The importance of geodiversity in understanding and conserving the Western Rift Valley Corridor

Abstract

Earth Stewardship is a transformative initiative that emphasizes the crucial interdependence between human societies and the intricate ecological systems that sustain all life on our planet. Recognizing geodiversity, a concept encompassing the geological and geomorphological characteristics of the Earth’s surface, as an integral dimension of Earth Stewardship, this review highlights its scientific underrepresentation, particularly in East Africa. Geodiversity is pivotal for the integrity of ecological systems, emphasizing its significance as an essential component. By focusing on the Western Rift Valley Corridor (WRVC) within East Africa and its connection to the broader East African Rift System (EARS), we aim to shed light on the significance of geodiversity and its integration with ecological systems in the context of Earth Stewardship. We identify 20 “heritage nodes,” areas of significant geological and ecological value, within the WRVC and demonstrate how geological processes have shaped the region’s landscape. The paper emphasizes the significance of the WRVC as a vital component of the Africa Alive Corridors (AAC) project, which promotes sustainable development in Africa by fostering connections between earth sciences and the humanities. It argues that a transdisciplinary approach involving local communities and stakeholders is essential for the conservation and development of the WRVC and other similar heritage corridors in Africa. The study concludes that geodiversity is a crucial pillar of heritage that enhances our understanding of ecosystems and contributes to sustainability efforts through Earth Stewardship. This research provides a basis for future work within the AAC initiative and the development of ecosystem services among researchers and local stakeholders.

INTRODUCTION

Earth Stewardship is a transformative initiative that recognizes and celebrates the interdependence between human societies and the intricate ecological systems that sustain all life on our planet (Chapin et al. 2011, De Wit and Booth 2016, Schwass et al. 2021). It aims to promote equitable access to basic needs, foster an environmental ethic, encourage biological, cultural, and institutional diversity, and advance sustainability science by integrating natural and social sciences, humanities, and other disciplines. Heritage, encompassing tangible and intangible resources such as archaeological sites, wildlife reserves, culturally significant buildings, traditional knowledge, languages, and music, plays an essential role in fostering a sense of connection and responsibility toward the environment. By acknowledging the intrinsic value of natural and cultural heritage, people may be more motivated to engage in sustainable practices that preserve these resources for future generations (Chapin et al. 2011). Additionally, geological heritage, which links landscapes to natural and cultural systems, is a relatively new concept (Henriques and Brilha 2017, Thomas and Asrat 2018). Geodiversity, the natural diversity of the Earth’s surface including geological and geomorphological aspects, soils, surface waters, and other systems resulting from natural and human processes, can be viewed as a crucial component of this broader concept of heritage (Kozłowski 2004).

With this in mind, the Africa Alive Corridors (AAC) was created to contribute to the protection and restoration of critical habitats and biodiversity across the African continent through the multidisciplinary co-collaboration of the natural sciences and humanities (Anderson and de Wit 2008, Anderson et al. 2008). The AAC consists of 20 corridors, each containing 20 heritage nodes that tell the tale of Africa’s 4-billion-year-old history through a transdisciplinary approach (Fig. 1). The aim of the AAC is to promote sustainable development and co-ownership among the African population by strengthening the bond between its people and Earth sciences (Anderson and de Wit 2008, Toteu et al. 2010). The AAC highlights the crucial connection between the well-being of humans and the health of natural systems, by emphasizing the three pillars of its legacy: cultural, biological, and geological, with the latter being the emphasis of this paper. The AAC adopts an inclusive approach that involves a wide range of stakeholders, including society, (geo)scientists, engineers, landscape architects, everyday citizens, storytellers, and artists from all over Africa. This approach leverages the rich African heritage that spans almost 4 billion years, promoting the preservation of biodiversity and its ecosystems. Such efforts are crucial in helping to mitigate the impact of the sixth mass extinction, as highlighted by various studies (Anderson 2001, Mbembe 2001, Toteu et al. 2010, Barendse et al. 2016, Bebbington and Unerman 2018, Bleischwitz et al. 2018, Travis et al. 2018, Scown 2020, Lane 2021). The AAC is designed with objectives that align closely with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), incorporating 17 coordinated strategies to promote sustainable practices and address pressing global challenges (UN 2015). Specifically, the AAC aims to create an innovative knowledge platform equipped with tools to both manage and mitigate negative human impacts on vital ecosystems and to provide comprehensive knowledge systems. These systems are intended to support the development of skills and practices in fields such as agrogeology, geoengineering, landscape architecture, geoheritage, and geotourism (Gill 2017). As a result, the AAC initiative has the potential to positively influence a wide range of areas, including the quality of education, climate action, sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption, and the protection of terrestrial and marine life (Toteu et al. 2010, UN 2015).

The 4-billion-year autobiography of Africa is told along 20 transnational, trans-basin, knowledge corridors each including 20 primary heritage nodes. These heritage nodes represent focal points within the broader network of the AAC, each serving as a primary site of geological, biological, and cultural significance. These nodes are strategically located along the transnational and trans-basin corridors, serving as anchor points for the interpretation and preservation of Africa’s rich natural and cultural heritage. Within each node, a diverse array of features can be found, including geoparks showcasing unique geological formations, ecosystems teeming with biodiversity, mountains and plateaus, pristine lakes offering vital habitats, and archaeological sites revealing the continent’s deep history (Fig. 1).

The focus of this essay is on the western branch of the East African Rift System (EARS). It delves into the AAC program and examines the Western Rift Valley Corridor (WRVC), which winds its way through crucial habitats that contain unique biodiversity, geodiversity, and large human populations steeped in cultural heritage. As such, the WRVC serves as a significant transdisciplinary laboratory. Spanning from the Mid-Miocene (15 Ma) to the present day, this corridor traverses six of the seven African Great Lakes (AGLs), a tropical lake network that houses the most diverse vertebrate family globally: the Cichlidae, commonly known as African cichlid fish.

The WRVC spans over 3000 km along the western branch of the East African Rift System, from Lake Victoria in countries Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya to Lake Chilwa in Malawi and Mozambique (Toteu et al. 2010). It traverses through its 20 heritage nodes comprising unique biodiverse-rich regions, owing its immense biological and cultural diversity to the EARS, which has shaped a dynamic topography for more than 15 Myr. The WRVC traverses important habitats that require critical management over the coming decades (Ponce-Reyes et al. 2017, Plumptre et al. 2021). This unique landscape is shaped by geological forces, which have resulted in a mosaic of habitats, ranging from high elevated montane forests to undulated and flat arid savannas. The diverse vegetation and habitat types provide a rich tapestry of life, including rare and endangered species such as mountain gorillas and chimpanzees, as well as more common species such as lions and elephants. It has been designated a Global 200 Priority Ecoregion and part of the Afromontane Hotspot (Olson et al. 2001). It has also been established as an endemic bird area (Plumptre et al. 2021). The WRVC is also rich in cultural diversity and contains numerous sites of historical and cultural significance, including rock art, archaeological sites, and sacred places. The corridor is home to many Indigenous peoples and pastoralist communities who have traditional knowledge and practices that are essential for and the development of sustainable resource management (e.g., Maila and Loubser 2003, Adebisi 2016, Ross et al. 2016, Long et al. 2019).

This composition emphasizes the significance of a holistic approach to heritage systems that extends beyond conventional focus on biological and cultural aspects. Specifically, we aim to demonstrate that geodiversity, a form of geological heritage, can enhance our understanding of the EARS and contribute to holistic education programs about Earth Stewardship. We illustrate how geological processes have shaped the landscape across the WRVC and how this knowledge can contribute to sustainability efforts. By contextualizing the WRVC within the broader EARS, we demonstrate its geological heritage value. We identified 20 heritage nodes within the WRVC, including the Great African Lakes and major mountain peaks, each linked to significant geological processes. Through documentation and mapping, we recorded the distribution of these heritage elements along the 9th heritage corridor of the AAC, highlighting their value for conservation efforts. Finally, we discuss the potential positive impacts of incorporating geological heritage into Earth Stewardship initiatives.

THE EAST AFRICAN RIFT SYSTEM

The East African Rift System (EARS) is a geological feature that emerged about 45 million years ago and continues to be active, impacting approximately one third of the African continent, extending from the Afar Triple Junction southward into the Mozambique Channel and the Okavango Delta (Fig. 2A). The origin of this relatively young geological phenomenon is linked to a combination of deep mantle processes and plate dynamics and is an outstanding example of rifting tectonics (Michon et al. 2022). The EARS is associated with major volcanic activity leading to significant changes in topography across the region, including plateaus, isolated volcanic mountain peaks (e.g., Rwenzori Mountains), and north-south trending great lake systems (e.g., Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi; Chang et al. 2020). These features are established along a series of fault-bound sedimentary basins, extending over 4800 km, and characterized by elongated fault-bound valleys filled with Mid-Miocene to present-day sediments and vast expanses of water, comprising the Great Lakes of Africa (Fig. 2A). The development of the rift also impacted the Congo River System, which reversed from flowing into the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean during the Oligocene-Eocene period, affecting climatic regimes in the region (Stankiewicz and de Wit 2006).

Despite being relatively young in geological terms, the East African Rift System (EARS) is a crucial feature of the African continent. It has provided a consistent source of food, freshwater, and recreation for local populations for over 200,000 years, with densely populous areas mainly developed around the African Great Lakes (AGLs) as shown in Figure 2B. The lake-shore communities in this region have developed deep cultural and historical connections to the Great Lakes (Lévêque 2001). Understanding the dynamics of the EARS ecosystem and the evolution of the unique species within it is crucial for preserving its biodiversity and ensuring the continued provision of these essential resources for future generations. However, these ties have been disrupted in recent years by the unsustainable extraction of natural resources and a continuous disregard for ecosystems due to exploitation of weak institutions and poor governance that are largely a the result the complex interplay of a complex colonial exploitation, increasing unstable climate systems, and the neglect of indigenous knowledge systems (Ayaa and Waswa 2016, Rodney 2018, Henri 2019).

The Western and Eastern branches of the rift system are both archived in the African Alive Corridors (AAC), offering insights into the integrated geological, biological, and cultural evolution of Africa’s Great Lakes, contiguous mountain ranges, and the astonishing evolution of the hominid family. These archives highlight the need for sustainable solutions to preserve the unique biodiversity of the region and ensure the continued well-being of its inhabitants.

WESTERN RIFT VALLEY CORRIDOR

The WRVC is a major subcontinental transtemporal highway that spans nine countries and diverse ecosystems and is presented in Figure 3 as 20 heritage nodes. It is an enormous feature that inherits a significant part of its economic prosperity to the abundance of mineral resources within its geological heritage, which have provided local communities with a reliable means of livelihood over the course of centuries (Iles and Lyaya 2015, Schmidt 2019). Evidence of smelting dating back to pre-colonial times reveals the region’s long history of advanced metallurgical techniques, including ironworking and copperworking as early as the first millennium AD (Chirikure 2015). Additionally, archaeological findings in the Lake Victoria region (Node 1) indicate that gold beneficiation practices have been utilized since the 12th century (Miller 1995), with some of these techniques still employed today in industrial processes that contribute to the local economy. However, the exploitation of these practices has also led to significant ecological degradation (Odumo et al. 2014, Mukisa et al. 2020).

Not only has the geology of the WRVC influenced the region’s mineral extraction and beneficiation, but it has also played a significant role in shaping the cultural identities, traditions, and beliefs of the local populations. For instance, the indigenous communities residing in the Rwenzori Massif (Node 6), which is recognized as the highest mountain range in the world’s rift valleys according to thermochronology analyses (Bauer et al. 2013), have developed distinct ethnic identities as a result of their interactions with and adaptations to this remarkable natural environment. These communities have demonstrated not only political sophistication but also crucial knowledge systems that reflect their deep connection to the land and surroundings. The current challenges posed by destructive flooding of River Kabiri, induced by irregular rainfall patterns and the rapidly melting glaciers, further emphasize the vital role of their sophisticated cultural knowledge in finding sustainable solutions and preserving their way of life (Bwambale et al. 2023).

Across numerous generations, a deep interdependence has been established between human culture and the natural environment, giving rise to an extensive wealth of Earth Stewardship practices and an understanding of the functioning of natural ecosystems and their responses to human activities. Local communities have amassed an exceptional repository of knowledge regarding the natural resources available in their area. This has led to the development of intricate systems for managing biological resources, and this traditional knowledge may provide novel insights for the conservation and sustainable management of natural resources (Lévêque 2001). Despite having once had expansive kingdoms and being the original stewards of the region (Pennacini 2008, Radeny et al. 2019), these communities have historically been neglected and marginalized. This loss or rapid modification of their identities has had a significant impact on ecological conservation, as they possess valuable knowledge and insights into the natural dynamics of the area.

Furthermore, the region’s geodiversity plays a crucial role in the consideration for conservation of biodiversity in the corridor. The WRVC’s dynamic landscapes, particularly in the Albertine Rift region spanning from Nodes 4 to 13, have given rise to a wide range of habitats that are densely packed along the corridor, resulting in the highest occurrence of vertebrate species in any continental African region (Rahbek et al. 2019). The Albertine Rift, in particular, is home to the highest concentration of endemic and threatened species on the continent and has been identified as an endemic bird area and designated as a Global 200 Priority Ecoregion (Stattersfield 1998, Olson et al. 2001). Scientists are continually discovering and describing an already vast array of species in the Albertine Rift. To date, there are already more than 6000 plant species and almost 2000 terrestrial vertebrates discovered in the region (Plumptre et al. 2016, unpublished manuscript). The Virunga Mountains (Node 7), a chain of volcanic mountains initiated some 15 Ma (Pouclet et al. 2016), are home to the critically endangered mountain gorilla, the Gorilla beringei beringei (McNeilage et al. 2001). These gorillas depend on the mountainous terrain for sanctuary and rely on continual stewardship efforts for their survival.

In addition, the East African Great Lakes Victoria, Tanganyika, and Malawi (Nodes 1, 13, and 17) are renowned for their remarkable diversity of cichlid fish (Seehausen 2015). These fish have evolved in the region for millions of years and have undergone rapid adaptive radiations, resulting in a stunning variety of species adapted to different ecological niches. Lake Victoria (Node 1), the second-largest freshwater lake globally, is approximately 400,000 years old and formed by extensive freshwater pooling between the western and eastern branches of the EARS (Johnson et al. 2000). Remarkably, it harbors over 500 cichlid species, many of which are endemic (Johnson et al. 1996). The lake’s diverse physical and chemical properties have led to unique feeding strategies, breeding behaviors, and morphological adaptations in its cichlid fish. However, Lake Victoria’s cichlid population has suffered from the introduction of non-native fish species and environmental degradation, resulting in the extinction of several endemic species (Natugonza et al. 2016). Lake Tanganyika (Node 13), the second-deepest lake globally, houses more than 200 cichlid species, many of which are highly specialized and possess unique adaptations to their ecological niches. The lake’s deep, clear waters and rocky shores have influenced the evolution of a wide range of feeding strategies, morphological adaptations, and social behaviors in its cichlid fish (Koblmüller et al. 2008, Takahashi and Koblmüller 2011). For instance, some species have elongated jaws for snail feeding, while the Neolamprologus pulcher cichlid exhibits complex social behaviors, such as cooperative breeding (Wong and Balshine 2011). Lake Malawi (Node 17), the ninth-largest lake globally, accommodates over 1000 cichlid species, boasting the highest diversity among freshwater lakes (Malinsky et al. 2018). Many of these species are endemic to the lake and have developed unique breeding behaviors, coloration patterns, and morphological adaptations. The male peacock cichlid, with its vibrant colors, uses them to attract mates, while the small and slender rock-dwelling Mbuna cichlid possesses a specialized jaw structure for scraping algae off rocks (Pauers 2011).

In turn, lakeshore communities have developed invaluable knowledge systems over generations for effective and sustainable fish stock management. These systems involve selective fishing techniques, avoiding overfishing or depleted populations, and implementing gear restrictions. Such practices have led to the co-evolution of both the fish system and fish stewardship (Lévêque 2001). One initiative aimed at preserving Lake Malawi’s biodiversity and cultural significance is the Lake Malawi National Park (Node 18). While serving as a sanctuary for cichlid fish diversity, the park also serves as a platform for community engagement and empowerment. Through integrating traditional knowledge with modern conservation practices, the park becomes a hub for education and skill-building within lakeshore communities.

DISCUSSION

The architecture of the WRVC emphasizes the interdependence of biodiversity, geodiversity, and cultural heritage that is so well preserved within the EARS. The corridor has been occupied by Homo sapiens throughout the Holocene with a noticeable deterioration through the Anthropocene due to rapid extraction and poor management of its ecosystem services (IPBES 2019, Sterner et al. 2020). It offers local populations valuable resources like minerals and abundant fish stocks, and important insight into the evolution of vertebrates, but also it presents an untapped opportunity for transdisciplinary knowledge that can contribute to effective Earth Stewardship. The corridor encompasses key biodiverse habitats linked to geological phenomena, which are vulnerable and demand urgent management in the coming decades (Ponce-Reyes et al. 2017, Plumptre et al. 2021). By contextualizing issues and fostering collaboration between the sciences and community participation, the corridor can help address real-world problems.

Establishing a large-scale heritage feature such as the WRVC provides an opportunity for collaborative efforts among East African nations to promote Earth Stewardship. The corridor’s value lies in its ability to foster a profound relationship among researchers across national boundaries, serving as a valuable platform for transdisciplinary knowledge exchange. The 20 heritage nodes within the corridor serve as a foundation for this collaborative effort, highlighting the cultural, biological, and geological significance of the region and emphasizing the need for new and innovative sustainable practices. The prevailing absence of this relationship between nations and the environment is reflected in the increasing destruction of habitats, poaching, illegal trade of wildlife, and the impact of climate change (Ponce-Reyes et al. 2017). Nevertheless, an increasing awareness of the corridor’s importance for sustainable development and the preservation of biodiversity is evident (e.g., Plumptre et al. 2021; Plumptre et al. 2016, unpublished manuscript).

Recognizing the WRVC as an integrated heritage system, with geology as a major pillar, we can unlock a wealth of opportunities for environmental education toward Earth Stewardship. The region’s geological features offer profound knowledge providing a foundation for a deeper appreciation of Earth’s processes. However, the neglect of geological concepts in global agendas such as the SDGs may limit the region’s ability to fully understand and address environmental challenges. Integrating geology into environmental education efforts, with location specific contextual learning could help develop a greater work force of geoscientists who recognize the fundamental role that geology plays and provide important insights into the stewardship of the Earth’s surface. By doing so, we can better promote sustainability and contribute to achieving goals such as the SDGs (Toteu et al. 2010, Ebinger et al. 2017, Linol et al. 2020, Scown 2020).

By leveraging the approach of the AAC as demonstrated in the WRVC, we can strengthen the bond among nations and encourage sustainable relationships between individuals and the natural world, while cultivating a sense of responsibility and stewardship toward the environment. This can be achieved by emphasizing aesthetic and emotional experiences, cultural significance, and identity, as well as environmental education and awareness. Within the WRVC, there exist cultural systems that exhibit deep appreciation for the aesthetic aspects of geological features, thereby shaping attitudes toward the environment (Muhumuza et al. 2022). They have also shaped people’s sense of identity and attachment to the land. For example, Lake Malawi is home to a rich diversity of fish species that have played a vital role in the culture and livelihoods of local communities for centuries (Lévêque 2001).

However, despite this coevolution, African communities in these regions face significant challenges exacerbated by historical colonialism and its enduring impacts on institutional development. Colonial legacies have left behind weak institutions that hinder the region’s progress. The continual lack of access to their own resources, coupled with the loss of indigenous knowledge and restricted access to academic journals and quality education, further compounds the challenges. These factors collectively impede the development of robust institutional frameworks necessary for sustainable resource management (Dietz et al. 2003).

Geological heritage sites within the WRVC can be valuable educational resources for further promoting environmental education and awareness. These sites can help illustrate the intricate linkages between ecosystems and landscapes, highlighting the significance of preserving geological heritage as part of broader environmental conservation efforts (Toteu et al. 2010).

The application of the AAC project faces significant limitations, specifically because of the underrepresentation of African authors in high-impact geoscience journals (North et al. 2020). This underrepresentation hinders the ability of the AAC to access the valuable knowledge and perspectives of local and Indigenous African people, stunting progress toward addressing the ecological crisis in a uniquely African way. The lack of resources and support required for conducting high-quality scientific research in Africa presents a further challenge, limiting the inclusion of important narratives in the stewardship conversation. Furthermore, many East African countries face significant financial constraints, making it difficult to invest in the projects like the AAC. Moreover, it is crucial to emphasize that the limitations extend beyond the underrepresentation of African authors; the journals themselves also present difficulties in accessing them. The challenging access to these journals compounds the barriers faced by African authors and further hampers the dissemination of important research and perspectives. This highlights the need for improved accessibility and inclusivity within the academic publishing landscape. Addressing these limitations is essential not only for making progress toward achieving the SDGs but also for creating a more equitable and engaging scientific community that communities can benefit from.

Additionally, the growth of rural populations and their inability to maintain traditional stewardship practices presents a challenge for sustainable development in the region. Despite the region’s abundant mineral resources providing a reliable means of livelihood for local communities over the centuries, the exploitation of these practices has led to significant ecological degradation. This poses a dilemma for communities who rely on these practices for economic prosperity, yet also strive for sustainability in the face of growing populations, climate change, and changing socioeconomic conditions. These limitations are also related to weak institutional frameworks, which result in poor implementation of policy structures (Takeuchi and Aginam 2011). Overcoming these limitations is crucial to making important progress toward achieving the SDGs, and Earth Stewardship can be a valuable tool for fostering community engagement and development.

By recognizing the ecological, cultural, and geological significance of the region’s deep history, we can develop heritage-based conservation efforts tailored to future generations. Nelson Mandela recognized the importance of this approach and endorsed the AAC project as a part of the larger Gondwana Alive concept, stating: “I endorse the ideals of Gondwana Alive because it approaches, as I see it, the very core of two concerns most dear to me - the children of today’s world and the children of tomorrow’s world” (Fig. 4; Anderson 2001). Overcoming the challenges of implementing Earth Stewardship in Africa is essential to preserve and further develop the region’s vast resources, and to ensure a sustainable future for all.

CONCLUSION

Our paper underscores the significance of the Western Rift Valley Corridor (WRVC) as a vital component of the Africa Alive Corridors (AAC) project, which seeks to foster connections between Earth and Life Sciences, and Culture to promote sustainable development in Africa. We emphasize the East African Rift System, a remarkable geological feature, as a critical heritage entity in Africa, characterized by its unique natural ecosystems and evolutionary history. By mapping out the WRVC including the Africa Great Lakes region and exceptional isolated mountains, we highlight the area’s explosive biodiversity intertwined with geological phenomena and cultural features, offering an integrated perspective of heritage that recognizes geodiversity as a crucial pillar. We map out 20 heritage nodes along the WRVC, describing a sub-continental scale heritage feature that highlights important lakes, mountain ranges, national parks, and ecosystems. These habitats are crucial sources of ecosystem services that are linked to recent geo-tectonic regimes.

The AAC offers a transdisciplinary knowledge system about Africa that is deeply embedded within its landscape and encompasses avenues that integrate and require local and Indigenous knowledge. Earth stewardship through science provides a platform from which to seek consilient, transdisciplinary knowledge and development among researchers to explore dynamic sustainable solutions for our planet and its people, aligning with the sustainable development goals. Our contribution seeks to encourage further work on the AAC initiative and the development of ecosystem services among researchers and local stakeholders. Future research and action along each corridor should involve detailed discourse and a transdisciplinary approach that is aligned with local realities and needs. By fostering collaborative efforts among diverse disciplines and local communities, we can work toward sustainable solutions for the conservation and development of the WRVC and other similar heritage corridors in Africa.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We gratefully acknowledge the funding provided by Iphakade, which supported the research for this project. We extend our thanks to the anonymous reviewers for their constructive and encouraging editorial comments, which greatly improved the original manuscript. Special appreciation is also due to Bastien Linol for his unwavering encouragement and motivation throughout this project.

This publication is dedicated to the late Maarten De Wit, whose visionary thinking and memory continue to inspire us.

This work is part of Iphakade contribution number 268 and AEON publication number 203.

DATA AVAILABILITY

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author, W. D. Miller. None of the data is yet publicly available as the Africa Alive Corridors is still in a conceptual phase and requires additional work.

Corresponding author:

Warren Miller

[email protected]

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