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Abstract
Adherence to gender norms varies from person to person and depends on how much a person invests in gender ideals (Wood, Christensen, Hebl, & Rothgerber. 1997). Although some feminist theorists argue that the performance of gender is impossible to avoid if one is viewed as female or male (Butler, 1990; West & Zimmerman, 1995), it is important to examine the consequence for those who consciously engage in gender performances to meet gender ideals. Today men and women define competence and success in relatively gendered terms and may consciously choose to either invest or reject traditional gender ideals. In the present dissertation, the proactive and intentional pursuit of gender ideals and avoidance of opposite-sex ideals is explored among men and women. Across four studies, I explore the costs of such investment for psychological well-being as well as satisfaction in intimate relationships. The first study addresses how investment in gender ideals is tied to pursuing self-esteem from external sources to the detriment of well-being for men and women. The second study explores whether men and women who invest in gender ideals bring traditional norms of male dominance and female submission to their sexual relationships. The third study explores whether heterosexual men and women's investment in gender ideals undermines sexual autonomy and satisfaction through greater contingency in others' approval. The fourth study examines how investment in gender ideals fosters basing self-worth on one's romantic partner's approval weakening autonomy at the cost of sexual satisfaction and relationship satisfaction for both same-sex attracted and exclusively opposite-sex attracted women.
