Edible mushrooms: A sustainable novel ingredient for meat analogs

Abstract

Meat products are ubiquitously consumed for their higher protein content and characteristic organoleptic properties. The enhanced capacities of meat production to meet the demands of the rapidly increasing global population is causing serious issues relating to health, environment, and animal welfare. Suitable meat alternatives that are protein‐rich, sustainable, and healthier are being continuously explored by scientists globally. In this direction, edible medicinal mushrooms can be used as promising healthier meat alternatives as they provide natural meaty texture, flavors and are also rich in proteins, essential amino acids, β‐glucans, vitamins, minerals, polyphenols, and antioxidants. Mushrooms have proven medicinal benefits including anticancer, immunomodulatory, antiviral, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, and anti‐inflammatory properties. The aim of the present review is to highlight the potential of edible mushrooms to produce meat analogs, various meat and nonmeat‐based studies focussing on mushrooms as key meat analog ingredients, impact on the product quality, associated nutraceutical aspects, consumer behavior and market availability of mushroom‐based meat analogs.

INTRODUCTION

The world's population is increasing rapidly and is estimated to cross 9 billion by 2050 (Lee et al., 2020). The continuous increase in population growth brings forth the burden of meeting the demands for quality food and achieving nutritional security. Urbanization and rapid population growth results in high demand for meat consumption and a nutrition-rich processed food. The increased economic growth led to the enhanced consumption of meat in developing countries. Meat production at a large scale causes serious problems like disproportionate use of water and land resources and various health problems, that is, heart diseases, cancers, diabetes, high blood pressure, and so forth (Godfray, 2018) (Figure 1). It also becomes a threat to aquatic biodiversity and other environmental concerns like releasing greenhouse gasses, and so forth. Furthermore, animal-based meat consumption leads to probable zoonotic risks and exposure to veterinary antibiotics.

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Therefore, aforesaid mentioned factors are directed to find alternatives to animal-based meat with tactics for food generation from nonanimal sources such as botanical-based meat and fungal-based meat (mushrooms, single-cell protein, mycoprotein). The mushroom-based or microbial-based meat as an alternative not only solves problems related to animal welfare, social and cultural factors but also successfully delivers health benefits that are usually not observed in conventional meat.

Edible mushrooms are known for their inherent nutraceutical compounds such as β-glucan, dietary fibers, bioactive peptides, terpenes, glycoproteins, alcohols, mineral elements, phenolic compounds, tocopherols, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamin D, ascorbic acids, and so forth (Yadav & Negi, 2021). These compounds possess medicinal properties like anticancer, antiviral, antihypertensive, hypolipidemic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and hypoglycemic activities (Rathore et al., 2019; Singh, 2020) (Figure 2). People are now accepting mushrooms based processed foods/meat analogs as food and food supplements. Because of the mushroom's chewy texture and meaty taste, it can be used as a nonmeat alternative to develop meat analogs. Additionally, the idea of a meat analog using mushrooms coincides with the UN's Sustainable Development Goals. Recent industrial developments utilize a novel mushroom-based meat analog ingredient, that is, mycelium/fungal proteins known as mycoprotein, which is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, low in fat and calories, rich in fibers, and essential amino acids, thus providing quality protein with enhanced digestibility (Stoffel, 2019, 2021).

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However, the production of novel mushroom-based meat analogs is still in the developing stage, and relevant reviews are scarce. The objective of this review is to highlight the possibilities of mushroom/mycelium as an alternative source of meat to develop a meat analog, focus on its processing, and key nutraceutical attributes for humans, which could be a game changer in the meat industry.

MEAT ANALOGS

Meat analogs are nonanimal derived food products possessing comparable aesthetic, organoleptic, and physicochemical characteristics mimicking traditional animal meat products. These foods are profitable to the food manufacturers because of lower costs, comparatively stable prices due to fewer seasonal variations in supply, and better shelf life. The meat analog term is generally used for products based on spun protein filaments and textured vegetable proteins (TVPs). In comparison to meat burgers, meat analogs provide less energy, less saturated fat, less sodium, zero cholesterol, and a rich source of fiber, which constitutes a nutritious and trendy dietary approach (Ismail et al., 2020). Meat analogs consist mainly proteins (20%–50%), fats (1%–5%), polysaccharides (2%–30%), and other ingredients for providing meat mimicking characteristics (Boukid, 2021). Broadly, meat analogs can be categorized as plant-based, cultured cell-based, myco (edible mushrooms and other fungi) based meat analogs. Botanical-based meat analog formulations usually consist of protein, water, polysaccharides, lipids, salts, and solvents obtained through plant sources. Currently, various commercial sources of botanical proteins obtained from soya beans, wheat (gluten), pea, mung bean, faba bean, lupine, mucuna bean, and zien are in use for the formulation of meat analogs due to their lower costs, and meat mimicking attributes (Kyriakopoulou et al., 2021;  Singh, Trivedi, et al., 2021). These alternatives are nutritionally rich in vitamins, micro and macro elements, zero in cholesterol, antiobese property, and also impart positive psychological effects on animal welfare organizations (Singh, Trivedi, et al., 2021). In modern times texturized vegetable proteins (TVP) are the most popular ingredient to be used in meat alternatives (Ryu, 2020). Although plant-based meat analogs are enriched with nutrients and environment friendly, still consumers do not very much adopt them as preferred diet material. Studies (Van Loo et al., 2020) showed that the consumer attitude toward the consumption of plant-based meat analogs remained low and the key factors for selection were personal motives, food preferences, and sensory effects.

MUSHROOMS-BASED MEAT ANALOGS

Mushrooms have been the most cherished fungi-based food source over the years containing many nutraceutical compounds (Yadav & Negi, 2021). Mushrooms can be a smart meat alternative to be utilized as healthy options for meat products because of their higher protein content, medicinally important bioactive, low fats, and sodium content (González et al., 2020). Also, mushrooms are rich in glutamic acid, aspartic acid, and ribonucleotides, which contribute a characteristic umami flavor and are associated with savory, brothy, rich, or meaty taste sensation (Sogari et al., 2021). Also, due to the presence of polyphenols and protein interactions in mushrooms, the extruded meat analogs gain cross-linked structures with improved antioxidant properties. Considering the high production rate of mushrooms in recent years, large-scale production of mushroom-based meat analogs is possible. The main reasons for preferring mushroom protein over other nonmeat protein sources are: (1) The umami flavor of mushroom is well accepted compared with the beany flavor of vegetal protein, (2) Mushrooms possess filamentous and fibrous proteins, providing consumers a convincing texture that is comparable to meat, (3) Mushrooms possess various nutraceuticals which provide several health benefits to consumers, (4) Mushrooms are reported to contain antimicrobial components, which can significantly enhance the shelf life of prepared meat analogs.

White button mushroom, Shiitake, Portobello, Chanterelle, and Enoki mushrooms are the most commonly used mushroom types to substitute beef, crab, and chicken meat (Singh, Kamal, et al., 2021). Mushrooms contain dietary fibers, which help provide physical attributes, that is, texture, stabilizing, emulsifying, thickening, and gelling (Das et al., 2021). Among the different techniques used for the production of meat analogs, extrusion is the most exploited technique due to comparatively higher productivity, lower costs, and better energy efficiency (Singh, Trivedi, et al., 2021). Under this process, the temperature and pressure lead to denaturation of the heat-labile antinutritional factors like trypsin inhibitors and hemagglutinins and inactivates various enzymes like lipoxygenases, peroxidases, and lipoxidases. The process has also been reported for its improved digestibility of proteins. Current studies revealed that due to the extrusion process, proteins get denatured, unfolded, cross-linked, or aligned due to heating, cooling, shearing, and compression. The protein gets structured like aggregate or fibrils, providing a meat-like texture. During the extrusion, the process temperature gets elevated to 140–180°C, which ensures melting and polymerization of protein along with changing its color due to Maillard reaction, caramelization, hydrolysis, and degradation of pigments (Zhang et al., 2019).

Various mushroom-based meat analogs are formulated using extrusion technology, for example, textured soy protein was replaced with mushroom, and a significant enhancement in sensory attributes of prepared meat analog (nuggets) was observed (Kumar et al., 2012). Similarly, Cho and Ryu (2021) have prepared the extruded meat analog by adding oyster mushroom (4%, 8%, and 12%) in full-fat soy, wheat gluten, and corn starch (05:0.4:0.1) in a twin screw extruder with feed moisture 55%, barrel temperature 170°C, and screw speed 150 rpm and reported that the texture and antioxidant properties (DPPH scavenging and phenolic activity) of the meat analog got significantly enhanced with an increase in mushroom fraction. Mohamad Mazlan et al. (2020) have prepared a mushroom-based meat analog combining oyster mushroom and soy protein using a single screw extruder (Table 1).

Table 1 Mushroom-based meat analogs using nonmeat ingredients.

Key ingredients	Technology used/products	Process conditions (optimum)	Enhanced characteristics	Reference
Mushrooms (Lentinus edodes, Pleurotus ostreatus, Coprinus comatus), soya protein isolate	Single-screw extruder, sausages	Screw speed 45 rpm, temperature 80°C, 140°C and 80°C	Sensory and texture exhibited resemblance with real beef	Yuan et al. (2022)
Coprinus comatus mushroom powder (15%), water (35%), soya protein isolate, yeasts, lactic acid bacteria	Single-screw extruder, fermented sausages	Screw speed 45 rpm, temperature 80°C, 140°C and 80°C, fermentation at 30°C for 18 h, relative humidity 70%	Aroma profile, taste, flavor, and texture improved	Yuan et al. (2022)
Lentinus edodes, potato puree	4D printing, square-shaped	Speed 15 mm/s, volume flow 9 cm3/min, temperature 25°C, UV-C exposure (10 W, 254 nm)	Vitamin D2	Chen et al. (2022)
Oyster mushroom (0%–12%), full-fat soy, wheat gluten, and corn starch	Twin screw extrusion, extrudates	Feed moisture (55%), barrel temperature (170 C), and screw speed 150 rpm	Antioxidant properties (DPPH scavenging, phenolics), texturization	Cho and Ryu (2021)
Oyster mushroom (0%–15%), soy protein, isolated soy protein, wheat flour, soy lecithin, sodium metabisulfite, salt, palm oil, and water	Single screw extrusion, extrudates	Barrel temperature (140 C), and screw speed 100–160 rpm	Water absorption index, moisture content, texturization index, fibrous structure	Mazlan et al. (2020)
Agaricus bisporus, wheat flour	3D printing/fibrous snacks	Speed 200–1000 mm/min, 300 rpm, 4 bar
Pleurotus sapidus mycelia (27.5 g), functional blend (80 g) containing kappa- and iota-carrageenan, salt, carob bean gum, rice starch, konjac gum, citric acid, modified starch, sodium citrate, sweet potato concentrate, carrot extract, spice blend (12.5 g) containing salt, dextrose, spices, spice extracts, flavor	Vegan boiled sausage, meat analog system	Mixed in a Thermomix (TM31, Germany), 60 s at speed level four then added sunflower oil (180 g) and emulsified at speed level seven for 90 s and casted in plastic sausage casings	Flavor profile, stability, shelf life, texture, sensory, water absorption index, color	Stephan et al. (2018)
Agaricus bisporus (0%–40%), wheat gluten, soy chunk, spice blend	Steamed meat analog	Blanching mushrooms with soy chunks salts, blend and steamed at 15 psi for 20 min	Sensory, binding, and textural properties	Ahirwar et al. (2015)
Agaricus bisporus mycelium (27%), soybean, wheat gluten, corn starch, salt	Patty	Processed patties (10 mm thick and 40 mm dia) cooked at 150 C in electric oven for 15 min	Texture and overall acceptance	Kim et al. (2011)
Calocybe indica mushroom (0%–27%), textured soy protein (TSP), wheat flour, gram flour, refined soy oil, arrowroot flour, salt, spices, gum	Meat nuggets	Hydrated TSP and wheat, gram flour mixed in Hobart paddle mixer for 60 s and soy refined oil mixed for 30 s, spices and other ingredients mixed for 30 s steam filled in the boxes, cooked 20 min without pressure after cooling sliced into nuggets	Sensory attributes	Kumar et al. (2011)
Agaricus bisporus (83.5%), gluten, fat, bread crumbs, soy protein concentrate, carrageenan, salt, corn flour, pepper	Sausage	Minced mushroom added to fat and cooked on a low flame for 5 min, cooled and filled to casing, and steamed for 20 min	Texture, emulsion ability, yield	Arora et al. (2017)

3D printing technology was recently used by researchers (Keerthana et al., 2020) to print 3D mushroom-based meat analogs products and observed significant improvements in physicochemical properties and sensory characteristics. The complex fibrous networks of mushrooms can aggregate the material supply and clog the printing nozzle. However, with this technique, the desired product possesses textural attributes similar to muscle fibers with customized nutritional content.

Food 4D printing is a technology in which 3D printing of functional food can be formulated involving modifications in shape, color, flavor, or nutrition and time under the stimulation of external conditions (Chen, 2022). In this technique, food grade printing ink material possessing shear thinning properties is used for development of food. The shear thinning property of the ink enables the food graded ink to flow and provide the shape under external force and comes to a stable state in the absence of the external force. Further, the formulation of the inks can be adjusted for enhanced and customized food. Chen (2022) used shitake mushroom and potato puree to print and simultaneously converted ergosterol to vitamin D2 using simultaneous UV irradiation. 4D printing helped in the transformation and processing of mushroom products along with the synthesis of vitamin D2, extending the irradiation area through suitable structural designs.

MUSHROOMS AS MEAT REPLACERS

Mushrooms can either be fully substituted for meat or added as extenders to develop healthier meat analogs because of their appropriateness with meats, umami flavor, and inherent meat-like characteristics. In consequence, consumers preferably accept blended mushroom-based meat products because of mushroom similarity and compatibility with meat (Lang, 2020). Researchers reported that mushrooms as meat replacers significantly enhance the functional properties of blended meat products, that is, water holding capacity, cooking yield, texture, emulsion stability, juiciness, shelf life, and so forth (Table 2). Partially substituting meat through blending ground mushrooms has been extensively studied, and these blended foods are considered more sustainable and healthier without compromising the texture and taste of whole-meat foods. Several studies demonstrated the utilization of mushrooms as meat replacers/extenders to develop healthier meat products (Table 2). Patinho (2021) claimed that the strategy of incorporating mushrooms in meat products is seeking attention from food industries with respect to enhanced health, beneficial properties, nutritional value, antioxidant activity, and improved textural and flavor characteristics of meat products. Pérez Montes (2021) reported that edible mushrooms being rich in dietary fibers, easily digestible proteins, and exhibiting meat-like texture, can be utilized as effective meat extenders to reduce the health and sustainability issues caused by the consumption of meat products. Thus mushrooms, along with enhancing sensory attributes, are novel replacers of protein, fat, phosphate, and salt for meat product recipes. Mushrooms are the preferable animal fat replacer in beef burgers because of mushrooms ability to retain moisture and fat while reducing animal fat reduction effect on sensory attributes of beef burgers. Recently studies have been carried out to evaluate the physical characteristics and organoleptic aspects of meat-mushroom blended products viz burgers, tacos, meatballs, and so forth (Sogari et al., 2021). Animal meat utilization is reduced significantly when mushrooms are incorporated as meat extenders. Thus, we assume that the use of mushrooms as meat replacers and meat extenders in meat products could be a nutritional, sensory, and technological promising strategy.

Table 2 Utilization of mushrooms as meat replacer/meat extender.

Mushroom spp	Food product	Key ingredients\mushroom content	Process conditions/methodology	Enhanced characteristics	References
Agaricus bisporus	Beef patties	Mushroom (20%), beef (80%)	Beef and shredded mushroom mixed with a dough hook attachment, flattened, and cooked in a pan on electric range	Reduced sodium content without compromising the sensory attributes	Wong et al. (2019)
Pleurotus eryngii (king oyster mushroom) stems (Pleurotus sajor-caju)	Pork sausages	Pork lean meat, oyster mushroom (deep-fried in corn oil at 160°C for 2 min), sodium nitrite, carrageenan, white pepper, cinnamon powder, garlic, starch, soy protein, and monascus color	All the ingredients were mixed and homogenized for 140 s, stuffed into a cellulose casing then cooked at 68°C for 30 min	Enhanced odor, flavor, texture, and overall acceptability along with replacement of the pork back fat	Wang et al. (2019)
Shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes)	Sausage	Pickled mushroom, pork back fat, white pepper, garlic, cinnamon, carrageenan, isolated soy protein, starch, and monascus color	All the ingredients were mixed and homogenized for 140 s, stuffed into an artificial collagen casings then cooked at 68°C for 30 min	Total dietary fiber, methionine, glutamic, cysteine, and total phenolic content	Wang et al. (2019)
Porcini mushroom (Boletus edulis)	Frankfurter	25% mushroom decoct, meat, fat, sodium nitrite, and polyphosphate	All the ingredients were mixed, homogenized, stuffed into casings then cooked	Extend shelf life	Novakovic et al. (2020)
Cantharellus cibarius	Frankfurter	25% mushroom decoct, meat, fat, sodium nitrite, and polyphosphate	All the ingredients were mixed, homogenized, stuffed into casings then cooked	Extended shelf life	Novakovic et al. (2020)
Shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes)	Beef burger	Mushroom homogenate (20%), meat, lard, soy protein, dehydrated onion and garlic, and sodium tripolyphosphate	Burgers were processed in the NPD lab Pilot Plant of Meat Products at the Federal University of Lavras (Lavras, Minas Gerais, Brazil)	Reduce salt content without compromising sensory acceptability	Mattar et al. (2018)
Enoki mushroom (Flammulina velutipes)	Goat meat nuggets	Mushroom stem waste powder (4%), minced goat meat, salt, refined oil, garlic, onion, dry mix spices, polyphosphate, wheat flour, and sodium nitrite	All the ingredients were uniformly mixed, placed in mold, and cooked in a steam cooker for 40 min	Improved oxidative stability and shelf life without affecting sensory attributes	Banerjee et al. (2020)
Agaricus bisporus	Meat emulsion	Mushroom powder (2%), minced meat, 0.4M cold NaCl solution, and corn oil	Minced meat and mushroom powder is blended with NaCl solution in a blender mixer, homogenized with corn oil, and emulsified	Improved rheological and structural characteristics	Kurt and Gençcelep (2018)
Winter mushrooms (Flammulina velutipes)	Emulsion type sausage	Mushroom powder (1%), ground pork hind leg meat, pork fat, NaCl, L- Ascorbic acid, and sodium nitrite	All the ingredients were mixed in a silent cutter, meat batter was packed in a steel container, cans were heated for 1 h at 85°C	Replacement of sodium pyrophosphate without affecting organoleptic properties	Choe et al. (2018)
Winter mushrooms (Flammulina velutipes)	Low-salt chicken sausage	Mushroom powder (1%), skinless chicken breasts	Ingredients were mixed in a silent cutter, meat batter was packed in a steel container, heated for 1 h at 85°C	Reduce salt content and replace artificial additives	Jo et al. (2018)
Winter mushrooms (Flammulina velutipes)	Ham	Plasma-treated mushroom powder (1%), ground hind leg pork, and back fat	Ingredients were mixed in a silent cutter, meat batter was packed in a steel container, heated for 1 h at 85°C, and then cooled	Provide alternative source for synthetic nitrite and phosphate	Jo et al. (2020)
Flammulina velutipes	Cantonese sausage	Dried mushroom powder (2.5%), lean pork, back fat, salt, sugar, Chinese liquor, MSG, and sodium nitrite	Ingredients were mixed in a silent cutter, meat batter was stuffed into a cellulose casing, oven dried for 8 h at 45°C followed by 50°C for 4 h	Significant increase in free amino acid, lipid, and protein oxidation inhibited	Wang et al. (2019)
Straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea)	Cantonese sausage	Dried mushroom powder (4%), lean pork, back fat, salt, sugar, white wine, MSG, and sodium nitrite	Ingredients were mixed in a silent cutter, meat batter was stuffed into a cellulose casing, oven dried for 8 h at 45°C followed by 50°C for 4 h	Physical properties, essential amino acids, volatile compounds	Wang et al. (2018)
Volvariella volvacea, Hypsizygus marmoreus, Pleurotus ostreatus and Agaricus bisporus	Beef paste	Dried mushroom powder (5%), longissimus et thoracis, beef fat, salt, and compound phosphate	All the ingredients were mixed in a Kitchen Aid Mixer, the mixture was tumbled in a vacuum tumbling machine and marinated in the refrigerator	Enhanced essential amino acid and promotes formation of flavor substances	Qing et al. (2021)
Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus ostreatus	Beef patty	Dried mushroom powder (2.5%), beef, pork fat, and salt	All the ingredients were mixed and molded in burger maker to form patties	Improve nutritional profile and retard microbial growth and oxidation process	Cerón-Guevara et al. (2020a)
Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus ostreatus	Frankfurter sausage	Dried mushroom powder (2.5%), beef, pork fat, and salt	All the ingredients were mixed in a chilled cutter, stuffed into a collagen casing, and cooked at 90°C for 20 min	Reduced salt and sugar with enhanced nutritional profile	Cerón-Guevara et al. (2020b)
Shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes P.)	Pork patty	Dried mushroom powder (4%), pork, onion, salt, black pepper, garlic, and sodium tripolyphosphate	All the ingredients were mixed in a Kitchen Aid mixer, molded in a Tupperware patty maker, and cooked at 204°C in convection oven	Increased juiciness and decreased toughness and rubberiness of the pork	Chun et al. (2020)
Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sapidus)	Chicken patty	Mushroom fruiting body base flour (10%), chicken meat, fat, potato starch, salt, spices, and seasonings	All the ingredients were mixed in a silent bowl cutter, batter molded into patties, then cooked at 176°C for 7 to 8 min	Enhanced antioxidant activity	Wan-Mohtar et al. (2020)
Agaricus bisporus	Beef burger	Mushroom (15%), beef meat, pork back fat, onion and garlic powder, black pepper, sodium erythorbate, sodium tripolyphosphate, and MSG	Ground cooked mushroom, minced meat, and fat manually mixed with all other ingredients then batter was molded in burger shape	Enhanced juiciness, tenderness, and overall flavor	Patinho et al. (2021)

NUTRACEUTICAL QUALITIES OF MUSHROOMS

Mushroom fruiting bodies are rich in carbohydrates containing trehalose, glycogen, mannitol, glucose, mannans, and β-glucan. Mannitol is a major free sugar (80%) found in mushrooms. The mushroom's protein are highly digestible accounting for about 19–35 g/100 g on dry basis and also rich in γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and ornithine, which help in the improvement of liver function and detoxification of toxic compounds. Additionally, mushrooms contain all the essential amino acids (Rathore et al., 2017). Therefore, they can be a good alternative to animal protein and a promising ingredient for meaty foods. Mushrooms synthesize glycoproteins promoting medicinal activities (antitumor, antimicrobial, and antiproliferative) (González et al., 2020). Studies (Xu, 2011) have found that mushroom proteins are helpful in gut-related disorders and are more appealing than conventional sources of proteins. Bioactive proteins and peptides in mushrooms (lectins, immunomodulatory fungal proteins, proteins inactivating ribosome, antimicrobial proteins, ribonucleases, and laccases) have been studied for their various medicinal activities and reported to possess potential for inhibition of cancer causing cells (Das et al., 2021). Furthermore, It is reported that thermal, freezing, acid, alkali, and dehydration treatments have not deteriorated protein qualities, indicating their uses as a stable nutraceutical and functional food development (Yadav & Negi, 2021).

Mushroom polysaccharides reportedly have medicinal functions, such as anticancer, hypoglycemic, antidiabetic, antilipidemic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory activities (Rathore et al., 2017). Specific mushroom polysaccharides like calocyban (Calocybe indica), ganoderan (Ganoderma lucidium), lentinan (Lentinus edodes), pleuran (Pleurotus eryngii), and schizophyllan (Schizophyllum commune) have been used to develop various functional foods (cookies yogurts, etc.) (Khan, 2018; Rathore et al., 2019; Yadav & Negi, 2021). Mushroom polysaccharides possess higher fractions of dietary fibers that interact with gut microbiota and help in improving human health. Gut microbes convert mushroom polysaccharides into essential nutritious compounds, that is, short-chain fatty acids, which facilitate in maintaining intestinal homeostasis (Zhao et al., 2018). The β-glucans are major fractions in mushroom polysaccharides having proven immunity boosting abilities, thus helping the human body combat respiratory infections, allergies, arthritis, obesity, and reducing chemotherapy side effects (Vlassopoulou et al., 2021). β-glucan isolated from mushrooms was found safe for regular consumption with no adverse side effects (Lu et al., 2020). Mushroom lipids contain mainly unsaturated fatty acids, including linoleic and oleic acids (Yadav & Negi, 2021) contributing characteristic flavor to mushrooms. The tocopherols in mushroom lipids are antioxidative metabolites (Yadav & Negi, 2021).

Mushrooms are excellent sources of vitamins, including vitamin B complex and vitamin D. It is important to note that mushrooms are the only vegan source of vitamin D and vitamin B12. Vitamin D content in mushrooms can be increased by exposing them to UV irradiation. The studies have reported vitamin contents in dried mushrooms riboflavin, thiamine, tocopherol, ascorbic acid, niacin, folate, vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin B12, and vitamin D2, 4.7–194 mg/100 g (Fook Yee Chye et al., 2008; Kalač, 2013).

Mushrooms are also known to have bioaccumulating properties for minerals and are a good source of potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, iron, zinc, selenium, cobalt, and manganese (Kalač, 2013).

Phenolic components reported in mushrooms (hydroxybenzoic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, phenolic acids, chlorogenic acid, syringic acid, gallic acid, protocatechuic acids, vanillic, tannins, lignans, and oxidized polyphenols) are reported to have medicinal benefits (anticancer, antiangiogenic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory) and help in protecting against multiple health disorders, like brain dysfunction, heart diseases, and aging (Abdelshafy et al., 2021).

MARKET AVAILABILITY OF MUSHROOM-BASED MEAT ANALOGS

Market demand for meat substitutes is fueled by increased awareness among consumers about environmental issues and health concerns caused by meat consumption. Various global brands all over the world are rapidly entering mushroom-based meat analogs highlighted in (Table 3). Several start-ups used solid-state fermentation and submerged cultivation technology for growing mushroom mycelium due to their faster growing tendency, resilience nature, and ability to digest and transform growth media into nutrient-rich by-products. Being rich in protein, it can be used as an alternative source of protein for human food and animal nutrition (Stoffel, 2019). Besides proteins, the biomass consists of carbohydrates, vitamins, amino acids, and minerals. Studies showed that mushroom-based mycoproteins consumption does not cause any acute or chronic health concerns (Hashempour-Baltork et al., 2020). Researchers (Smetana, 2021) compared the burgers made from beef patty, pea patty, mushroom patty, and soy patty for nutritional score and concluded that among all, burgers from mushrooms and soy-based scored highest. Mushroom mycelium can be a novel category of protein, comparable to that of protein from plant and animal sources (Derbyshire, 2020). The utilization of food and agro-industrial wastes to obtain mushroom mycelia is a revolutionary way to produce an alternative protein source to animal protein with enhanced nutritional values. Nutritional, textural, organoleptic, and sustainable aspects of mycelium/fungal proteins have caused the revivification of mycoprotein-based companies in the last few years as mentioned in (Table 3). Many companies are making use of mushroom as a key ingredient to produce meat analogs. In view of excellent nutritional characteristics and companies' interests, it can be assumed that the market for mushrooms/mycelia-based meat analogs are expected to rise in the near future.

Table 3 Mushroom-based commercial meat analogs or ingredients for meat analogs.

Food brands, founding date, and business type	Country	Product	Key ingredients/Process used for ingredient	Benefits claimed	Reference
Atlast Food Co. (2019) B2C	USA	Whole-cut plant-based meat like bacon and steaks	Meaty fiber and protein-rich edible blocks are produced by growing mushroom mycelium grown on food-grade plant-based waste in trays using solid-state fermentation technology	Whole food with a high nutritional profile, Non-GMO, eco-friendly, allergen-free, contains all essential amino acids, versatile
Myco Technology (2013) B2B	USA	FermentiQ™ (Mycelia used as an ingredient in meat analog)	Fermenting optimized blend of pea-rice with Shitake mushroom mycelium	Complete protein, enhanced sensory properties, improved digestibility and functional properties, allergen free, reduced antinutritional properties
Innomy (2018) B2B	Argentina	Funka (meat alternative ingredient in hamburger, sausage, meatball, and nugget)	Growing fungal mycelium on grains, after 6 weeks of growth mycelium is harvested and sliced for use in food products and by modifying color, flavor, and shape to get most realistic replacement of a complete cut of meat	Antioxidant activity, Immunomodulatory action, cholesterol-free, anticarcinogenic
Meati foods (2016) B2C	USA	Jerky, chicken breast, beefsteaks, and deli meat analogs	Mushroom mycelia cultivated similar to brewing process, kombu seaweed, natural colors, chickpea miso, shiitake mushrooms, Houjicha green tea, and Porcini mushrooms	Cultivated mushroom mycelia obtained is easily-moldable in chunks that mimic the texture of real meat, packed with protein, zinc, fiber, and other vitamins and minerals
Mushlabs (2018) B2B	Germany, Europe	Mushroom mycelia (ingredient for meat analogs)	Mushroom mycelia cultivated in controlled and optimal environments to produce seed for the final biomass, further seed mycelium is fermented into side streams of agro and food industries (i.e., spent coffee grounds, fruit peels, and sugarcane bagasse) to produce delicious and healthy biomass rich in protein and dietary fibers, which serves as novel ingredient in meat alternatives	Upcycling of nutrients in the side streams of agro- and food industries to produce healthy, delicious and sustainable mycelial biomass
Kinoko Tech (2019) B2B	Israel	Mycelium and fermented legume mixture to be used as an ingredient in meat analogs	Solid state fermentation of fungi on legume and grains, after between 4 and 8 days of growing, mycelium and legume mixture harvested for further use	Desirable mouthfeel and texture without the need for additional processing, Improve nutritional value of legume and grains Alters the product amino acid composition to become complete protein Improves product stability, digestibility, adds unique metabolites beneficial to human health Completely changes the taste & texture, becoming as rich and delicious as meat
Botanic bites (2016) B2C	Netherlands	Bourguignon, naked juicy oyster mushroom burger, oyster mushroom rescue balls	Marinated mushrooms slowly cooked sous vide, can of tomatoes, can of coconut milk and red wine	Sous vide cooking techniques used to prevent loss of inherent flavor and nutritious components
Chinova Bioworks (2016) B2B, B2C	Canada	Chiber™ based meat minced, patties, sausage analogs	Natural fiber from white button mushrooms is extracted to create Chiber™	Chiber™ improves quality, freshness & shelf life, which promotes sustainability and reduced food waste. No organoleptic impact, clean label, meat analogs are certified vegan by Vegecert, certified by kosher by the Kashruth Council of Canada, and Certified halal by the Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of Canada (IFANCC)
Pan's (Panco Foods) (2007) B2C	USA	Mushroom jerkyPan's original mushroom jerky	Organic dried shiitake mushrooms, water, avocado oil, organic coconut sugar, Himalayan pink salt, organic chia seeds	Plant-based, vegan, high in fiber and vitamin D, Chester-free, paleo-friendly, Kosher, soy-free, gluten-free, and uses organic ingredients
Fable food Co. (2019) B2C	Australia	Burger with meaty mushroom Fable pattie	Fable pattie (39%) (Mushroom solid (47%), filtered water, coconut oil, isolated soy protein, rice, tapioca starch, yeast extract, onion powder, salt, mushroom concentrate (0.5%), gluten-free soy sauce, tomato powder, garlic powder, liquid smoke flavor)	Shiitake mushroom's dense texture, fleshy fibers, and umami flavors impart meat-like flavor and texture. Rich in antioxidant and immune-boosting activity
Hooray foods (2021) B2C	USA	Plant-based bacon	Coconut oil, rice flour, tapioca starch, liquid smoke, umami seasoning (shiitake mushrooms, salt, mushroom extract, calcium carbonate), maple syrup, salt, beet juice concentrate	Minimally processed and 100% plant-based, gluten-free, dairy-free and soy free
Moku (2019) B2C	USA	Plant-based jerky	Mushrooms, high oleic sunflower oil, coconut aminos* (coconut sap, sea salt), water, maple syrup, pineapple juice, chickpea miso, tomato paste, yeast extract, natural hickory smoke flavor, kosher salt, fermented rice extract, lactic acid, onion powder, garlic powder, paprika, black pepper	Meat-like jerky from clean, plant-based, allergen-free ingredients
Moving Mountains (2016) B2C, B2B	UK	Plant-based meatballs	Oyster mushrooms, vegetable oil, vegetable protein, rice, gluten, starch, methylcellulose, natural flavoring, Oat fiber, sea salt, dextrose monohydrate, vinegar, lemon juice, Barley malt extract, preservative (lactic acid), color (beetroot red), vitamin B12	Contains plant protein and natural ingredients 100% free of hormones, antibiotics, and GMO ingredients Certified vegan by The Vegan Society
Shroomeats (2018) B2C	USA	Shroomeats mushroom patties, mushroom meatballs	Shiitake mushrooms, soybean flour, Soybean oil, salt, sugar and pepper	Vegan, gluten-free, non-GMO, all-natural along with health benefits of Shiitake mushrooms
Green Monday (2012) B2C	Hongkong	Ready to cook Omnipork	Shiitake mushroom, fermented pea and rice protein, potato starch, sugar, soy, sunflower oil, and canola oil	Free from cholesterol, hormones, and antibiotics, 86% lower in saturated fat and 66% lower in calories than real pork. Rich in fiber, 2.6 times more calcium, and 127% higher in iron

CONSUMER PERCEPTION TOWARD MEAT ANALOGS

Understanding customer perception is crucial to the development of meat analogs. To create future meat analogs, it is vital to first identify the motivators and demotivators of customers (Boukid, 2021). The key motivators for the consumption and procurement of meat analogs by the consumers are largely driven by conventional and emerging factors such as taste, cost, brand, satisfaction, health and wellness, animal welfare including environmental impact, and so forth (Boukid, 2021) (Figure 3). Outcomes from the study (Apostolidis & McLeay, 2016), revealed that the sequence in which conventional and emerging factors influence the consumer decision is price > environmental impact > taste > health > organic > vegetarian. Other factors like gender, age, geography, and educational status also significantly influence the consumer's decision toward purchasing meat analogs. In a study conducted across three nations (the United States, China, and India), appeal, minimal displeasure, and excitement were the primary reliable indicators of buying meat substitutes in the United States, whereas the overall health, and sustainability, attractiveness, and taste, were the main predictive factors in China; but instead wholesomeness, sustainability, necessity, and excitement have been significant predictor of meat analogs purchase behavior in India (Rathore et al., 2019). Based on the analysis made by the different studies has indicated a strong link between consumer eating habits and their willingness to eat meat alternatives. Within that paradigm, broadly, three major groupings were acknowledged as “Meat eaters (traditional eaters), meat reducers (flexitarians), and meat avoider” (Apostolidis & McLeay, 2016). Edible Mushroom-based meat analogs have enormous potential to target all three major categories since they can provide an umami flavor and desired texture and fulfill protein requirements to traditional eats, flexitarians, and especially those who avoid meat eating (vegans and vegetarians).

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CONCLUSION

Texture, flavor, color, and overall acceptance are the key factors that are kept in mind while finding an alternative source of animal-based meat. Due to their multiple health benefits and meaty texture, mushrooms can be utilized as sustainable meat alternatives to formulate smart functional foods, that is, sausages, nuggets, and patties. The need for meat alternatives is growing because of increasing veganism, health, environment, and climatic factors. Thus the use of mushrooms to meet this demand could serve as an intelligent solution as they are easy to grow, high in nutrition (vitamins, minerals, proteins, etc.) and low in fat, low in calories, and can be grown more sustainably. The higher fiber content in mushrooms adds to the texture of meat analogs. However, there is still a lot of scope and challenges for research exist in the direction of enhancing sensory parameters (i.e., taste, flavor, and texture), processing techniques, consumer acceptance, and utilizing different medicinal mushrooms to be used as meat alternatives. The studies on nutraceutically enriched medicinal fermented mushroom mycelia and 3D manufacturing techniques to develop healthy meat substitutes will further boost the interest of researchers in this domain. This review will be helpful for the exploration of sustainable mushroom-based meat-like healthy functional foods in the future.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Umesh Singh: Formal analysis; writing—original draft; writing—review and editing. Pooja Tiwari: Data curation. Sneha Kelkar: Writing—original draft. Dikshita Kaul: Writing—review and editing. Abhay Tiwari: Data curation. Mandira Kapri: Data curation. Satyawati Sharma: Conceptualization; supervision.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are highly thankful to the “Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI), GOI [Sanctioned number F. No. Q-11/9/2018-R&D dt. 17 Dec 2018]” for their financial support.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

ETHICS STATEMENT

None declared.

References

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