that hinder the production process (MICENA, 2021).
3.3 Distribution of Green Hydrogen
After hydrogen storage is completed, the distribution process begins and a suitable type of transport is chosen. H2V transport logistics are formulated according to demand and destination, because when hydrogen must be exported or imported, different methods are used to reduce distribution costs without affecting its purity. It is extremely important that the logistics of its transport are well carried out, as this component can compromise the quality of the product and generate numerous losses (MICENA, 2021).
After transportation, there is distribution to the consumer. The final distribution of green hydrogen can be divided into two categories: energy utility and non-energy utility. The energetic usefulness of H refers to when it is used for the purpose of generating energy, and not as an intermediary between other energy sources. H2V is often used as an intermediary in its non-energy use, as it is used as a raw material (ABREU et al. , 2022 ; VEIGA, 2022).
The energy use of hydrogen includes, for example, transport vehicles that use fuel cells, combustion engines and portable equipment. Non-energy use refers to hydrogen used as a raw material in homes to air-condition the environment and in industries that are replacing fossil energy sources (MA et al ., 2023). Thus, as a result of the research carried out in this work, the creation of the following green hydrogen supply chain scheme is created as a suitable alternative in view of the aspects presented.
4 DIFFICULTIES AND OPPORTUNITIES
The storage and distribution of green hydrogen are the main challenges in its supply chain, as they require large energy consumption. Depending on the type of storage and volume transported, the energy used may be greater than the energy produced by hydrogen. This occurs because hydrogen has a low density compared to other fuels, which makes it less advantageous in terms of energy to meet large demands (BEZERRA, 2021).
However, it all depends on how the hydrogen is worked and moved. Currently, there is numerous research and work focused on further simplifying the green hydrogen supply chain. An example of this is research into compressed hydrogen gas cylinders. Nothing can be done about the low density of hydrogen, however, to facilitate transport, cylinders are being manufactured with increasingly lighter materials so that the amount of energy spent during hydrogen transport is reduced (NETO, 2021).
As a result, interconnecting the storage and distribution of green hydrogen was one of the biggest challenges in building the general supply chain model, as there are countless forms of storage and transportation that can vary according to its physical state and the demand required. by the consumer. Therefore, the most complex sector is monitoring operations because the slightest interference in chain planning can lead to large additional costs in production, as it is always necessary to have an exact survey of how much volume is being transported so that there is truly efficiency. energy in the process (NUNES, 2013).
Another major challenge is the great difference between the physical properties of hydrogen and other fossil fuels. Numerous studies show that materials become more easily fragile when they are in contact with H , which makes stock control and production even more difficult, as only certain materials under specific conditions can have contact without losing resistance. Furthermore, Brazil does not have sufficient standards to regulate the green hydrogen production process, which can cause insecurity in companies and deter possible private investments (AMARAL, 2021; MACEDO; PEYERL, 2022).
Additionally, it can also be seen that the green hydrogen market is still being created and requires a high demand for technical training, and Brazil has few qualified professionals for this industry. All of this reduces the competitiveness of green hydrogen in relation to other fuels and makes the decarbonization process in Brazil more complex (KAKRAN et al ., 2023).
However, current sources of financing for green hydrogen can make it a concrete reality in the Brazilian scenario. According to Bezerra (2021), investments are already being announced for the generation of green hydrogen within Brazilian territory, with expectations totaling US$ 22 billion in direct investments, concentrated in some main points: Porto do Pecém , in Ceará; Suape, in Pernambuco; as well as Açu, in Rio de Janeiro.
In addition to favorable financing towards Brazilian territory, points related to Brazilian competitiveness must also be taken into consideration. In addition to solar energy as an energy source, discussed in this work in the development part, another energy vector appears to be an interesting supporting factor in the generation of green hydrogen: wind energy. It is known that ports, especially with offshore wind energy generation structures, are great models for generating hydrogen, due to the ease, in terms of proximity, of generating hydrogen hubs (OLIVEIRA, 2022).
The technological and technical problem can be easily overcome over the years due to the numerous investments and research that have been made by the government and private companies in recent years, such as the National Hydrogen Program (PNH2) and the numerous Brazilian universities that have at least one project in the green hydrogen sector. All this investment and effort will result in a consequent decrease in production values and cheaper technologies applied, which is already estimated not only in Brazil, but also in Europe and Asia ( ABREU et al. , 2022) .
Green hydrogen has the potential to replace fossil fuels and help with decarbonization . It is important to make it economically viable through logistical studies, which can improve the supply chain, inventory control and operational resilience. Restructuring the green hydrogen supply chain can minimize difficulties and make it a viable fuel across the country.
So, to illustrate the green hydrogen scenario in Brazil, Figure 3 presents a summary of the challenges and opportunities related to the topic.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this work was to research and develop a supply chain for green hydrogen, analyzing in detail its energy matrix, production, storage, transport and distribution, also highlighting in relation to these topics the conditions to which hydrogen must be subjected, some financial impacts of this chain and the stage at which green hydrogen would be at the level of implementation in the job market
Furthermore, it was developed based on the difficulties faced in the development of the hydrogen chain when interconnecting storage and distribution, which should be done in a thorough and cautious manner, as there is a high associated energy expenditure, especially if done incorrectly. Furthermore, there are other issues that end up increasing costs in the supply chain, such as monitoring operations. As opportunities, there is the possibility of improving the supply chain presented with the aim of making it more competitive and minimizing such exposed difficulties.
It is also worth highlighting that green hydrogen represents an excellent alternative in relation to the current energy matrix in view of the great impacts caused by the non-renewable energy sources currently used, therefore, research must still be developed in order to continue the study of green hydrogen in Brazil, developing inventory control, storage management or operational resilience. In this way, it is expected that green hydrogen can replace fossil fuels over the years.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was carried out with the support of the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel - Brazil (CAPES) - Financing Code 001, the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), processes 407151/2021-4 and 309755/2021- 2 and the Dean of Student Affairs (PRAE) of the Federal University of Ceará NEMMOUR, A.; INAYAT, A.; JANAJREH, I.; GHENAI, C. Green hydrogen-based e-fuels (e-methane, e-methanol, e-ammonia) to support clean energy transition: A literature review. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Elsevier, 2023.
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Abstract
Purpose: This article aims to present and analyze the green hydrogen chain in Brazil, highlighting the main challenges in relation to its implementation, as well as the potential ones in the sector. Theoretical framework: The theoretical framework discusses the topic of green hydrogen, which is derived from renewable energy sources such as solar, wind and biomass, and presents possible forms of production, storage and possible distribution routes. Method: The methodology presented refers to the analysis of the green hydrogen supply chain in three stages: upstream, midstream and downstream. It focuses on the balance between production, storage and distribution, using clean energy sources. Production occurs through water electrolysis, with storage adapted to demand and efficient distribution. This approach aims to promote sustainability in the energy market. Results and conclusion: Analysis of the green hydrogen supply chain reveals challenges in storage and distribution due to high energy consumption. Despite the difficulties, opportunities such as investments in research and development and the potential of renewable energies offer ways to make green hydrogen a viable alternative. Restructuring the supply chain is essential to face these challenges and enable the replacement of fossil fuels, contributing to decarbonization and energy sustainability. Research implications: This work's main objective is to present the possibilities of green hydrogen, demonstrating the main characteristics, such as supply chain, difficulties in relation to production. Originality/value: This work presents a detailed approach to the complete green hydrogen chain, highlighting important points such as technological challenges and the need for greater investments. These are factors of great importance for the success of this energy transition.