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This study used an adapted alternating treatments design to compare the effectiveness of two different procedures for fading video prompts for teaching two individuals with developmental disabilities and moderate intellectual disability to independently perform two different daily living tasks. The tasks were systematically faded from video prompts to video models or from video prompts to picture prompts. Results indicated that both methods of fading were effective for increasing the participants’ level of correct, independent performance. However, all four participants scored higher on their posttests for the skill taught through the video modeling condition. Students’ preferences in relation to their performance and teachers’ perspectives of the video instruction are also discussed. Implications for practice and future research are included.
Students with developmental disabilities (DD) and/or autism spectrum disorders (ASD) often have difficulty learning daily living and vocational skills needed to function productively and independently in integrated community environments (Hendricks & Wehman, 2009). Unfortunately, this often results in less-than-optimal adult outcomes for this population (Newman et al., 2011). Daily living skills typically consist of activities needed for independence in domestic, vocational, and community settings (Targett & Smith, 2009) and may include skills such as personal hygiene, caring for self and home, employment skills, communication, social interactions, and community engagement. Daily living skills are important for all people and are especially critical for students with disabilities as they transition to postschool environments in order to increase their functional independence and success in postsecondary settings (Chiang et al., 2017; Newman et al., 2011; Test et al., 2009).
Daily living skills are often taught to individuals with DD using response prompting strategies (Cooper et al., 2020). Response prompts are supplementary antecedent stimuli (e.g., visual of a spray bottle) often paired with naturally occurring stimuli (e.g., a dirty table and a spray bottle) to provide “clues” or assistance to learners as they complete tasks. The addition of response prompts facilitates acquisition of skills for learners while also reducing their errors. Prompts usually involve the presentation of verbal, auditory, visual, modeling, or physical prompts presented either in isolation or in combination to encourage correct responding; however, the goal is to fade these prompts so that learners eventually respond independently to the naturally occurring cues in the environment (Cooper et al., 2020).
Visual Supports and Video Instruction
For several years, researchers and practitioners have recommended the use of visual supports to prompt responses of learners with DD and/or ASD (Cooper et al., 2020; Duker et al.; 2004; Mechling & Gustafson, 2008). Visual prompts may include text, photographs/pictures, line drawings, symbols, or videos (Bryan & Gast, 2000). Visual prompts are preferred over auditory or verbal prompts because individuals with DD often have difficulty fading from verbal prompts to perform next steps or activities within a skill sequence (Cooper et al., 2020; MacDuff et al., 2001). Practitioners commonly use visual activity schedules or pictures to prompt learners to engage in multistep skill sequences. Their use results in an increase in independence and on-task behaviors, and findings from a comprehensive literature review suggest that visual activity schedules are considered an evidence-based practice for teaching individuals with DD a variety of daily living, vocational, and academic skills (Spriggs et al., 2017).
Video-based instruction (VBI), including video modeling and video prompting, is also considered an evidenced-based practice for teaching functional and daily living skills to individuals with DD, with video prompting interventions being more effective than static picture prompts and video modeling procedures (Aljehany & Bennett, 2019; Bennett & Dukes, 2014; Domire & Wolfe, 2014; Gardner & Wolfe, 2013). Video modeling is a type of video instruction in which a person is prompted to perform a skill by watching a video that shows someone completing a skill in its entirety before performing that skill themselves (Sigafoos et al., 2007). Video prompting differs from video modeling in that during video prompting instruction, a video of someone performing an entire task is edited into smaller clips of each of the skill subsets that make up that task. Using this form of instruction, participants watch one clip of this skill subset and then immediately perform that step. Participants then watch the next step in the task before performing it, and so on until the entire task is completed (Sigafoos et al., 2007).
Fading Video Prompts
Promoting maximum independence for learners requires reducing the learner’s reliance on prompts over time. Moreover, fading video prompts can increase the efficiency of task completion by reducing the amount of time an individual takes to complete a task. That is, as a learner watches fewer video prompts, they complete the task more quickly. Research indicates that fading, or the gradual reduction of response prompts, is the most effective way to decrease the amount of influence a prompt has on performance so the learner may respond to natural cues in the environment. The fading of prompts can be effectively accomplished in several ways, including transferring stimulus control from response prompts to naturally existing stimuli, using increased time delay between prompts, and stimulus fading (Cooper et al., 2020). With regard to fading video prompts in particular, several strategies have been shown to be effective, including fading video prompts to larger chunks (Sigafoos et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2016), fading video prompts to pictures (Mechling & Gustafson, 2008; Van Laarhoven & Van Laarhoven-Myers, 2006), and self-selection and fading, which involves presenting multiple media options (i.e., picture, audio, video) on one screen to allow users to self-select and self-fade prompts (Mechling et al., 2009, 2010; Mechling & Seid, 2011; Van Laarhoven et al., 2018).
Fading Video Prompts to Video Chunks/Models
Some researchers have investigated the effectiveness of fading video prompts to larger video chunks or video models so that learners will not need to check their device as often. For example, Sigafoos et al. (2007), analyzed the effectiveness of fading video prompting systems to promote independence among the three participants with ASD and DD who were learning dish washing skills. In this study, video prompts were faded, or “chunked,” from brief video prompts (range = 5 s–30 s) to longer video segments (final chunk = 2 min 4 s). The results showed that all three participants were able to complete the given skill (washing dishes) as the prompts were faded. Likewise, Wu et al. (2016) compared the effectiveness of merging multiple video prompts together following acquisition with chunking of mastered steps during the intervention phase and found that fading video prompting during the intervention resulted in improved acquisition, maintenance, and generalization on the skills of table washing and window washing.
Self-Selection and Self-Fading of Prompts
Many researchers have noted that participants using VBI often self-fade their prompts (e.g., listen to a video model play in the background while performing a task or look at a picture of a task rather than watch a video model of the task; Mechling et al., 2009, 2010; Mechling & Seid, 2011; Van Laarhoven, Johnson et al., 2009; Van Laarhoven & Van Laarhoven-Myers, 2006; Van Laarhoven et al., 2018). A study by Van Laarhoven and Van Laarhoven-Myers (2006) used three different video instruction (i.e., prompting) conditions to teach three students with DD daily living skills (microwaving pizza, folding laundry, and washing tables). Participants faded their video prompts on their own as they became more familiar and independent with the targeted skills. Results showed that two of the participants began to pay less attention to the videos, but their independent performance continued to increase, indicating that they no longer needed the prompts. In another study, Van Laarhoven, Johnson et al. (2009) used video modeling to teach an individual with a moderate intellectual disability three vocational tasks. The participant first watched a video clip, as instructed, and subsequently played the video and listened to the auditory cues on the video while he completed his tasks. As he became more familiar with his tasks, he no longer relied on the video or auditory cues to complete the task.
In a series of three studies, Mechling et al. (2009, 2010; Mechling & Seid, 2011) used specially designed software to present multiple media options on one screen to allow users to select pictures, video, text, or audio to prompt their responses as they engaged in daily living skills (e.g., independent pedestrian travel and cooking). In the Mechling et al. (2009) study, three high-school students with ASD were taught to prepare three cooking recipes. Results indicated that participants immediately increased their percentage of steps completed independently and self-adjusted the use of prompt levels; however, they continued using prompts from the device even though they demonstrated the ability to complete steps of recipes without the device. In a similar study, Mechling et al. (2010) used the same multiple media prompting approach to teach three students with moderate intellectual disabilities three cooking tasks; each demonstrated an immediate and abrupt increase in independent responding. Participants used more intrusive prompts initially and gradually self-faded their use of prompts. In the third study, Mechling and Seid (2011) taught three transition age students with moderate intellectual disabilities independent pedestrian travel using a similar interface and found that students who were unable to read maps or text relied on photos and video segments of landmarks to reach three different destinations independently. As was the case in the other studies, participants self-faded their use of more intrusive prompts as they mastered their pedestrian routes.
Finally, a recent study by Van Laarhoven et al. (2018) used mobile devices with VBI software to teach four teenagers with intellectual and developmental disabilities vocational skills. Results showed that video was effective for teaching the participants to independently perform vocational skills, and all participants self-faded their use of media prompts as they became more proficient with their assigned vocational tasks. In particular, as the participants’ performance improved, they all self-faded the level of prompting, from looking at pictures plus auditory prompts on a device to merely referencing the picture to not using the device at all. Despite their self-selected fading, their independent performance increased. The authors of this study stressed the importance of fading prompts to enhance productivity as individuals become more independent in completing the tasks.
Purpose
Previous research indicates the use of video and picture prompts are successful interventions for acquisition of daily living skills. Although several studies have noted that participants have self-faded VBI (e.g., Mechling et al., 2009, 2010; Mechling & Seid, 2011; Van Laarhoven & Van Laarhoven-Myers, 2006; Van Laarhoven et al., 2018), fewer studies have reported systematically manipulating the fading of VBI prompts (e.g., Sigafoos et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2016). Likewise, there is a dearth of research comparing fading techniques following VBI to maximize student independence in task completion and generalization. Therefore, this study seeks to extend the research base on video prompting by evaluating the effectiveness of two strategies for fading video prompts to increase the independence of students with developmental and intellectual disabilities in completing daily living skills. The specific research questions guiding this study are as follows:
Will the use of a systematic procedure of fading from video prompts to picture prompts (VP-PP) increase participants’ independent completion of their targeted skills?
Will the use of a systematic procedure of chunking video prompting to longer video segments (VP-VM) increase participants’ independent completion of their targeted skills?
Which is more effective: fading video prompts to picture prompts (VP-PP) or fading video prompts to video models (VP-VM)?
Method
Participant Selection
After obtaining permission from the University’s Institutional Review Board, participants for this study were selected from a transition program in a special education cooperative located in a Midwestern suburb. None of the participants had prior experience using video-based prompts, but all had some level of experience with picture prompts. After obtaining consent and assent from these participants and conducting pretests of various cleaning tasks, four students (two male and two female) were selected based on performing below 60% on tasks in their pretests. All participants were chosen based on teacher recommendations of students who potentially could benefit from new transition skills taught through technology. Additional participant information is in Table 1.
Table 1. Participant Characteristics
Name (Gender) | Age | Diagnosis and/or Eligibility | Reported Assessment Scores |
|---|---|---|---|
Phillip (M) | 20 | ASD Mod. ID | WISC III IQ-45 VII WEC-45 |
Charles (M) | 20 | Fragile X syndrome Mod. ID | WISC III IQ-44 WISC III VL-44 |
Angelica (F) | 19 | Mod. ID | WISC III IQ-50 WISC III VL-58 |
Lillian (F) | 19 | ADHD Mod. ID | N/R |
Note. M = male; F = female; ASD = autism spectrum disorder; Mod. ID = moderate intellectual disability; WISC III IQ = Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition Intelligence Quotient; VII WEC = Vineland Second Edition Written Expression and Communication; WISC III VL = Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition Verbal Language; ADHD = attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; N/R= no report.
Setting
The instructional sessions occurred at the participants’ school at the rear portion of a classroom, which contained a table with four chairs, a bookshelf, and a large window facing a parking lot. Once a participant met the criteria for a certain skill (defined a priori as 90% independent performance for two consecutive sessions), a posttest was conducted in the classroom without the use of any video instruction. Participants also completed a pretest and posttest in a different setting using different stimulus materials to assess their ability to generalize the taught skills (see Tasks below). The generalization setting for the window cleaning was a window located next to the main entry doors of the school; the generalization setting for dusting was a shelf under a kitchen window.
Tasks
The teaching staff and research team originally considered several daily living skills (list available from first author). Each of these tasks were broken down into 14 or 15 steps, and the research team assessed the four participants on these tasks without the use of video prompting. Any task that a participant performed with 60% independence or higher was not used during the acquisition phase because it was determined that these skills were already within the participant’s skillset. After initial pretesting, two functional skills (cleaning windows and dusting shelves) were identified as skills that all students needed to either learn or improve upon because none of the participants performed these skills with more than 60% independent performance.
Instructional Materials
For the instructional settings (pretest, instructional phase, and posttest) for washing windows, Windex spray cleaner and folded towels were used, and the middle window at the back of the classroom was dirtied by making handprints and smudges with pink lotion. For the generalization settings (during pretest and posttest) for window washing, Glass Plus window cleaner and a roll of paper towels were used, and a window by the main entryway to the building was dirtied with handprints and smudges using pink lotion. For the instructional settings for dusting, two to six random items (e.g., board game boxes, decks of playing cards, pads of paper, and coasters) were set on a shelf in the classroom. The shelf and the items were dirtied by sprinkling black pepper all over them, and a red feather duster was used to dust. For the dusting generalization settings, a kitchen shelf was set up in a similar way; two to six random items were set on the shelf, and black pepper was sprinkled on top of the items and the shelf, and a white feather duster was used.
Experimental Design
An adapted alternating treatments design (AATD) was used to teach the two targeted skills across the four participants. This design allowed the researchers to compare the superiority between the two targeted skills by determining which instructional method was more effective in teaching the participants. The mastery criterion was set at two consecutive sessions with 90% independent correct responding. In this design, the two conditions were rapidly and randomly alternated (Shepley et al., 2020) between video prompting faded to picture prompts (VP-PP, Condition A) and video prompting faded to video modeling (VP-VM, Condition B).
A hallmark of the AATD involves counterbalancing the targeted skills (Cariveau et al., 2021). To determine the two skills chosen, the researchers surveyed the participants’ special education teacher with a list of several cleaning skills. The teacher rated the skills based on the level of difficulty and the steps involved. The two skills selected for this study (dusting shelves and washing windows) had 14 and 15 steps, respectively, and were rated with a similar level of difficulty by the special education teacher.
Procedures
Phase 1: Pretest
During the pretest phase, two different pretests were given for each of the skills (dusting a shelf and washing a window). The first test was conducted in the instructional setting and used the instructional stimulus materials. The second pretest used generalization stimulus materials and was conducted in a different setting. During pretests, participants were given the chance to complete each step of the given tasks independently using a multiple opportunity method. The researcher pointed to a specific area to be cleaned and gave verbal directions to the participant to either “Clean this window,” or “Dust this shelf.” If the participant was not able to independently perform a step in the given skill, the researcher used a modified system of least prompts (verbal/gesture followed by full physical prompts) to assist the participant in completing that step. The researcher then gave the participant the chance to perform the next step in the given task independently. The number and type of prompts employed were documented to determine the percentage of steps completed independently for each skill sequence. Following this pretest, results were used to assign the participants to the treatment conditions and instructional tasks. Tasks with the highest scores were assigned to one treatment condition for two of the participants, whereas the other two tasks with the highest scores were assigned to the other treatment condition for the other two participants (see Table 2).
Table 2. Participants across Conditions
Participant | VP-PP (Condition A) | VP-VM (Condition B) |
|---|---|---|
Philip | Window Washing | Dusting Shelves |
Angelica | Window Washing | Dusting Shelves |
Charles | Dusting Shelves | Washing Windows |
Lillian | Dusting Shelves | Washing Windows |
Training Participants to Use VBI Technology
Before beginning VBI for the two targeted skills, participants were instructed on how to navigate a PowerPoint presentation on a laptop computer. This presentation method was chosen because the participants’ teacher reported that all participants had experience using a laptop, and laptop computers with PowerPoint software were readily available in the classroom. Prior to beginning VBI, each participant practiced using videos and pictures to prompt them to complete a task unrelated to the tasks targeted for instruction (i.e., hanging a shirt on a hanger).
During VBI technology training and instructional sessions, a laptop was set on a table next to the areas to be cleaned. A mouse was connected to the computer, and a green star sticker was placed on the left mouse button to signify this was the button to click. During the video prompting and picture prompting training for VBI technology sessions, two unfolded, adult-sized t-shirts and two plastic hangers were placed on the table next to the laptop.
The VBI technology training used a model-lead-test format that focused on first learning to navigate PowerPoint, then subsequently learning to follow directions from a video or picture prompt from PowerPoint. For the navigation stage of training, the researcher worked one-on-one to model to each student the process of clicking on a given video clip in a PowerPoint slide, watching the video clip, then clicking a specific “arrow” in PowerPoint to move onto the next step in the skill sequence. Skills that did not share any characteristics with the targeted skills (i.e., pouring milk, toasting bagels, and making microwave pasta) were shown in these instructional video clips. During the “lead” portions of the VBI technology instruction, the instructor told the participant that it was his/her turn to use PowerPoint. The instructor used a modified system of least prompts (verbal/gesture followed by full physical prompts) during these lead sessions (Duker et al., 2004). Following these guided practice sessions, the instructor used a 5-s constant time delay procedure to test each participant. Instructional sessions continued until each participant independently navigated through the PowerPoint program for three consecutive sessions. Independent navigation was defined as a participant being able to listen to the narration, click on the picture, and then click on “Next” once the video clip was finished.
After students demonstrated independent navigation of the PowerPoint program, the second stage of VBI technology training began. These sessions also were conducted in a model-lead-test format, and the added step of following the directions from the video clip after viewing it was incorporated. During this stage of training, a video clip of hanging a shirt on a hanger was used. Unfolded, adult-sized t-shirts and two plastic hangers were placed on the table next to the laptop where the participants watched the video. The participants watched a total of four video clips of hanging a shirt. Immediately following the viewing of each video clip (i.e., video prompting), the participant completed the substep. After completing a step, the participants then clicked the “Next” button on the screen and watched the subsequent step. Once participants demonstrated three consecutive independent performances of this video prompting stage of training, the final training stage, picture prompting, began.
The picture prompting stage used the same skill of hanging shirts, except that pictures replaced the video clips. The participants were told that they would not have to click on the picture but needed to listen to the auditory directions given on each slide and then follow the directions before they clicked on the “Next” button. The background color on PowerPoint was changed to pink to indicate a picture. The criteria for participants to complete this stage of training were three consecutive, independent performances.
Philip required an additional visual aid throughout the VBI technology training and instructional sessions. The following four directions were written on a paper: “1.) Listen. 2.) Click and watch. 3.) Follow directions. 4.) Next.” Before each training session, Philip read these directions out loud with the researcher, and the paper was placed on the table next to the computer. If needed, the researcher pointed to this visual aid in the subsequent training and intervention sessions.
Error Correction
To minimize the occurrence of challenging behaviors, and due to the fact that sometimes the laptop with the VBI was in a different location from the cleaning task, the researcher used a modified system of least prompts (verbal/gesture followed by full physical prompts) throughout all stages of this study. For all conditions, the instructor waited 5 s before correcting Angelica and Lillian, but the wait time was reduced to 1 s for Philip and Charles to decrease the likelihood of challenging behaviors. In particular, if Philip was unsure of what to do, he would bite his hand or attempt to bite the hand of the researcher. Likewise, Charles would attempt to run away.
Prompts to Use VBI Technology
To measure participant’s independent use of VBI technology, the percentage of prompts to use VBI technology were calculated across all phases. To record the number of prompts to use VBI technology, a checkmark (√) was written on the data sheet when a prompt to use VBI technology was given. The number of checks given during the session was written at the bottom of the data sheet and divided by the total number of possible prompts and multiplied by 100. A maximum of two prompts per PowerPoint slide (verbal/gesture and full physical) was given. After the second error correction for a particular slide, the researcher made no further prompts to use VBI technology for that slide. For example, if the researcher gave a participant two error corrections to pay attention during a video, and the participant continued to look away while the video was playing, the researcher gave no additional VBI technology prompts until the next slide. If the video ended and the participant did not initiate performing a skill after the allotted wait time, then the researcher provided a verbal prompt to begin the skill. The number of prompts to use VBI technology decreased in the VP-VM condition as these video clips were chunked together, thus prompts to use VBI technology were measured using a percentage of prompts across all phases.
Phase 2: Intervention (Video Prompting)
Research conditions were counterbalanced across participants and tasks as depicted in Table 2. For both conditions, participants initially navigated through PowerPoint by clicking on a picture that represented a particular step of the skill to play/start the video clip. A picture depicting the most salient feature from the video clip of a step (e.g., a person reaching for the cleaning supplies in the storage closet) was placed at the front of the video clips for fading purposes in later instructional sessions. These presentations in the instructional phases included auditory and written instructions. A description of the step was written above the picture (e.g., “Get cleaner and towels”) which was read aloud when the slide opened. When the participants clicked on the picture, auditory step-by-step directions played as the adult model performed these tasks. During the initial video prompting session for both conditions, participants watched a video clip of a step from the targeted task, completed that step, and then returned to watch the next step of the process. This “watch then perform” process was repeated until the task was finished.
During all intervention sessions, the researcher told the participant they could watch the video one additional time (twice total), but then needed to try their best to perform the step. The researcher recorded a star (*) next to the step(s) that a participant chose to rewatch a second time on the data sheet for any session in which rewatching occurred.
Condition A: Video Prompting Faded to Picture Prompting (VP-PP)
Phillip and Angela began in condition A (VP-PP). Video prompting for this condition proceeded in the “watch then perform” process outlined above. After a participant independently completed a step for two consecutive sessions, the hyperlink to the video was removed and only the picture was shown. The background color on PowerPoint was changed from blue to pink to indicate a picture. The auditory and written directions on each slide remained during the fade to VP-PP phase.
Condition B: Video Prompting Faded to Video Modeling (VP-VM)
Charles and Lillian began the intervention phase in Condition B (VP-VM). Video prompting for this condition proceeded in the same “watch then perform” process as the initial intervention. However, for this condition, the video clips were chunked into longer segments as the participants reached the designated criterion. Once a participant independently completed one or more steps for two consecutive sessions, the video clips of those particular steps in the task analysis were chunked into a longer video clip up to the next skill in the sequence for which the participant had not yet reached the independent performance criteria.
For the two task analyses used in the study, the dusting task contained five video clips (total duration = 100 s), and the window washing contained six video clips (total duration = 113 s). Each initial video clip contained one to four steps of the given task and ranged from 12 s to 30 s in length. Because a stationary laptop was used during instruction, the skill steps were chunked into the most logical segments based on the location of the tasks to be performed to alleviate carrying the laptop. For example, in the dusting a shelf task analysis, the first three steps required the participant to walk to the storage closet, get the feather duster, and then return to the area to be dusted.
Before video chunking began, a participant had to demonstrate independent completion for each of the steps in each video clip. The PowerPoint slides were updated with the new chunks. For example, if steps 1–5 in the washing window task analysis were now “chunked” together, the new slide containing the video for this chunk contained the written and auditory directions overviewing all the steps. The picture on the updated PowerPoint slide also showed the most salient feature of the first video clip.
Phase 3: Posttest
After participants reached the mastery criterion (i.e., two consecutive sessions with 90% independent correct responding), the participants were evaluated 1 week later on their performance of the given task using the same methods as the pretest phase. The “two consecutive sessions” criterion was selected due to the rapidly approaching end of the school year. The posttest was given twice; the first test was conducted in the instructional setting and used the instructional stimulus materials. The second posttest used generalization stimulus materials and was conducted in a different setting.
Dependent Variables
Independent Correct Performance or Level of Assistance
To measure independent correct responding and levels of assistance needed, task analytic data were collected for each step of the given skill sequence throughout all phases. If participants correctly completed a given step, they received an “I” on the data sheet for that step. If they did not act or made an error, the next level of prompting (verbal/gesture) occurred. If participants either did not begin a step or incorrectly responded, the next intrusive level of prompting (full physical assistance) was given to help them correctly complete that step. The least intrusive prompt that resulted in a participant’s correct completion of that step was recorded on the data sheet. The prompts were assigned a numerical value based on the following scale: independent (3), verbal/gesture (2), full physical (1), and resistance/refusal (0). Participants’ independent correct performance was assessed each session by dividing the individual’s number of steps with independent responses by the total number of steps for that skill and multiplying by 100. During the acquisition phase, percentages for levels of assistance were calculated by adding up the scores from the task analysis, dividing by the total points possible, and then multiplying by 100.
Social Validity. The students and teachers were asked to fill out a social validity survey after the posttest phase (surveys available from the first author). The surveys compared students’ and teachers’ perspectives on which instructional methods they preferred and why. The researcher read the questions to each student and recorded their responses.
Reliability
During 36% of all sessions, reliability data were collected for both the dependent and independent variables by a second observer who was a graduate student in special education. A second observer collected data on the dependent variables, and all additional observers practiced data collection procedures until they reached at least 80% agreement for three consecutive sessions before beginning the study. Interobserver agreement (IOA) was calculated by taking the number of agreements and dividing this by the total number of agreements and disagreements and multiplying by 100. IOA averaged 99% (range: 93%–100%) and procedural reliability averaged 96% (range: 67%–100%).
Results
Results showed that all four participants increased their ability to perform the targeted skills across conditions. The following provides an overview of the results pertaining to the dependent measures.
Percentage of Independent Correct Responses
The primary variable used to measure the effectiveness of each fading procedure was the percentage of independent correct responses. As shown in Figs. 1 and 2, Philip and Lillian had higher means for the skills taught in the VP-PP condition, whereas Charles and Angelica had higher performance means for the VP-VM condition. In addition, slightly higher performance scores in the intervention phase of the VP-VM condition were observed (M = 86%, range: 66%–93%) when compared to the VP-PP condition (M = 84%, range: 72%–95%). Overall, each of the four participants demonstrated an increase in independent correct responses for both conditions in the intervention phases when compared to their pretest performance. Moreover, the posttest scores for each individual were higher than their pretests scores. The means of correct, independent performance of the posttest scores were higher for the VP-VM (M = 93%, range: 70%–100%) condition than for the VP-PP condition (M = 80%, range: 55%–90%).
Fig. 1 [Images not available. See PDF.]
Percentage of Correct, Independent Performance
Fig. 2 [Images not available. See PDF.]
Mean Percentage of Independent Performance across Participants and Conditions
After several sessions, the researcher implemented a probe to assess Philip’s level of performance without VBI technology because Philip had been initiating several steps in the tasks without referring to the videos. As a result, when prompted to use VBI technology, Philip often responded by biting his hand or making loud noises. After the probe was implemented and additional video clips were faded to either the VP-PP or VP-VM, Philip reached the mastery criterion in a shorter number of sessions for the VP-VM condition. In addition, he demonstrated slightly higher independent performance during the posttest phase for the skill in which he was instructed in the VP-VM condition.
Percentage of Prompts to Use VBI Technology
When participants’ mean percentage of prompts to use VBI technology were compared across conditions, the results were split. Philip and Angelica had higher means for the VP-VM condition, whereas Charles and Lillian had higher means for the VP-PP condition (see Figure 3). Although both Angelica’s and Lillian’s percent of prompts to use VBI technology steadily decreased across the instructional sessions for both instructional conditions, Philip’s and Charles’s percent of prompts to use VBI technology were more variable. However, for the VP-VM condition, as more video clips were faded to longer videos, there were a fewer number of total prompts for VBI technology. For example, if a participant received one prompt to use VBI technology during an earlier phase of the fading procedure (when there was a possibility of 10 VBI technology prompts), they would receive a score of 1/10, or 10%. But, during later phases of the VP-VM when there was only one video model video to watch, if this same participant received one VBI technology prompt, they would receive a score of 1/2, or 50%. Thus, for later phases of fading, with fewer possible prompts to use VBI technology available, each VBI technology prompt carried more weight in the calculations. Therefore, both Philip’s and Charles’s percentage of prompts to use VBI technology in the VP-VM condition seemed to vary more extensively than their percentage of prompts to use VBI technology in the VP-PP condition.
Fig. 3 [Images not available. See PDF.]
Mean Prompts to Use VBI Technology across Participants and Conditions
Philip and Charles’s prompts to use VBI technology were prompts to pay attention to the videos, which increased as the videos were lengthened. After probing Philip, the research team adjusted the fading of the two tasks (either to pictures or longer video segments) according to his performance on the probe. Philip’s percentage of prompts to use VBI technology for the VP-PP condition decreased after the probe was implemented.
Charles’s initial data indicate that he required more VBI technology prompts in the picture sessions, but later the data for both conditions overlapped, suggesting that there was little difference between conditions when prompts to use VBI technology were considered. Both Angelica and Lillian required minimal prompts to use VBI technology; after the first or second session for both conditions, neither participant received any VBI technology prompts. Angelica’s data for the percentage of prompts to use VBI technology for both conditions overlapped, indicating no difference between the two conditions. Lillian’s data indicated that she required more prompts to use VBI technology for the picture sessions; however, once the fading began, these prompts were reminders for Lillian to stop clicking the picture.
Social Validity
Table 3 displays the participants’ responses to their social validity surveys. When individual preferences for participants were compared to their performance, Philip and Charles both reached the mastery criterion in a fewer number of sessions using their preferred method of instruction (VP-VM). Likewise, Philip and Lillian both scored higher on their posttests for their preferred method of instruction (VP-VM).
Table 3. Social Validity Outcomes across Participants
Participant | Preference | Perceived Effectiveness | Use in Future? |
|---|---|---|---|
Philip | Models | Models | Yes |
Charles | Pictures | Models | No |
Angelica | Both | Both | Yes |
Lilian | Models | Models | Yes |
The participants’ teacher and teaching assistant also completed social validity surveys, and both indicated that video prompts faded to video models worked better for all four students. The staff also indicated that they thought that video prompting was a type of instruction that these students should use in the future. Both staff responded that they would love to use video prompting in their future curriculum, but one staff member indicated that video prompts may not always be practical due to time and budget restraints.
Discussion
This study compared the effectiveness of fading video prompts to chunked videos and picture prompts to teach independent performance of daily living skills to four postsecondary students with DD. Overall, both instructional conditions were effective in increasing the participants’ level of independent task completion. These results align with other researchers’ findings who have studied the systematic fading of VBI (Sigafoos et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2016). Moreover, as previous research has investigated fading video clips to longer videos, this study expands the literature base to explore a systematic comparison of methods for fading video prompts to picture prompts. When the dependent variables for each of the participants were compared, the participants’ results varied with regard to the most effective fading method.
Fading to Video Prompting to Video Modeling and Picture Prompts
Results of the current study showed that the means of the percentage of correct, independent performance in the VP-VM condition were slightly higher than the means of the VP-PP condition during instructional sessions. Also, each of the four participants scored slightly higher on their percentage of correct, independent performance in their posttests for the VP-VM condition. This suggests that the VP-VM condition was marginally more effective as it resulted in a higher percentage of correct, independent performance when compared to the VP-PP condition. Although it can be argued that these higher scores in the posttests could be linked to practice effects, this may not be the case, as two of the students required a fewer number of sessions for the VP-VM condition. Thus, it is unlikely that the number of instructional sessions affected these students’ posttest performance scores. Future video instruction research needs to investigate the relationship between the number of instructional sessions and posttest scores.
With the VP-VM condition, the method for chunking video clips together may have prolonged the participants’ attainment of mastery and independent completion of certain steps of the targeted task. That is, the method of chunking the steps used in the current study placed unmastered steps at the end of the video sequence. Therefore, in the fading condition, not only did a participant have to watch a longer video clip, but they also had to complete more steps before they completed the step in which they were still learning. This phenomenon was observed for two of the participants (Charles and Phillip). For example, on several occasions during the window cleaning task, Charles was observed closing the bottle of cleaning fluid while watching the video clip that showed that step in the task. However, once fading to video modeling began, and the clip depicting the step of closing of the bottle was chunked to the end of previous steps, Charles began forgetting to close the bottle because this step was at the end of a longer video segment.
With the VP-VM condition, it may have been more difficult for participants to maintain their attention to the video once the video clips were longer, and this may have also affected performance. In particular, with Philip and Charles, as their video clips were lengthened, they required a considerable number of prompts to use VBI technology, because they often looked away or attempted to initiate a step before watching the entire duration of the video clip.
When the effectiveness of the two conditions was evaluated based on the participants’ mean percentage of prompts to use VBI technology, the results were split. Philip and Angelica had higher means for the VP-VM condition, whereas Charles and Lillian had higher means for the VP-PP condition. With regards to the prompts to use VBI technology, anecdotal evidence suggested that three of the participants seemed to have difficulty when VP-PP fading initially began. For example, in their initial fading sessions, Philip, Charles, and Lillian continuously clicked on the slides that were faded to only VP-PP, and thus, the number of prompts to use VBI technology may have been affected by the fading.
Limitations
Although the design of the intervention and procedures resulted in improvement for all participants, the small sample size and limited number of skills taught make it difficult to generalize the results to a larger population and for teaching a broader set of daily living skills. Future research on the use of fading should utilize a larger sample size to provide further generalized results. Second, using different tasks to compare the fading conditions may have affected the number of sessions needed to reach mastery criterion. For three participants (Philip, Angelica, and Charles), washing windows required more sessions to achieve mastery than dusting. Though the research team attempted to select skills of similar difficulty, future research comparing fading techniques may help determine whether the type of task influences the number of sessions required to reach mastery. Also, the study included a limited number of pretest and posttest sessions due to the end of the school year. Future studies should include a greater number of pretest and posttest sessions and continue such sessions, if needed, to reach a clear trend.
Research Implications
Angelica and Lillian met the mastery criterion in three or four sessions in both the VP-PP and VP-VM conditions. Charles also met the mastery criterion for the VP-PP condition in only four sessions. Future research should investigate the fading of video prompts using more complex skills or skills containing more steps in the task analysis. Perhaps if research investigates fading techniques for skills containing more steps, the relative effectiveness of fading to different conditions will become more apparent. In addition, future research studies involving VP-VM should explore fading by putting the step that a participant does not independently complete at the beginning of the step(s) that they complete independently.
Likewise, as auditory prompts on PowerPoint continued throughout each phase of the fading, future research should investigate whether or not the auditory component of the prompts influenced participants’ performance. For example, future studies could compare video prompts that are faded to pictures without auditory prompts to video prompts faded to pictures that still include the auditory prompts. Because several studies have already utilized a combination of pictures and auditory prompts for task instruction (e.g., Mechling et al., 2009; Riffel et al., 2005; Van Laarhoven et al., 2018), this type of additional fading comparison study could investigate the extent of the influence of auditory prompts on learners’ performance.
Finally, future research should also investigate the extent of student preference on the effectiveness of a fading technique. Although some studies have noted that participants naturally tend to fade their use of video-based instruction (Van Laarhoven & Johnson, 2009; Van Laarhoven et al., 2018), Taber-Doughty et al. (2008) noted that student preference may influence the effectiveness of video instruction. That is, students’ performance in a given VBI video modeling condition may be positively influenced by their perception or preference for this type of VBI condition (Taber-Doughty et al., 2008). In the current study, when participants’ individual preferences were compared to their performance, Philip and Charles both reached the mastery criterion in a fewer number of sessions using their preferred instructional method. Therefore, future research should examine whether student preference influences the effectiveness and/or efficiency of fading techniques.
Implications for Practice
The results of this study provide direction to the field for fading of video prompts. By fading video modeling to chunked videos and picture prompts, young adults with DD displayed increased independence in completing vocational tasks and were able to maintain the skill without relying on the teaching VBI technology over a short time. Practitioners need to be aware of effective ways to fade video prompts and implement them in their classrooms. By utilizing a fading procedure via VBI technology, the research team was able to increase participant skill, knowledge, and efficiency in performing daily living tasks using both VP-PP and VP-VM procedures, and both fading procedures were rated as effective by the students’ teacher and teaching assistants. However, VP-PP was rated by staff as more feasible to implement relative to VP-VM due to budget and time restraints. Although this study utilized a laptop, which admittedly can be cumbersome for participants and practitioners/caregivers to maneuver around, technology continues to evolve, allowing for smaller, more portable devices to be utilized with the same software used here. In addition, the practitioner must be prepared to create, implement, and troubleshoot the adopted VBI technology. For example, a practitioner must be able to edit and combine video clips in a logical manner based on student performance. A practitioner also needs to be able to modify the prompts to use VBI technology (as Philip needed) to best support the students’ independent use of VBI technology.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
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