Lithofacies, provenance and diagenesis of Surajkund Formation, Central Narmada Basin, Narmadapuram District, Madhya Pradesh, India

Abstract

Surajkund Formation of Central Narmada Basin exhibits fining upward sequences of pebbly conglomerate, coarse-fine grained sandstone, siltstone and association of seven lithofacies, namely massive pebbly conglomerate, coarse-medium grained sandstone with large scale tabular cross bedding, massive coarse grained sandstone, coarse to medium grained sandstone with horizontal parallel bedding, fine grained sandstone with parallel lamination, fine grained sandstone with ripple lamination and siltstone, indicates their deposition in mixed load meandering river. Granulometric studies of Surajkund sediments also support the fluvial depositional environment. Soft sediment deformation structures documented in the siltstones suggest sediment liquification due to earthquake shocks. Abundant development of nodular, bedded calcretes and rhizoliths within these sediments are indicative of semi-arid climate and related subaerial exposure. These sediments are prominently lithic arenites, and clay mineralogy as well as geochemistry indicate deposition in the proximity of source, short distance of transport and mixed provenance of a variety of pre-Quaternary rocks such as Precambrian metamorphic rocks and granites, Vindhyan and Gondwana Supergroups, Deccan Trap basalt and laterite. Evidences of fresh water phreatic as well as vadose zone diagenesis linked to the semi-arid climatic conditions, together with subaerial exposure of these sediments, are seen in thin sections, which are supported by δ¹³C (av. −5.67%) and δ¹⁸O (av. −3.88%) values of calcretes. These values also suggest calcretes formed due to pedogenic and shallow groundwater processes in warm climate with C4-dominated vegetation. OSL date of one sample from Surajkund Formation gave an Ionian Age of Pleistocene Epoch.

Introduction

Quaternary Period refers to the youngest part of the Earth's history covering a time span of 2.6 my that is divisible into Pleistocene and Holocene epochs (Gradstein et al.2004; Preusser and Schluchter 2005; Gibbard and Head 2020). It provides a link between geological, archaeological, and human history. The Quaternary Period is important because it is characterised by glacial–interglacial fluctuations, human evolution and the carving of much of the present-day landscape (Singhavi and Kale 2009). Terrestrial Quaternary records represent a unique environment and the paleoenvironmental, paleontological, and paleoclimatic information derived from them forms an integral part of global understanding of climate change. The fluvial sediments and their morphology are representative of the memory of fluvial system (Knighton 1984; Panin et al.2020). Understanding sedimentary facies of terrestrial sedimentary sequence is most important as it is embedded with stratigraphically representative records (Schluchter 1992). Fluvial sediments are a crucial part of the Quaternary terrestrial records (Bridgland and Westaway 2014) and sedimentary facies association is a significant indicator of the climate and river patterns during the sedimentation (Chen et al.2020). In this article, an attempt is made to reconstruct the genetic history of fluvial sediments of Surajkund Formation of Quaternary succession of Narmada Basin.

Previous work

Narmada, the longest westerly flowing river in Central India, divides the Indian Shield into the Central Uplands towards the north and the Deccan Plateau to the south (Kathal 2018; Dhar et al.2020; Kumar et al.2020). Spectacular exposures of Quaternary sediments can be seen all along the Narmada basin from Jabalpur to the east of Harda (Tiwari and Bhai 1997). Deposition of the Quaternary succession in the Narmada and Tapti valleys is the result of reactivation of faults bounding Narmada Graben and the Tapi Graben, with Satpura as a horst mountain block (Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan 2008; Valdiya 2015; Valdiya and Sanwal 2017; Chattopadhyay et al.2020). Since 1833 CE, a wide ranging work with a focus on vertebrate palaeontology, archaeology and anthropology has been carried out on these sediments (Kale et al.2020 and references therein; Lal et al.2023). As far as stratigraphic work is concerned, lithostratigraphic classification of these deposits was attempted by Biswas and Dassarma (1986), Biswas et al. (1989) and Khan and Sonakia (1992). Based on several criteria such as order of superposition, erosional unconformity, nature of sediments, sedimentary structures, pedogenic characters, presence of ash layer and paleomagnetic signature, seven lithostratigraphic formations have been recognised by Tiwari and Bhai (1997). These are Pilikarar Formation, Dhansi Formation, Surajkund Formation, Baneta Formation, Hirdepur Formation, Bauras Formation and Ramnagar Formation in that descending order. These Quaternary formations have been correlated with that of Son, Tapti, Purna, Godavari, Mahanadi and Wainganga by Tiwari (2007). The work of Patnaik et al. (2009) gave new insights into geochronology, palaeoclimatology, and archaeological aspects of these Quaternary sediments. The geomorphologic and neotectonic aspects of Narmada Basin have also been studied by several researchers (e.g., Tiwari et al.1997; Chamyal et al.2002, 2022; Raj et al.2003; Sukumaran et al.2011; Sridhar and Chamyal 2014). Bhandari et al. (2005) studied the Late Pleistocene sedimentation in Lower Narmada Valley, which is comprised dominantly of overbank sediments and large sandy bedforms deposited by frequent migration of low sinuosity large river with high discharge levels across the alluvial plain. They further opined that both alluvial plain and earlier studied alluvial fan sediments suggest that the Narmada River has retained a large catchment since the last 100 ka. Laskar et al. (2010, 2013) performed stable isotope studies and ¹⁴C dating of Late Pleistocene and Holocene surface sediments and a paleosol sample. Raj (2008) reported the presence of volcanic ash within the Quaternary alluvial sediments of the Madhumati River and correlated this ash with Youngest Toba Tuff. Kale (2016) carried out detailed sedimentological work on Quaternary sediments and built up the history of Quaternary sedimentation in the Central Narmada Basin.

Surajkund Formation has been studied in great detail by several workers for its rich vertebrate fossil assemblages, including hominin fossils (Sonakia 1984; Haslam et al.2011; Sankhyan 2017) and a variety of Palaeolithic and Acheulian tools (Patnaik et al.2009). Based on the mammalian fossils assemblage of Quaternary sediments of Narmada Basin, Biswas (1997) has identified two faunal zones, i.e., (i) Lower Assemblage zone (Lower Pleistocene to Middle Pleistocene) and (ii) Upper Assemblage zone (Upper Pleistocene to Lower Holocene). Surajkund Formation belongs to the Lower Assemblage zone (Biswas 1997; Sonakia and Biswas 1998; Patnaik et al.2009). The Homo cranium recovered from Surajkund sediments at Hathnora (Sonakia 1984) has a fluorine/phosphate ratio of 7.53, indicating Middle Pleistocene age (Badam 2002; Chauhan 2008), consistent with Mid-Pleistocene fossils from Surajkund Formation (Sonakia and Biswas 1998; Chauhan 2008). Sankhyan (2017) reported a number of human postcranial remains, including a male and a female sacrum from cemented gravel beds of Surajkund Formation. Haslam et al. (2011) correlated the Homo erectus from Hathnora with the hominins in Son valley. Surajkund Formation is important in the South Asian prehistoric record and is extensively studied from archaeological, anthropological, paleontological and geochronological aspects; however, it has not received sedimentological attention as deserved, and inferences of sedimentological studies are reported in this article.

Description of lithofacies

Surajkund Formation is exposed in areas southeast of Narmadapuram around Nimsariya, Dhansi, and in cut-off meander of Narmada River (Burhi Narmada) near Bikori (figure 1b). Outcrops of these sediments at Hathnora, Surajkund, Sardarnagar, Jet, Bikori, and Khiria Ghat were studied in detail and prepared lithosections are depicted in figure 2. Surajkund Formation rests unconformably on Deccan Trap basalts at Hathnora (figure 2b) and on the red sandstone of Dhansi Formation in the cut-off meander of Narmada River (figure 2d). In all the studied localities, development of soil cover is noticed on the top of these sediments (figure 2). Surajkund Formation exhibits fining upward sequences of pebbly conglomerate, coarse to fine grained sandstone and siltstone. These sediments exhibit a gentle dip of 12° towards the northwest near Hathnora, while they are horizontally disposed in the rest of the area. Within the Surajkund Formation, development of seven different lithofacies is noticed.

Figure 1 [Images not available. See PDF.]

(a) Outline map of India showing the location of the study area. (b) Geological map of Surajkund area, Central Narmada basin (modified after Tiwari and Bhai 1997). SNNF: Son Narmada North Fault (after GSI 1993; Mishra 2015).

Figure 2 [Images not available. See PDF.]

Lithosections of Surajkund Formation, Central Narmada Basin.

Massive pebbly conglomerate

Greyish buff coloured pebbly conglomerate is present at the base of sequences as laterally discontinuous beds, which vary in thickness from 1 to 3 m. The clasts are subangular to rounded, the size of which varies from 1 to 9.5 cm. The clasts are of sandstone, conglomerate, basalt, quartzite, jasper, and vein quartz cemented by calcareous cement; hence represent polymictic conglomerate (figure 3a, b). In these conglomerates, laterally discontinuous thin lenses of parallel laminated fine grained sandstone (figure 3c) as well as ripple laminated fine grained sandstone (figure 3d) are observed in Sardarnagar lithosection (figure 2c). Large vertebrate fossils are observed within the pebbly conglomerate at Sardarnagar and Hathnora (figures 2b and 3e). Development of rhizoliths within the upper part of this facies is also noticed (figure 2). This lithofacies is observed to be passing upwards in coarse grained sandstone with large scale tabular cross bedding.

Figure 3 [Images not available. See PDF.]

(a) Massive pebbly conglomerate, Sardarnagar. (b) Close-up view of petromict pebbly conglomerate exhibiting subrounded clasts of sandstone, jasper, basalt, and vein quartz cemented by calcareous cement, Sardarnagar. (c) Lens of parallel laminated fine grained sandstone within the pebbly conglomerate, Sardarnagar. (d) Lens of ripple laminated fine grained sandstone within the pebbly conglomerate, Sardarnagar. (e) Mammalian fossil in pebbly conglomerate, Hathnora. (f) Grey coloured sandstone with well developed large scale tabular cross bedding, Surajkund. (g) Buff coloured coarse grained sandstone with development of horizontal parallel bedding, Khiria Ghat. (h) Yellowish fine grained sandstone exhibiting parallel lamination, Sardarnagar.

Coarse to fine grained sandstone with large scale tabular cross bedding

This lithofacies is well developed in Surajkund and Sardarnagar lithosections (figure 2a, c). Greyish coarse grained sandstone showing large scale tabular cross bedding is exhibited in figure 3(f). It occurs as an individual set and also as cosets. These sets are 0.5–1.5 m thick and are traceable up to 15 m laterally. The individual foreset varies in thickness from 2 to 4.5 cm. The composite nature of foresets is evident, and occasional presence of pebbly layer along foreset is noticed (figure 2a, c). In this sandstone, development of rhizoliths is frequently observed. This facies passes into ripple laminated sandstone facies at Sardarnagar (figure 2c) and massive sandstone facies at Surajkund (figure 2a).

Massive coarse grained sandstone

Yellowish buff massive sandstone lithofacies occurs in Surajkund and Jet lithosections (figure 2a, e) and is 1.5–4 m in thickness. In the lower part of this massive, yellowish-buff sandstone, a pebbly layer is noticed. Within these sandstones, laterally continuous, bedded buckled calcrete layers are also noticed (figure 2e).

Coarse grained sandstone with horizontal parallel bedding

This lithofacies is observed in Sardarnagar and Khiria Ghat lithosections (figure 2c, f), where yellowish buff coarse sandstone exhibits horizontal parallel bedding (figure 3g). Thickness of this facies varies from 0.30 to 1.5 m, and can be traced laterally for 15 m. Individual bed varies in thickness from 4 to 8 cm. This lithofacies passes upwards into fine grained sandstone with ripple lamination at Sardarnagar (figure 2c) and fine grained sandstone showing parallel lamination in Khiriaghat (figure 2f) lithosection.

Fine grained sandstone with parallel lamination

Yellowish coloured fine grained sandstone exhibits well developed horizontal parallel lamination (figure 3h). The thickness of this facies is 0.5–1 m. It is traceable laterally for about 5 m. The individual lamina varies in thickness from few mm to 1 cm. This facies overlies as well as underlies the ripple laminated sandstone (figure 2f).

Fine grained sandstone with ripple lamination

Pale yellowish fine grained sandstone showing the development of sets of ripple lamination is exhibited in figure 4(a) and the lower part of figure 3(h). This facies is well developed at Sardarnagar and Khiria Ghat and is up to 0.5 m thick. The sets are up to 4 cm thick, with very thin individual foresets. The ripple lamination sets are observed to be climbing one above the other, with both Lee and Stoss slope deposits preserved. The laminae can be traced uninterrupted between successive sets, representing supercritical climbing ripple lamination (Collinson et al.2006).

Figure 4 [Images not available. See PDF.]

(a) Yellowish fine grained sandstone exhibiting climbing ripple lamination, Khiria ghat. (b) Yellow siltstone showing horizontal parallel lamination, north of Hathnora. (c) Yellowish siltstone exhibiting climbing ripple lamination, Hathnora. (d) Pale yellowish siltstone layers exhibiting soft sediment folding consisting of broad syncline and narrow anticline, with inclined axial planes of anticlines; Khiria ghat. Note undeformed siltstone on top of deformed siltstone. (e) Pale yellowish siltstone exhibiting gentle warping underlain as well as overlain by undeformed layers, Hathnora.

Siltstone

Yellowish siltstone is observed in the uppermost part of all the lithosections (figure 2). It varies in thickness from 3.5 to 6.5 m. At places, thin layers of fine grained sandstone are noticed in the lower part of the siltstone exposed in Surajkund lithosection (figure 2a). In siltstones of Hatnora lithosection, a well developed parallel lamination is noticed (figure 4b). Yellowish siltstone exhibits well developed ripple laminations in which at least five sets stacked one above another are observed (figure 4c). In the lower part of figure 4(c), the symmetrical ripple with two well preserved crests and a trough in between them with well developed ripple lamination are present, representing supercritical climbing ripple lamination. The thickness of ripple laminated set is up to 2.5 cm and the individual foreset within them are very thin (figure 4c). Within these siltstones, development of nodular calcrete as well as rhizoliths is observed (figure 4c). Within the siltstone, soft sediment deformation structures like slump folds consisting of broad syncline and narrow anticline with disruption of layers (figure 4d) and warping (figure 4e) are noticed in Khiria Ghat (figure 2f) and Hathnora lithosections, respectively (figure 2b).

The calculated azimuth of the resultant paleocurrent vector, from large scale tabular cross bedding, as well as ripple lamination from Surajkund Formation, varies from the northwest at Surajkund lithosection to southwest at Sardarnagar lithosection (figure 1b).

Methods and techniques

From the aforesaid lithosections (figure 2), 50 representative samples were systematically collected. Thin sections of 18 well-cemented samples (matrix of conglomerate: KH-1 and 2, HT-1, SJ-2, SN-2; sandstone: KH-3, 4, 5, 6, HT-2 and 3, JET-2, SJ-3, 5, 6, SN-4, 5 and 6) were studied in detail under the optical microscope and the volume percentage composition was determined by using Point counter (table 1). Thirty six samples were subjected to grain size analysis (Carver 1971; Galehouse 1971; Ingram 1971). X-ray diffraction studies of clays separated from 11 samples were done using the Cu–Kα target on a Phillips X-ray diffractometer at Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun. Three samples (SJ-1-matrix of conglomerate, SJ-2-sandstone and SJ-4-siltstone) were subjected to geochemical analysis. Determination of major, trace and REE composition was carried out at the National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, using XRF (Axios, PAN analytical) and ICP-MS (Thermo X series 2), respectively. Loss on ignition (LOI) was determined at Wadia Institute of Himalyan Geology, Dehradun. Calculation of various weathering indices (table 2) was carried out using major oxide proportions. Ten samples of in situ calcretes and rhizoliths were subjected to C and O stable isotopic composition determination at CSIR-NGRI (National Geophysical Research Institute), Hyderabad, using Thermo Finnigan Delta plus XP Continuous Flow Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer (CF-IRMS) with attached preparation device Gas Bench II and robotic sampling arm (CG-PAL). With δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C values, the paleotemperatures for calcite precipitation (Friedman and O'neil 1977) as well as pCO₂ (Cerling 1999) for the samples were estimated respectively. For OSL dating, opaque cylindrical aluminium tubes were used for sample collection, following standard sampling precautions. At CSIR-NGRI, Hyderabad, OSL measurement of fine grained sandstone sample (SN-6B) was done using Automated Riso TL/OSL reader (model TL-DA-15, Bøtter-Jensen et al.2003). All the sample processing was done in subdued red light conditions. Sample was initially subjected to 1 N HCl and 30% H₂O₂ treatment. Quartz grains were then sieved (150–250 μm) and etched with 40% HF. 470 ± 30 nm blue LEDs were used for optical stimulation of quartz and OSL signal detection was done by using Hoya U-340 filter (7 mm). For OSL measurement and equivalent dose calculation, SAR protocol of Wintle and Murray (2000) was used. Following Aitken (1998), concentrations of U, Th and K were measured using ICP-MS and XRF to determine the annual dose rate.

Table 1. Volume percent composition of sediments of Surajkund Formation.

Sample no.	Matrix	Cement			Quartz				Feldspar
		Micrite	Sparite	Total	Monocrystalline		Polycrystalline	Total	K Feld.	Plagioclase	Total
					Undulose	Non- undulose
SN-6	–	1.51	61.61	63.12	4.60	18.55	1.88	25.03	1.42	1.10	2.52
SN-5	–	5.04	43.00	48.04	6.21	27.2	6.26	39.67	3.44	0.49	3.93
SN-4	1.09	45.65	18.05	64.79	2.21	14.24	2.30	18.75	1.30	0.60	1.90
SN-2	–	-	56.08	56.08	3.56	22.86	3.68	30.10	2.83	0.51	3.34
SJ-6	–	4.53	34.06	38.59	10.34	21.7	8.35	40.39	1.98	–	1.98
SJ-5	–	6.85	33.73	40.58	8.42	25.54	7.77	41.73	2.24	–	2.24
SJ-3	–	8.83	37.92	46.75	9.02	25.5	5.51	40.03	3.63	–	3.63
SJ-2	–	30.92	5.33	36.25	7.31	26.34	8.28	41.93	3.35	0.22	3.57
JET-2	–	34.00	13.34	47.34	1.20	3.72	13.97	18.89	3.63	1.11	4.74
HT-3	–	20.09	24.21	44.3	4.43	16.77	4.75	25.95	10.75	1.11	11.86
HT-2	0.52	8.91	47.21	56.12	4.11	19.54	9.55	33.20	1.95	0.69	2.64
HT-1	–	15.25	33.91	49.16	2.18	10.28	3.97	16.43	4.25	0.78	5.03
KH-6	–	9.59	46.02	55.61	2.94	25.1	1.80	29.84	1.02	0.67	1.69
KH-5	–	1.96	41.76	43.72	1.16	29.29	2.44	32.89	2.09	–	2.09
KH-4	–	9.59	45.07	54.66	2.35	19.12	4.72	26.19	3.09	0.26	3.35
KH-3	–	16.44	43.76	60.2	0.73	20.25	4.36	25.34	0.92	–	0.92
KH-2	–	16.55	31.06	47.61	-	27.08	6.14	33.22	1.88	–	1.88
KH-1	–	8.55	46.18	54.73	0.78	22.79	6.14	29.71	1.71	0.27	1.98
Average	0.09	13.57	36.79	50.42	3.97	20.88	5.66	30.52	2.86	0.43	3.29

Sample no.	Unstable lithic fragments	Pyroxene	Clay pellet	Mica	Volcanic glass	Bioclast	Accessories
SN-6	6.89	0.15	0.73	0.12	0.46	–	0.96
SN-5	6.41	0.22	0.58	–	0.34	–	0.53
SN-4	13.14	0.10	–	–	0.80	–	0.50
SN-2	8.55	–	1.36	–	0.23	–	0.34
SJ-6	18.84	–	–	–	–	–	0.20
SJ-5	14.88	–	–	0.32	–	–	0.25
SJ-3	8.46	–	0.82	–	–	–	0.31
SJ-2	17.42	–	–	0.22	0.26	–	0.34
JET-2	27.99	0.32	–	–	0.30	–	0.42
HT-3	15.82	–	1.74	–	–	–	0.32
HT-2	6.23	0.21	0.99	–	–	–	0.09
HT-1	26.70	–	1.34	–	1.00	–	0.34
KH-6	11.51	–	0.20	–	0.08	0.20	0.86
KH-5	20.66	0.11	0.23	–	–	–	0.29
KH-4	18.50	–	–	–	–	–	0.15
KH-3	13.42	–	–	–	–	–	0.12
KH-2	16.80	0.34	–	0.14	–	–	–
KH-1	13.13	0.13	–	–	–	–	0.32
Average	14.74	0.09	0.44	0.04	0.19	0.01	0.35

Table 2. Major oxide (wt.%) composition and weathering indices of sediments of Surajkund Formation.

Sample no.	SJ-1	SJ-2	SJ-4	Average
Oxide
SiO2	26.44	22.13	54.07	34.21
Al2O3	2.24	3.71	13.45	6.47
TiO2	0.21	0.47	1.86	0.85
Fe2O3	2.47	4.34	10.74	5.85
MnO	0.11	0.21	0.14	0.15
MgO	0.82	1.00	2.19	1.34
CaO	37.08	36.24	2.69	25.34
Na2O	0.17	0.22	0.71	0.37
K2O	0.38	0.42	1.32	0.71
P2O5	0.08	0.09	0.11	0.09
LOI	30.01	31.17	12.71	24.63
Sum	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00
Weathering indices
CIA	69.59	76.08	78.13	74.60
PIA	76.39	82.08	83.75	80.74
CIW	79.88	83.93	85.23	83.01
CIW’	88.82	91.26	92.03	90.70
ICV	2.25	1.99	1.39	1.88

CIA = (Al₂O₃/Al₂O₃+Na₂O+K₂O+CaO*) × 100 (Nesbitt and Young 1982) PIA = [(Al₂O₃ − K₂O)/((Al₂O₃ − K₂O) + CaO* + Na₂O)] × 100 (Fedo et al.1995), CIW=[Al₂O₃/(Al₂O₃ + CaO* + Na₂O)] × 100 (Harnois 1988), CIW’ = [Al₂O₃/(Al₂O₃ + Na₂O)] × 100 (Cullers 2000), ICV = (Fe₂O₃ + K₂O + Na₂O + CaO + MgO + MnO + TiO₂)/Al₂O₃ (Cox et al.1995).

Results

Thin sections

In thin sections of Surajkund Formation, an appreciable amount of calcium carbonate cement (av. 50.42%) along with a negligible amount of detrital matrix (av. 0.09%) is present (table 1). The thin sections consist of framework constituents, namely quartz, unstable lithic fragments, K-feldspars and plagioclase, clay pellets, volcanic glass, augite, micas, bioclast and accessories; hence, these represent lithic arenite (Okada 1971; figure 5a). In the Qm–F–Lt ternary plot (Dickinson 1985), these sediments plot within quartzose recycled to lithic recycled field (figure 5b). Amongst the quartz, monocrystalline quartz (av. 24.85%) is in much greater proportion compared to polycrystalline quartz (av. 5.66%). The quartz grains are subangular to subrounded and show size variation from fine to coarse sand, with a major proportion of medium sand sized grains. The quartz grains contain cracks, which sometimes are embayed by calcium carbonate and clay, while inclusions of mica, tourmaline, and opaques are also noticed in the quartz grains. Polycrystalline quartz grains present are medium to coarse sand sized and their varieties are shown in figure 6(a). In general, K-feldspar (av. 2.86%) is in greater proportion than plagioclase feldspar (av. 0.43%) within these thin sections. Unstable lithic fragments (av. 14.74%) are volumetrically abundant framework constituents next to quartz, and these include fine grained ferruginous sandstone, ferruginous siltstone, micaceous quartzite, laterite, granite, diorite, basalt, phyllite and muscovite schist (figure 6b1–b15). Accessories (av. 0.35%) present are hornblende, tourmaline, garnet, magnetite and ilmenite.

Figure 5 [Images not available. See PDF.]

(a) Triangular diagram showing composition of Surajkund sediments (after Okada 1971). A1. Quartz arenite, A2. Quartzose arenite, A3. Feldspathic arenite, A4. Lithic arenite and m. monomineralic field. (b) Qm–F–Lt Ternary diagram for Surajkund sediments (after Dickinson 1985). Qm. Monocrystalline quartz, F. Feldspar and Lt. Unstable lithic fragments + polycrystalline quartz.

Figure 6 [Images not available. See PDF.]

(a1, 2, 3) Coarse sand sized polycrystalline quartz consisting of large number of varying sized constituent grains with irregular, sutured grain contact. (a4) Polycrystalline quartz grain consisting of large number of equant quartz grains with interlocking texture. (a5) Polycrystalline quartz consisting of bimodal grain sized quartz, with presence of dusty inclusions within larger elongated quartz grain. (a6) Parallel preferred orientation of elongated quartz grains in polycrystalline quartz grain. (a7) Polycrystalline quartz consisting of bent, elongated, strained quartz grains representing mylonitic texture. (a8) Fibrous chalcedony fragment showing fans of radiating crystals. (a9) Fine grained chert. (a10) Mottled chert. (a11) Spherulititc chert. (a12) Pale yellowish-brown banded jasper. (b1) Subrounded fine grained sandstone fragment consisting of angular to subrounded quartz grains floating in reddish brown clayey matrix. (b2) Subrounded, elongated pale brownish siltstone containing few silt size quartz grains floating in silty-clayey matrix. (b3) Elongated coarse sand size fragment of micaceous quartzite consisting of more or less equant grains of quartz and flakes of muscovite. (b4) Coarse sand size micaceous quartzite fragment consisting of two elongated quartz grains with irregular grain contacts, together with muscovite and biotite flakes. (b5) Well rounded dark reddish-brown laterite fragment exhibits pitted appearance. (b6) Coarse sand size subrounded granitic rock fragment consisting of quartz, microcline, perthite and few specks of mica. (b7) Granitic rock fragment with myrmekitic texture. (b8) Fine sand size fragment consisting of augite and quartz probably representing diorite. (b9–13) Varieties of basalt fragments. (b14) Elongated medium sand size fragment of phyllite consisting of pale brownish biotite flakes and elongated fine grained quartz and exhibiting feeble crenulations. (b15) Coarse sand size fragment of mica schist consisting of elongated muscovite flakes and elongated quartz showing preferential orientation.

Within the calcareous cement, both micritic calcite and sparry calcite cement are present, of which sparry calcite cement (av. 36.79%) predominates the micritic calcite cement (av. 13.57%). The poorly sorted framework grains are seen to be floating in the sparry calcite cement (figure 7a). Micritic calcite is commonly seen as well developed caliche nodules that mostly lack a nucleus and are of various shapes and sizes. These nodules show circumgranular cracks with carbonaceous clay infiltrated within them (figure 7b and c). These caliche nodules display development of thin, isopachous fringes of micritic calcite around them and such fringes are bounded by coarse mosaic of blocky sparry calcite (figure 7c). In recycled caliche nodules, detrital grains of quartz, feldspar, glass and opaques are noticed, and around these detrital grains, isopachous rims of micrite are seen, which in turn are surrounded by clayey micrite and the entire nodule is finally bounded by sparry calcite cement (figure 7d). Dense crystalline mosaic of sparry calcite occupying the intergranular pores is also observed in these thin sections (figure 7e). Occasionally, within the caliche nodules, irregular fenestrae filled with microspars of calcite are present (figure 7f). Alveolar texture consists of a series of irregular, elongated pores, which are lined by microspar, is also seen in these thin sections (figure 7g). Development of micritic soil pisoid with the presence of detrital grains exhibiting concentric lamination, circumgranular cracks and infiltration of carbonaceous clay (figure 7h) is seldom seen. Rarely in these thin sections, micritic ooids ranging in size from 420 to 430 μm are observed (figure 7i, j). These ooids have clayey micritic as well as micritic calcite nuclei and are surrounded by concentric micritic laminations of variable thickness. One of the ooids with four concentric lamina exhibits the presence of carbonaceous as well as pale brownish clay (figure 7i), and another variant of ooid consists of six concentric laminae, where the third lamina is pale brownish clay showing radial fabric of uneven thickness. Both the micritic ooids show a discontinuous coating of pale brownish-black clay (figure 7i and j).

Figure 7 [Images not available. See PDF.]

(a) Poorly sorted framework constituents floating in sparry calcite cement (BCN). (b) Reniform micritic caliche nodule with circumgranular cracks, floating in sparry calcite cement (PPL). (c) Presence of carbonaceous clay within the micritic caliche nodules (PPL). (d) Close-up of recycled caliche nodule consisting of detrital grains floating in clayey micrite, which in turn is surrounded by clear sparry calcite cement. Note development thin isopachous rims of micrite around the framework grains within the nodule (BCN). (e) Mosaic of clear blocky calcite cement (BCN). (f) Clayey micritic caliche nodule with irregular fenestrae filled with microspars of calcite. Note partial bladed blocky calcite rim around the caliche nodule (BCN). (g) Alveolar texture consisting of irregular pores partially filled with microspars of calcite (BCN). (h) Micritic soil pisoid exhibiting concentric lamination, presence of detrital grains and carbonaceous clay (PPL). (i) Micritic ooid with concentric laminations around micritic nucleus. Note the presence of pale brownish clay along the laminations as well as across the lamination and as discontinuous outer lining (PPL). (j) Micritic ooid exhibiting concentric lamination, with presence of brownish clay layer showing radial fabric (PPL).

Granulometric studies

In the granulometric studies, Surajkund sediments typically show polymodal grain size distribution with a wide range of grain size classes (−5.50 to >10.0 Phi). These sediments are mostly poorly sorted (av. 2.16 Phi), finely skewed (av. 0.32 Phi) and of leptokurtic (av. 1.81 Phi) nature. The presence of better sorted saltation and surface creep populations and poorly sorted suspension population is seen on their log probability plots (Visher 1969).

X-ray diffraction studies

Clays separated from sediments of Surajkund Formation show the presence of illite (3.34 dÅ – 100%, 3.33 dÅ – 100%, 3.32 dÅ – 100%, 3.10 dÅ 31%) and kaolinite (7.20 dÅ – 71% to 92%, 3.35 dÅ – 86% to 100%, 1.66 dÅ – 19%, and 1.49 dÅ – 16 to 22%) with minor montmorillonite (4.50 dÅ 78%, 2.50 dÅ – 36%).

Geochemistry

The major, trace and rare earth element composition of Surajkund sediments is given in tables 2 and 3, respectively. On the diagram of SiO₂ against total Al₂O₃+Na₂O+K₂O (Suttner and Dutta 1986), these sediments plot within the field of arid climatic conditions and show low chemical maturity (figure 8a). For these sediments, the provenance discrimination plots (Roser and Korsch 1988) indicate varied source, i.e., mafic, intermediate igneous and quartzose sedimentary (figure 8b and c). On A–(C+N)–K triangular plot (Nesbitt and Young 1984, 1989) and (A+K)–C–N ternary plot (Fedo et al.1995), these sediments show moderate to intense source weathering (figure 8d, e). The moderate to intense source weathering (figure 8d and e) is also indicated by their CIA (av. 74.60) and PIA (av. 80.74), while their ICV values (av. 1.88) indicate their chemical immaturity and compositional variation (Cox et al.1995) due to mixed provenance. To differentiate between sediments deposited in various tectonic setups, a multi-dimensional diagram based on major oxide-discriminant functions has been created by Verma and Amstrong-Altrin (2013). Verma and Armstrong-Altrin (2016) have also defined two major- and trace-element-based linear tectonic discrimination diagrams. In these diagrams, Surajkund sediments are seen to be plotted in passive margin continental rift field (figure 8f, g and h). The trace element distribution in these sediments is exhibited in figure 9(a). In general, with the decrease in grain size, transition trace elements, HFSE and LILE seem to be increasing (table 3, figure 9a). Chondrite normalised (Lodders and Fegley 1998) REE values of these sediments are given in table 3 and the REE distribution pattern is exhibited in figure 9(b). Surajkund Formation sediments exhibit high La/Yb ratio (av. 9.80) reflecting fractionated REE pattern (Xie et al.2017) with enrichment of LREE, reflected in La/Sm ratio (av. 3.65; Tang et al.2020) and depleted HREE (Gd/Yb av. 2.29; Banerjee and Banerjee 2010) with negative europium anomaly (table 3). Except for sample SJ-4 (siltstone), the samples from Surajkund Formation show negative Ce anomaly.

Table 3. Trace element and chondrite normalized (Lodders and Fegley 1998) Rare Earth Element composition (ppm) of sediments of Surajkund Formation.

Sample no.	SJ-1	SJ-2	SJ-4	Average
Element
Li	4.50	6.23	27.99	12.91
Be	2.75	3.61	10.03	5.46
Sc	4.55	6.86	21.07	10.83
Cr	67.59	99.75	245.30	137.55
V	27.96	45.53	89.35	54.28
Co	11.98	17.48	37.58	22.35
Ni	60.98	61.05	60.67	60.90
Cu	32.19	42.89	126.90	67.33
Zn	25.08	31.38	77.12	44.53
Ga	11.04	13.97	33.53	19.51
Sr	22.07	23.84	95.98	47.30
Rb	100.80	98.03	112.00	103.61
Cs	1.27	1.73	7.37	3.46
U	1.38	1.73	2.04	1.72
Ba	266.20	345.70	487.10	366.33
Th	2.28	4.92	10.98	6.06
Y	59.01	87.43	22.39	56.28
Zr	27.31	40.82	155.60	74.58
Nb	4.54	7.75	24.80	12.36
Sn	3.10	6.42	2.24	3.92
Sb	0.23	0.45	0.51	0.39
Pb	2.81	2.79	3.29	2.96
Th/Sc	0.50	0.72	0.52	0.58
Cr/Th	29.64	20.27	22.34	24.09
Th/Co	0.19	0.28	0.29	0.25
Element
La	152.94	266.26	133.40	184.20
Ce	69.42	104.95	160.56	111.65
Pr	94.53	154.04	87.01	111.86
Nd	65.67	103.59	77.67	82.31
Sm	43.53	69.67	36.93	50.04
Eu	31.89	51.74	22.53	35.39
Gd	39.01	62.70	28.29	43.33
Tb	30.59	49.19	22.08	33.95
Dy	24.44	39.21	16.97	26.87
Ho	22.93	36.18	14.82	24.64
Er	22.58	35.43	15.21	24.41
Tm	19.48	30.12	14.44	21.35
Yb	16.68	25.46	13.68	18.60
Lu	16.52	24.84	13.24	18.20
ΣREE	650.20	1053.37	656.83	786.80
La/Lu	9.26	10.72	10.08	10.02
Eu/Sm	0.73	0.74	0.61	0.70
Eu/Eu*	0.77	0.78	0.70	0.75
La/Yb	9.17	10.46	9.76	9.80
Gd/Yb	2.34	2.46	2.07	2.29
La/Sm	3.51	3.82	3.61	3.65
Y/Ho	2.57	2.42	1.51	2.17

Figure 8 [Images not available. See PDF.]

(a) Bivariate plot of SiO₂ vs. Al₂O₃+Na₂O+K₂O (Suttner and Dutta 1986) for Surajkund sediments. (b) Discriminant function diagram for the provenance signatures of Surajkund sediments using major element ratios. (c) Discriminant function diagram for the provenance signatures of Surajkund sediments using raw oxides (both b and c, after Roser and Korsch 1988). (d) (Na₂O+CaO*)–Al₂O₃–K₂O diagram showing the provenance weathering Trends of Surajkund sediments (modified after Nesbitt and Young 1984, 1989; data for granite, basalt and granodiorite after Le Maitre 1976; Purevjav and Roser 2013). (e) CaO*–(Al₂O₃+K₂O)–Na₂O diagram showing the weathering trends (modified after Nesbitt and Young 1982, Positions of plagioclase feldspars after Purevjav and Roser 2013). An, By, La, Ad, Og, Ab: anorthite, bytownite, labradorite, andesine, oligoclase, and albite, respectively. (f) Discriminant function multidimensional diagrams for Surajkund sediments, the probability boundaries for 70% and 90% probabilities are also shown as dotted and dashed curves, respectively (Verma and Amstrong-Altrin 2013). (g, h) Major and trace element-based multidimensional discriminant function diagrams of Surajkund sediments (after Verma and Armstrong-Altrin 2016).

Figure 9 [Images not available. See PDF.]

(a) Trace element distribution pattern in Surajkund sediments. (b) Chondrite normalized rare earth element patterns of Surajkund sediments.

Stable isotope concentrations of C and O of calcretes, calculated paleotemperature (Robinson et al.2002) and pCO₂ values (Cerling 1999; Ekart et al.1999) are displayed in table 4. Calcite precipitation paleotemperature for Surajkund Formation averages 32.43°C (table 4). The pCO₂ values for the studied calcrete samples are in general, low (av. 788.93 ppmV; table 4).

Table 4. Stable isotopic composition of sediments of Surajkund Formation with calculated values of paleotemperature (Friedman and O’neil 1977) and pCO₂ (Cerling 1999).

Sample no.	Type	δ13CV-PDB	δ18OV-PDB	T (°C)	pCO2 (ppmV)*
SJ-4B	Rhizolith	–6.32	–4.68	36.59	610.4
SJ-4	Nodular calcrete	–6.45	–4.46	35.41	584.9
HT-6	Nodular calcrete	–8.00	–3.86	32.30	322.5
HT-5	Nodular calcrete	–8.23	–3.82	32.10	289.1
SN-9	Nodular calcrete	–4.13	–3.99	32.99	1157.4
SN-8	Nodular calcrete	–4.54	–3.85	32.25	1034.4
SN-4	Bedded calcrete	–4.49	–3.93	32.69	1048.8
KH-9	Nodular calcrete	–4.61	–3.26	29.32	1014.5
KH-6	Bedded calcrete	–4.86	–3.03	28.18	946.1
KH-5	Bedded calcrete	–5.11	–3.89	32.49	881.2
Average		–5.67	–3.88	32.43	788.93

*pCO₂ estimated using atmospheric carbon calibrated from pedogenic organic matter (δ¹³C_a=δ¹³Cr+18.67/1.1, Arens et al.2000) in which δ¹³Cr is derived from average of Ekart et al. (1999).

OSL dating

OSL age for fine-grained sandstone sample collected from the middle portion of Sardarnagar section (SN-6B, figure 2) is 145.72 ± 16.09 Ka (OSL measurement in 2014 CE). Hence, the depositional age of this sample is the Ionian Age of Pleistocene Epoch (Head et al.2020).

Discussion

Surajkund Formation exhibits fining upward sequences of pebbly conglomerate, coarse to fine grained sandstone and siltstone. The lithofacies association described earlier is suggestive of deposition of these sediments in mixed load meandering streams (Reineck and Singh 1980; Davis 1983; Reading 2001, 2006; Miall 2006, 2014; Ghinassi et al.2014; Garo et al.2015). The petromict pebbly conglomerate facies represent channel lag deposits formed under the conditions of a lower flow regime (Allen 1964, 1970; Reading 2006; Gazi and Mountney 2009; Miall 2014). The presence of lenses of parallel laminated and ripple laminated fine grained sandstone within the pebbly conglomerate is considered to be formed by the migration of plane beds and down current migration of asymmetrical ripples within the channel, respectively (Allen 1963; Miall 2006). The conglomerates pass upward into coarse to fine grained sandstones exhibiting large scale tabular cross bedding representing point bar deposits (Allen 1965; Jackson 1976; Kale et al.2020; Srivastava et al.2020). The overlying siltstone, showing parallel lamination as well as ripple lamination, represents deposits of overbank floodplain (Reineck and Singh 1980; Hall and Peterson 2013; Ghinassi et al.2014). The horizontal parallel bedded sandstone is considered to be formed due to aggradations in upper flow regime plane beds in shallow waters near the point bars (Miall 2006; Reading 2006). Profuse development of bedded calcrete, nodular calcrete along with rhizoliths indicates a semi-arid climate and associated exposure of these sediments subaerially (Reading 2006; Genise et al.2010, 2013; Srivastava et al.2019). The granulometric studies of the Surajkund Formation also suggest a fluvial depositional environment for these sediments (Visher 1969; Reineck and Singh 1980).

The soft sediment deformation structures in siltstone, represented by folds with broad synclines and narrow anticlines, are attributed to sediment fluidisation due to earthquake shocks (Bhattacharya and Bandyopadhay 1998; Moretti and Sabato 2007; Alsop and Marco 2011; Perucca et al.2014; Kale et al.2016, 2022; He et al.2021). The slump folds are observed in overbank floodplain sediments, the mechanism of their formation is not environment-dependant, undeformed beds overly and underly them perpetually, their lateral traceability is over a distance of 9 m and the lithosections belonging to Khiria Ghat and Hathnora of Surajkund Formation are adjacent to Son–Narmada North Fault (figure 1b). The observed soft sediment deformation structure thus represents ‘seismite’ (Seilacher 1984; Greb et al.2002; Wheeler 2002).

Surajkund sediments are dominantly lithic arenite, derived from mixed sources (figure 5a and b). Their mineralogically and texturally immature nature can be accredited to near-source deposition and short distances of transport. The fresh and altered feldspars indicate provenance consisting of Deccan Trap basalt and Precambrian granitic areas of high relief, undergoing rapid erosion in warm climates (Pettijohn 1984). The grains of polycrystalline quartz having equant individual grains seem to be derived from quartzites (Basu et al.1975; Blatt 1992), while the ones having strained individual grains showing preferred orientation and sutured contacts suggest their derivation from the Precambrian gneisses (Young 1976; Shar et al.2021). Polycrystalline quartz grain with bent, elongated, strained quartz grains may have derived from Precambrian mylonites (Spalletti et al.2023). Spherulitic, mottled chert and fibrous chalcedony can be traced back to amygdales in Deccan Trap basalts. Banded jasper has two probable sources, namely polymictic conglomerate of Jurassic Bagra Formation from Satpura Gondwana Basin (Casshyap and Khan 2000; Dhurandhar and Ranjan 2020) and banded hematite jasper from Mahakoshal Group (Guha et al.2022). The presence of accessories such as detrital muscovite, garnet and hornblende indicate derivation from metapelites, metavolcanics of the Mahakoshal Group, while augite and volcanic glass are derived from Deccan Trap basalts. Fragments of sandstone and siltstone (figure 6b) are sourced from Vindhyan Supergroup and/or Gondwana Supergroup. These unstable lithic fragments and accessories thus indicate the derivation of Surajkund sediments from a highly mixed provenance of pre-Quaternary rocks exposed in Narmada Valley (Jain et al.1995).

Within the calcium carbonate cement binding the framework grains, features such as evenly distributed blocky calcite forming a crystalline mosaic, bladed blocky calcite crystals forming isopachous fringes surrounding the framework grains and micritic caliche nodules are signatures of meteoric phreatic zone diagenesis (Wright and Tucker 1991; Hall et al.2004; Wright 2007; Berra et al.2019). In the thin sections of sediments of Surajkund Formation, the framework constituents float in unevenly distributed micritic cement, possess corroded irregular borders and exhibit the development of isopachous rims of micrite and/or microspar around them, which are characteristic features of meteoric vadose zone diagenesis (Esteban and Klappa 1983; Wright and Tucker 1991; Beckner and Mozley 1998). Embayment of calcium carbonate cement along the cracks of detrital grains, alveolar texture, presence of micritic caliche nodules, fenestrae, and permeation of carbonaceous clay are the results of vadose zone diagenesis and subaerial exposure associated with it (Esteban and Klappa 1983; Foos 1991; Purvis and Wright 1991; Singh et al.2007; Alonso-Zarza and Wright 2010; Elidrissi et al.2017; Eren et al.2018). Additionally, the concentrically laminated micritic pisoid displaying circumgranular cracking indicates vadose zone diagenesis with repeated wetting and drying (Bain and Foos 1993; Brasier 2011). Formation of the observed freshwater ooids has been explained by mechanisms such as early diagenetic groundwater precipitate (Siesser 1973; Strong and Pearce 1995; Brasier 2011) and carbonate precipitation enhanced by photosynthetic microbes (Miller and James 2012; Pacton et al.2012). The observed micritic ooid having micritic calcite nucleus surrounded by concentric micritic laminations of variable thickness, occluding the pore space between the detrital grains is considered as early diagenetic groundwater precipitate (Strong and Pearce 1995); however, microbial contribution (Pacton et al.2012; Miller and James 2012) can also be considered, as it provides alternative mechanism apart from turbulent hydrodynamic conditions. The variant of aforesaid ooid consists of six concentric laminations around the micritic calcite nucleus, where the third lamina is of pale brownish clay showing radial fabric of uneven thickness. Robins et al. (2015) proposed a new approach for the genesis of such ooids, suggesting that crystal growth can move ooids tiny, incremental distances over time and phyllosilicates are an important genetic component. According to Robins et al. (2015), such ooids form via (1) mineralisation during the evaporation of solutions held by surface tension around the nucleus, (2) plastic behaviour and hydration of prevalent, pedogenic, fibrous phyllosilicates precipitating together with pedogenic calcite, and (3) pedogenic carbonate during soil water evaporation causing tiny successive movements due to crystallisation pressure.

In the Central Narmada Basin, Kale et al. (2022) have recognised five distinct provenance events for Quaternary succession based on heavy mineral assemblages, garnet geochemistry, and paleocurrent data. They attributed the changes in the provenance of these sediments to the unroofing of various source lithologies due to active tectonics of Narmada rift. Heavy mineral assemblage of Surajkund Formation contains predominant augite, has low ZTR index and thus indicates mineralogical immaturity of these sediments (Mange and Wright 2007; Kale et al.2022). The heavy mineral assemblages, as well as provenance-sensitive indices described by Kale et al. (2022), match well with thin section studies in the present work and evidently suggest the derivation of Surajkund sediments from mixed provenance with Deccan Trap basalts as a major contributor and also inputs from Precambrian granites and gneisses, metapelites and metavolcanics of Mahakoshal Group, and ultramafic intrusive rocks, present in the east, southeast and southern portions of study area (Jain et al.1995; Das et al.2007; Kale et al.2022). Illite and kaolinite with minor montmorillonite in the clays of Surajkund Formation coupled with westerly and southwesterly paleocurrent direction suggests derivation from soils developed over Precambrian metapelites and Deccan Trap basalts (Das et al.2007) exposed in Narmada Basin, towards the east (Jain et al.1995). Association of smectite with the development of calcrete in Surajkund sediments indicates semi-arid climatic conditions, where average annual precipitation may be up to 100–500 mm (Khadkikar et al.2000; Elidrissi et al.2018).

The high SiO₂/(Al₂O₃+Na₂O+K₂O) ratio (av. 6.02), together with low content of feldspars in Surajkund sediments, indicate deposition in arid climatic conditions (Suttner and Dutta 1986). The discriminant function biplots (Roser and Korsch 1988) show varied provenance, supporting thin-section studies. CIA is a common proxy used for gaging the intensity of chemical weathering of the source of sediment (Wang et al.2020) along with CIW/CIW’ (Harnois 1988). The degree of plagioclase alteration is indicated by PIA (Shen et al.2020), while a proxy for chemical and, thus, mineralogical maturity is ICV (Cox et al.1995). These weathering indices combined together indicate the nature of sediment source and its weathering, as well as degree of removal of mobile cations (Jafarzadeh and Hosseini-Barzi 2008; Wang et al.2020). CIA is related to temperature and humidity and indicates predominant conditions of weathering (Nesbitt and Young 1982, 1984; Bibi et al.2020; Shen et al.2020). In modern river basins of the world, it is seen that intense weathering in warm and humid climates increases the CIA (Li and Yang 2010; Wang et al.2017, 2020). CIA of Surajkund sediments (av. 74.60) fits well within the global river sediment ranges (48–90, av. 72; Wang et al.2020) and is interpreted to indicate moderate to intense source rock weathering (Ohta and Arai 2007) in dry semi-arid conditions (Xie et al.2017; Bibi et al.2020), also supported by other weathering indices (table 2). PIA values of Surajkund sediments (av. 80.74) indicate intense weathering of feldspars (Fedo et al.1995), thereby supporting the thin section studies. The lithic arenitic nature of these sediments is supported by the ICV values (av. 1.88), indicating chemical immaturity related to diverse provenance (Cox et al.1995). The Surajkund sediments plot in a passive margin continental rift field (Verma and Amstrong-Altrin 2013, 2016).

The values of Th/Sc, Cr/Th, and Th/Co in sediments of Surajkund Formation indicate derivation from mixed provenance such as mafic igneous, felsic igneous, and sedimentary (Ali et al.2014; Tao et al.2014) while higher Th and Ba content than that of carbonates indicates proximity of igneous provenance (Mason and Moore 1982), i.e., from Deccan Trap basalts and related intrusions from Narmada basin (Mahoney 1988; Sheth et al.2009). U (av. 1.72 ppm) and Sr (av. 47.30 ppm) contents support the meteoric diagenesis experienced by these sediments (Flugel 1982).

The REE composition of Surajkund sediments shows right inclined REE pattern and negative Eu anomaly, similar to UCC (McLennan 1989; Soureiyatou et al.2020), while negative Ce anomaly suggests derivation from basalts (Henderson 1984). ΣREE of these sediments (av. 786.80 ppm), La/Lu (av. 10.02) and Eu/Sm (av. 0.70) are in the range of average granites (Henderson 1984), indicating inputs from granitic provenance also, which is evident from the basaltic (figure 6b9–b13) and granitic rock fragments present in thin sections (figure 6b6 and b7). It can be summarised that the major oxide, trace element and REE compositions of sediments of the Surajkund Formation suggest derivation from mixed provenance and prevalence of semi-arid climatic conditions of deposition.

The stable isotope values (δ¹³C av. −5.67‰, δ¹⁸O av. −3.88‰) of calcretes of the Surajkund Formation lie within the stable isotopic composition of monsoon rainfall in northern India (+0.9 to –8.4‰; Sengupta and Sarkar 2006; Singh et al.2016). Since stable isotopic concentration in soil carbonates is a function of soil water and ultimately of meteoric water, δ¹⁸O content indicates diagenesis of Surajkund sediments under meteoric phreatic and vadose zone conditions (Quade 1993; Wright et al.1993; Beckner and Mozley 1998; Khadkikar et al.2000; Srivastava 2001; Brlek and Glumec 2014; Singh et al.2016). Based on the stable isotopic composition, the calcretes under study suggest both pedogenic and shallow groundwater origins (Cerling 1984; Bajnoczi et al.2006; Tipple and Pagani 2007), supporting their fingerprints observed in thin sections. According to Jha et al. (2020), δ¹³C value of soil carbonates from the ecosystem consisting of C3/C4 flora may be expected to be –13.5‰ for C3 dominated to +3.4‰ for C4 dominated one. Hence δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O values, average paleotemperatures of 32.43°C and low pCO₂ (av. 788.93 ppmV) are evidences of C3 and C4 mixed paleovegetation, with preponderance by C4 plants (Tanner 2010; Yamori et al.2013; Eren et al.2018; Godfray et al.2018). Meso and hygrophytic communities of C4 plants occur on flood plains and seasonal rivers, while C4 grassland communities occur in temperate grasslands, dry lowlands, savannas, and scrublands (Rudov et al.2020). The C4 plants and grasses flourish in dry climates, rain seasonality and high temperatures (Rudov et al.2020). Hence, it can be said that Surajkund sediments represent an environment consisting of arid to semi-arid, C4 plant-dominated scrubland-grassland in the Middle Pleistocene, which corroborates well with palaeontological findings by Patnaik et al. (2009) and Zedda et al. (2020).

OSL age for the sample collected from Sardarnagar lithosection (figure 2; SN-6B: 145.72 ± 16.09 Ka, measured in 2014 CE) suggests that the deposition of upper parts of point bar sediments of Surajkund Formation took place in the Ionian Age of late Middle Pleistocene Epoch (Tiwari and Bhai 1997; Venkata Rao et al.1997; Gibbard et al.2010; Head et al.2020), during dry glacial periods of MIS 6 (Lisiecki and Raymo 2005) having reduced intensity southwestern monsoon (Haslam et al.2011). This age corroborates well with the magnetostratigraphic age range of Surajkund Formation type section (128–500 Ka; Tiwari and Bhai 1997; Venkata Rao et al.1997) and also in the span of age estimation of Homo cranium and other fossils from Surajkund Formation (Badam 2002; Chauhan 2008; Patnaik et al.2009). According to Haslam et al. (2011), there was no direct effect of continental ice sheets over South Asia, due to which hominin population in India had enough refugia available despite the glacial maxima (Kourampas et al.2009; Petraglia et al.2009; Farooqui et al.2010), hence sparse Acheulean populations could survive in the north-central India during late Middle Pleistocene. The semi-arid climatic conditions prevailing during deposition of Surajkund sediments correlate well with other Middle Pleistocene Acheulian sites in peninsular India such as Middle Son Valley (Haslam et al.2011) in central India, Husungi Valley (Szabo et al.1990) and Gangapur (Deo et al.2016) in south India together with widespread records of Pleistocene aridity in northwestern India (Blinkhorn et al.2017). The results of stable isotopic data, together with isolated OSL data, correlate with monsoon variation as evidenced from sediments in northern and central India (Juyal et al.2006; Basu et al.2018).

Conclusion

The carried out field and laboratory studies of Surajkund Formation sediments of Central Narmada Basin reveal:

• Association of distinct lithofacies, together with the development of nodular, bedded calcretes and rhizoliths, suggests deposition of Surajkund sediments in mixed load meandering river environment under semi-arid climatic conditions.

• The observed slump folds with minor displacement and warps in the siltstones represent seismites; their formation is related to the reactivation of the Son–Narmada North Fault during the Middle Pleistocene.

• Lithic arenitic nature of these sediments specifies mineralogical and textural immaturity, and these exhibit signatures of meteoric phreatic and vadose zone diagenesis.

• Clay mineralogy and geochemistry are suggestive of their derivation from mixed provenance.

• The stable isotope content, palaeotemperatures and pCO₂ values indicate semi-arid climate, meteoric diagenesis and C4-dominated paleovegetation.

• OSL date from Sardarnagar lithosection gives Ionian Age for the upper parts of point bar sediments of Surajkund Formation.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding (SR/S4/ES-477/2009) from the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, for this work. The facilities provided by the Head of the Department of Geology, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, are gratefully acknowledged. The second author is thankful to Dr Shweta Patil, Department of Geology, St. Xavier’s College, for her suggestions during the preparation of the manuscript. Dr Abhay Mudholkar, Dr J N Pattan, and Dr G Parthiban, NIO, Goa, provided major oxide and trace, REE data, respectively, and we are thankful to them. The stable isotope facility and data provided by Dr D J Patil, NGRI, Hyderabad, is gratefully acknowledged.

Author statement

MGK: Fieldwork, sample collection, acquisition of funding, conceptualisation, revision of the draft and supervision. AP: Fieldwork, sample collection and processing, data acquisition and revision of draft and figures. DK: Sample processing and OSL dating.

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