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Introduction
With the advancement of internet technology and the widespread use of mobile smartphones, there has undergone a significant transformation in the way people communicate. Notably, the advent of social media has shifted the traditional one-way communication model to a bidirectional interactive model [49]. Enke and Borchers [38] asserted that individuals are no longer merely consumers of content on social media platforms, they also act as content producers. Applications such as TikTok, Instagram, Twitter, and Facebook have gradually become crucial channels for information retrieval and sharing [9]. In this context, Onofrei et al. [83] pointed out that interpersonal interactions have become more frequent and intimate, fostering deeper connections among users. These enhanced user relationships subtly influence consumer consumption behaviors. Particularly in the realm of online shopping, Shiu et al. [92] indicated that interpersonal relationships affect consumers’ choice of online channels. Concurrently, enterprises are leveraging the profound connections established on social media to conduct online marketing activities, achieving desired market effects. Among these, live-streaming shopping has become a popular trend in the online shopping industry.
In recent years, continuous advancements in live-stream technology have elevated its significance in people's daily lives. Particularly in China, platforms such as Douyin, Kuaishou, Taobao, and Xiaohongshu have integrated live-streaming functions into entertainment, education, gaming, and e-commerce, significantly impacting the lifestyles of Chinese users [74, 89, 106]. According to the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC), the number of live-streaming users in China reached 750.65 million in 2022, more than doubling since 2016 [33]. Moreover, the penetration rate of live-streaming in online activities among netizens increased by 23%, reaching 70.3% [33]. Given the extensive user base and high penetration rate, enterprises have keenly recognized the potential market value brought by live streaming. Increasingly, businesses are frequently utilizing live-stream functions on social media for product sales [76]. For instance, during Alibaba's Double Eleven pre-sale event on Taobao Live in 2020, the total transaction amount reached an impressive $7.5 billion within the first 30 min [10]. Similarly, a survey by AlixPartners [6] revealed that over two-thirds of Chinese consumers expressed an intention to shop via live-stream during the Double Eleven event in 2020. According to Statista [93], the gross merchandise value of China's live-streaming economy reached 3500 billion RMB in 2022, a rapid...