What Is the (Lack Of) Integration? An Intergroup Perspective Using the Photovoice Methodology

Abstract

Photovoice is a participatory action research (PAR) method that employes photographic language to explore individuals’ stories and living contexts. This study explores the representations of young participants, both immigrants and non-immigrants, concerning integration—defined within Berry’s (1997) framework as a bidirectional process of cultural and social adaptation between migrants and host communities—and the lack of integration within their neighborhood in Reggio Emilia, Italy. The participants included 12 young individuals (6 migrants and 6 locals) aged 19 to 29, two peer researchers, and one researcher. Over the course of two weekly three-hour meetings, participants captured and discussed photos depicting their perspectives on integration. The findings highlighted diverse conceptualizations of integration. Participants emphasized the reciprocal relationship between migrants and locals, illustrating how positive interactions with schools, workplaces, and public spaces facilitate integration. Additionally, successful migrants were seen as models of empowerment. Conversely, themes such as poverty, loneliness, discrimination, and the impact of war emerged as significant barriers to integration. This study underscores the dynamic and interactive nature of integration, as experienced by young people in multicultural settings. It highlights how Photovoice methodology can effectively capture nuanced perspectives on integration, foster mutual understanding, and facilitate intergroup relationships. The method fosters personal and community reflection, actively engaging its audience in critical discussions about integration.

1. Introduction

Migration towards Europe has become a significant and complex issue, characterized by diverse migration routes, nationalities, and underlying causes. In recent years, Europe has grappled with substantial migratory movements driven by conflict, persecution, and economic instability [1]. Understanding the social and psychological processes involved in the integration of migrants is crucial for promoting social cohesion and addressing the humanitarian challenges arising from these movements. One of the primary challenges of migration is the process of re-signifying one’s identity [2]. This challenge is particularly pronounced during emerging adulthood, a developmental stage characterized by exploration, self-focus, and instability [3,4]. Identity development is a critical aspect of emerging adulthood, involving the exploration and commitment to various identity domains, such as career, relationships, and cultural identity [5,6,7,8]. This challenge is especially true for young migrants, who navigate not only the typical challenges of emerging adulthood but also the complexities of adapting to a new cultural environment, which may differ significantly from that of their family of origin or cultural background. Emerging adults are in the process of identity formation, seeking to establish a sense of self in a rapidly changing world. For migrant emerging adults, this identity formation is further complicated by the need to o reconcile their cultural background with the cultural norms of the host society [9,10].

In everyday life, individuals navigate multiple facets of their identity, which are dynamically expressed depending on the time of day, and the social and physical context in which they find themselves. However, for young migrants and individuals from migrant families, this process is further complicated. They must negotiate and balance their inherited cultural identity with the new influences of the host country, giving rise to hybrid identities that integrate aspects of both cultures [11,12]. Similarly, local youth in multicultural settings experience an identity development which is influenced by diverse cultural interactions. The presence of migrants can prompt locals to reflect on their own cultural identities, leading to a more inclusive and nuanced understanding of identity [13]. The quality of intergroup interactions [14] plays a critical role in either facilitating or impeding this process and the integration outcomes are further influenced by community participation and social support [15,16].

The environments where young people live, the places they frequent, and the communities they engage with play a pivotal role in shaping their identities [17,18,19,20]. For migrants, the physical and social landscapes of their new environments influence their sense of belonging and identity. These environments offer contexts for daily interactions and experiences that shape individuals’ identity development [21]. Similarly, the identities of local youths are influenced by the growing diversity within their communities, leading them to negotiate and redefine their cultural identities [22,23]. Research by Crapolicchio et al. (2023) [10] highlights the importance of individual, relational, and social resources in mitigating identity threats among a specific target of migrants, emphasizing the critical role of supportive environments in facilitating identity integration for young migrants.

Expanding the perspective beyond the local context, integration processes are shaped by a society undergoing constant change and evolution. The concept of “liquid integration” effectively captures this condition, deriving from the broader theoretical framework of “liquid modernity”, a term introduced by sociologist Zygmunt Bauman [24] to describe the fluid and dynamic nature of contemporary society. Liquid integration refers to a flexible and ongoing process of integration, emphasizing adaptability, continuous negotiation, and the absence of fixed or stable endpoints. In contrast to traditional models of integration, which often assume a linear progression towards assimilation, liquid integration recognizes the complexity and evolving nature of individuals’ identities, as well as the variety of socio-political landscapes in which they live. This concept encompasses a broad range of social interactions and pathways to integration, reflecting the diversity of cultural, ethnic, and socio-economic contexts involved [25].

Recent studies highlight the necessity of considering liquid integration in migration research. For instance, Pisarevskaya et al. (2020) [26] argue that contemporary migration patterns and the socio-economic realities of both migrants and host societies require a more nuanced understanding of integration processes. This perspective acknowledges that migrants continuously navigate multiple cultural, social, and economic domains, reshaping their identities and strategies in response to new challenges and opportunities.

Moreover, liquid integration underscores the importance of fostering intergroup relations and creating inclusive environments that accommodate diverse experiences and backgrounds. A wide psycho-social literature shows that intergroup contact can lead to increased empathy, reduced stereotypes, and greater acceptance of outgroup members [27,28]. Intergroup contact in the context of migration can significantly enhance mutual understanding and reduce prejudice, particularly when contact is sustained and meaningful [29]. More recent research emphasizes the role of intergroup contact in promoting mutual understanding and reducing prejudice, which are essential components of a fluid and adaptive integration process. Furthermore, these interactions not only improve attitudes towards primary outgroups but also enhance positive collective action intentions towards secondary outgroups, thereby broadening the scope of social cohesion [30].

Drawing from these premises, this study employed the Photovoice methodology as a strategic approach to document and reflect on participants’ integration representations through photography. This method fosters a dynamic and flexible approach that mirrors the fluid nature of liquid integration [31,32] and promotes positive intergroup contact. Photovoice is a participatory action research (PAR) method that employs photographic language to explore individuals’ experiences and life contexts from the perspective of the participants themselves [31]. Developed in the mid-1990s by Caroline Wang and Mary Ann Burris, Photovoice combines photography with grassroots social action. It is designed to give voice to marginalized or underrepresented groups, allowing them to document and communicate their experiences and perspectives through photographs. These images are then used to foster dialogue, raise awareness, and influence policy and social opinion [33]. Photovoice was chosen to achieve our objectives as it facilitates a deeper understanding of participants’ perspectives on migration by actively involving youth within their community [34]. This method is based on the assumption that participants are the best experts regarding their own lives. It encourages youth to voice their concerns and advocate for issues important to them, consistent with the findings of Checkoway and Richards-Schuster (2003) [35], which show that Photovoice fosters the development of critical awareness and promotes youth-led action.

Wang (2003) [31] emphasized that Photovoice empowers participants by allowing them to capture and share their realities with others, often leading to a greater understanding of their lived experiences. This method not only facilitates personal and community reflection but also aims to drive social change by engaging both participants and the wider audience in critical discussions about the issues highlighted through photographs. By doing so, Photovoice helps reduce the gap between community members and policymakers, promoting a participatory approach to addressing social issues [36].

Furthermore, in this study we included in the Photovoice groups both local youth and migrants, assigning them the same tasks. which aimed to foster meaningful interactions that adhere to the conditions outlined by contact theory. This structured interaction not only provided a space for shared experiences and mutual understanding but also empowered participants to express their perspectives creatively and collaboratively Photographic language is an effective means of communication, especially among young people from diverse cultures and backgrounds [32,37,38,39]. Furthermore, photovoice has emerged as a highly effective participatory research method for engaging vulnerable populations, fostering both empowerment and community involvement. By enabling participants to document and narrate their lived experiences through photography, photovoice provides a platform for marginalized voices to express their challenges, strengths, and aspirations. This approach enhances agency and self-expression, empowering individuals to advocate for their needs and drive social change within their communities [40]. It further promotes resilience by encouraging reflection on positive coping strategies and communal strengths, which helps to build social capital and strengthen connections across diverse groups [41]. Additionally, the collaborative and flexible nature of photovoice allows for a respectful and culturally sensitive research process, making it particularly effective in capturing the complex experiences of those facing social, economic, and environmental vulnerabilities (Brandt et al., 2017 [42]; Cai, 2024 [43]; Derr, V., & Simons, 2020 [44]. Across Europe, various studies have engaged young people in Photovoice projects on a range of topics related to integration [45,46,47,48,49]. Moreover, PAR and art-based methodologies are constantly growing in research involving young migrants in vulnerable conditions [50].

Examining the visual and narrative data generated through Photovoice, the study aimed to uncover the nuanced and multifaceted nature of integration and relative representations, shedding light on the social and psychological processes that are likely to underpin successful or unsuccessful integration efforts.

Finally, the present research employed a qualitative approach to explore the meanings of integration from the perspectives of different groups, including migrants, second-generation individuals, and locals aged 18 to 29. The common aspects among these groups are their residence in the same community or social context and their status as young adults. This approach aimed to compare their viewpoints on the ongoing dimensions of integration and to foster positive intergroup relationships through action research.

2. Materials and Methods

This research was conducted as part of the MIMY project H2020, which has the broader objective of examining the experiences and integration of young people emigrating from non-European countries to Europe.

The primary objective of this study was to “give a voice” to the young individuals (both migrants and non-migrants) within the local community of Reggio Emilia. Similar studies have been conducted in other European cities [47,48,49]. This study provided an opportunity to explore the emotional and cognitive representations of these young individuals regarding the issues of integration in their life contexts, whether at the district, city, or provincial level.

Through Photovoice methodology, participants shared their perspectives on the contexts in which they live, highlighting aspects that represent either integration or its absence. In essence, the study aimed to describe personal and group representations of integration and non-integration within their contexts and relationships. The process ultimately led to a group elaboration and representation of (lack of) integration. Overall, the project seeks to promote individual transformation through enhanced awareness of one’s circumstances, as well as to encourage collective change through the establishment of relationships and mutual exchange among participants. Concurrently, the results of the project may serve as a catalyst for fostering social awareness of integration and intercultural exchange within the broader community.

2.1. Participants

The study involved twelve young people (six women and six men) living in Reggio Emilia, with a mix of migratory backgrounds (direct migrants or from migrant families) and locals, aged between 18 and 29.

The study’s participants came from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds, offering a rich array of perspectives. The female participants included four local students, one second-generation student, and one student-worker who emigrated from Romania before the country’s entry into the European Union, currently serving as a peer researcher. The male participants include a peer researcher and worker from Senegal, a worker from Chile, a student who emigrated from Ukraine, and another student with a North African background. Additionally, there were wo male workers, one from Romania and one from Albania, further contributing to the diversity of socio-cultural experiences represented in the study. The group included a psychology researcher who acted as the facilitator, as well as two peer researchers (PRs), as mentioned above. The PRs have extensive migratory histories in the host country and facilitate communication with young migrants by acting not only as linguistic and cultural mediators, but also as bridges across diverse experiences. While they may not speak all the languages represented in the study, their role extends beyond translation to fostering mutual understanding, building trust, and offering broader support to participants. Most importantly, they serve as positive models of integration, helping to navigate and share experiences of the integration process in various contexts. According to Berry’s (1997) [11] acculturation framework, “positive integration” occurs when individuals are able to maintain their cultural identity while also participating actively in the broader society. The PRs embody this dual process, acting as role models who demonstrate how cultural adaptation and contribution to the community can be achieved and coexist. Their presence helps both migrants and locals view integration as a reciprocal, dynamic process characterized by active participation, respect for diversity, and mutual enrichment.

The two PRs involved were a psychology university student from Romania who had arrived in Italy before the country joined the EU, and an asylum seeker from Senegal, both involved in the broader MIMY project. These different perspectives provided an unprecedented view of the territory and life contexts, highlighting how these factors can facilitate or hinder the integration process. The inclusion of both migrants and non-migrants enabled the activation of reciprocity in integration, understood as a two-way and reciprocal process.

2.2. Procedure

Participants were recruited through contacts of the peer researchers, announcements at the Catholic University of Sacred Heart in Milan and the researcher’s connections with local cultural associations. Interested students participated voluntarily and received 1 credit (CFU) for extracurricular activities. Non-student participants received a 15-euro Amazon gift card as a token of appreciation for their participation. Participants took part in a workshop conducted by moderators (a researcher and two peer researchers) trained in the Photovoice method.

The procedure included two in-person group sessions and an individual task between the meetings. The first session lasted approximately 3 h, and the second session around 4 h, with a two-week interval between them. These sessions were conducted in a classroom at the University. The study was carried out in several phases.

Phase I: During the first meeting the investigation’s objectives were presented, along with an introduction to the Photovoice method and basic photographic techniques. Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study. Additionally, consent forms were provided for individuals who might be photographed by the participants, in order to get their permission to be photographed and to use their images in the project. The protocol outlined the procedures for the Photovoice groups, as summarized below.

Preliminary information on the Photovoice methodology was provided, group dynamics were activated, and camera usage was explored. Additionally, participants received information about the ethical administration of Photovoice and were given a release form to obtain consent from the individuals they photographed. The researcher then assigned a photographic task, and participants followed these instructions: “In your life context (community, neighborhood, or city), what facilitates and hinders integration (or positive experiences) between migrants and the local population? Try to photograph what shows integration or lack thereof”.

Phase II: All images produced by the participants, along with their captions, were collected within a week. Participants took the photos with their smartphones in their own life contexts. The peer researchers and the facilitating researcher maintained contact with participants to assist them with the photographic tasks as needed. Participants were then asked to choose three pictures, add a comment for each one, and send them to the researcher via email before the second meeting.

Phase III: During the second meeting, after viewing all the pictures, the group engaged in an open discussion to share their initial thoughts and reactions. Participants had submitted their photos several days prior to the meeting. These submissions were compiled by the researchers into a PowerPoint presentation, which was displayed on a screen during the meeting to enhance the collective viewing experience. Participants then shared the individual meanings they attributed to their photos through personal presentations, wherein each participant explained the significance of their submissions. They were then encouraged to reflect on themes related to the pictures, identifying similarities and differences between participants to stimulate group discussion. Joint reflection on the themes evoked by the photos was encouraged, and the group collaboratively selected the photos that best represented the themes discussed, along with captions for each selected photo. The same photos would be displayed in an exhibition open to the public, with the aim of stimulating reflection and awareness of the issue in the wider community. The group discussion was audio recorded.

Phase IV: Data analysis followed two main steps: (a) a participatory data analysis with the participants, who identified the main themes around which the discussion was centered and selected the most significant photos for each macro-theme; (b) with the support of audio recordings, the research team and peer researchers later reviewed and deepened the themes identified, enriching the description of the themes with extracts from the group discussion.

Phase V: To organize the final exhibition, the facilitators and peer researchers selected the pictures that incorporated all the themes and the corresponding photos chosen by the participants. During a final online meeting, the draft of the pictures and captions for the exhibition was reviewed and modified collaboratively until it was approved by all participants. The exhibition took place in the subsequent months at the University, aligning with the project’s objective to raise awareness about integration, the lack of integration, and the factors that can facilitate or impede this process. It was aimed at students, the local community, and local institutions, and was organized by the facilitator and peer researchers. The exhibition was organized as part of the Equality Week event, a week dedicated by the University to promoting diversity and presenting it to the public. During this event, students and faculty came together to support equality, with a particular focus on gender diversity, sexual orientation, disability, and ethnicity. This process also fostered a sense of active participation and a role in social change among the participants, as they were able to share their stories and views on the issue through the photographs they chose and the captions they developed.

3. Results

During the Photovoice activity, the group identified several themes related to both integration and lack of integration. These themes highlight various aspects that influence the integration process and the challenges associated with it. Eight main themes were identified: five related to integration and four to the lack of integration.

• Themes Of Successful Integration

1. Two-way Integration: Reciprocal Engagement and Inclusion

A key theme identified is the concept of Two-way Integration: Reciprocal Engagement and Inclusion, which relies on the efforts of all parties involved—migrants and the local population. This theme emphasizes reciprocal intercultural exchanges and individual commitments to contact, engagement, and belonging. Many photographs captured during the study depict public investment and community efforts in favor of integration. Different images showcase various aspects of the theme, such as informal and spontaneous exchanges between people in shared spaces. For example, a participant notes “Many of the photographs depict significant locations in Reggio and capture informal, spontaneous interactions among individuals who frequent these spaces and talk”. Figure 1 showcases the spontaneous and informal exchanges mentioned.

A participant adds: “The universal language is capable of breaking down barriers and is the key to integration because the boy on the right was adopted, he is Indian, and we are Calabrian [southern Italy]. When we moved to Reggio Emilia [northern Italy], my sister was a victim of discrimination at school. And it struck me because they are very close-knit; he is an important pillar for our family because he is always there. This […] is a place where there are a lot of people nearby, and I took a symbolic photo […] showing that unity and love are the only things capable—if there is that, if there is good intention, if there is love, then there is good in everything that is done” (see Figure 2).

The last photo selected in this thematic area (Figure 3) represents exchange, contamination, and knowledge through food. The photo was selected because, during the discussion, food was mentioned as a vehicle for exchange and was related to other topics as well “…we had food days where all the mothers had to prepare their traditional dishes. It was very nice because the children were super excited, saying ‘Come see what my mom made’. It brought both the kids and the adults together”.

• 2.. Childhood and future: starting with them

The second macro theme is Childhood and Future: Starting with Them. Education and investment in the new generation are crucial for the integration of young people, providing them with the knowledge, skills, sensitivity, and opportunities necessary to thrive in a new society. Numerous photos highlighted moments of interaction among children of different ethnic backgrounds, spending time together, welcoming one another, and exemplifying coexistence and integration. These images underscore the need for social, political, and community investment in young generations and the future, which are essential for fostering a more inclusive and less discriminatory environment.

Interaction between groups provides the necessary foundation for integration. This includes both institutional settings and spontaneous, informal encounters in various meeting places.

An example of this second theme can be seen in Figure 4.

A participant affirms: “People, sports, meeting, movement […] let’s say the group as integration, not just seeing it as integration between Italians and foreigners, but also on a larger scale among the same population that inhabits those places, regardless of origin”.

Another participant adds: “People with a common interest go to a place, get to know each other, and maybe become friends […] shared interests bring people closer” (see Figure 5).

• 3.. Role Models: Inspiring Successful Integration

The third theme of integration regards role models: individuals who embody successful integration serve as role models, inspiring and encouraging new generations to integrate. A participant, the daughter of the individual represented in Figure 6, explains that her mother exemplifies successful integration. After years of hard work and study, her mother received public recognition in the form of a certification related to her professional qualifications in her new place of residence, which differs from her country of origin. Despite this difference, she has successfully implemented a significant project in her new community (see Figure 6).

This figure and the related woman’s experience not only highlight the personal challenge of integration but were also perceived by the participants as a message of hope. They emphasized that, despite the difficulties faced, individual determination and community support can make integration an achievable goal. This optimistic view reflects the shared belief among the participants that, through personal commitment and positive interactions with the community, it is possible to build meaningful connections and facilitate the integration process.

A participant cites and photographs a peer researcher as an example of successful integration. This individual overcame a challenging migration journey, managed to develop a project, secured stable employment, and is actively engaged with the community (Figure 7).

Additionally, these role models often serve as advocates for rights, paving the way for marginalized groups, especially in work contexts. One participant shares an impactful example: “I watched a film called ‘Hidden Figures’, which is beautiful. It depicts a time when women were not even considered for office jobs. The film is about NASA and the women who initially did not work in such settings, especially women of color. In the end, it’s a true story about how they managed to achieve the moon landing thanks to these women of color—unthinkable at the time. The message related to career advancement and equitable access to jobs is a powerful one” (Figure 8).

The participants emphasized that work and fair access to employment are important aspects of integration, but not the only ones. The use of the term ‘also’ highlights how employment is a component that can contribute to the inclusion process, without reducing human value to the work role alone. In this context, it is particularly significant, as it not only captures the concept of work, but also represents a type of employment that remains relatively inaccessible to non-locals in the Italian context. It is still uncommon to see a person of immigrant background working in an office role within a public institution.

• 4.. Integration Through Spaces

The theme of integration extends beyond cultural diversity to include the importance of accessible environments. Creating inclusive spaces is essential for fostering a sense of participation for everyone, including individuals with disabilities. A participant explains: “I don’t see integration as just involving people from different cultures; it also includes people with various disabilities. A person with a disability has to overcome a significant obstacle, and for us, it’s not a big investment to build a small ramp. This can help them reach places they otherwise couldn’t. The message conveyed is that with a little effort, you can do something that makes a big difference for someone else, which is definitely impactful”. (see Figure 9).

Ensuring that public and private spaces are accessible can significantly impact the lives of those who face physical challenges. Another participant explained his picture: “I’ve called the title “Help”. Young people just out of school struggle to integrate into the workforce. Unlike other countries that follow a regular system, here the economy is made up of many small businesses, each with its own internal policies. It’s not easy for the state to help integrate efficiently, nor for young people to integrate themselves. Changing jobs means everything changes. However, there is positivity because the state is trying and providing tools and spaces to integrate young people” (see Figure 10).

• 5.. Integration as Identity Belonging

Spaces that individuals perceive as their own, including those that reflect multicultural routines, exemplify integration at the level of identity and belonging (see Figure 11).

These spaces are not only physical but also cultural and religious, highlighting how diverse communities can coexist and recognize each other’s presence in a shared environment. A participant says: “Well, these two street signs are very explicit. It’s very nice because it indicates a Sikh temple and a hall for Jehovah’s Witnesses. It shows that even in a predominantly Catholic country, there are cultural places for religious minorities. They don’t have to hide or meet in private places but have a public place dedicated to them…” (see Figure 12).

• Themes of Lack Of Integration

• 6.. Discrimination: Obstacles to Integration

The first theme that is both a representation of lack of integration and an obstacle to integration is Discrimination. Hurtful words and actions lead to discrimination, which hampers the integration process.

An example of this first theme of lack of integration is shown in Figure 13. A participant comments: “The signs before dedicated to this place of open-mindedness and welcoming, and then you walk through an underpass just ten minutes away and find this […] Speechless, it was really related to that, they’ve used far too many words, it leaves you without words…”

• 7.. Poverty and Social Isolation: Barriers to Integration

Poverty and solitude constitute the second theme associated with the. Mentioned as both a cause and consequence of failed integration, poverty creates barriers to full participation in society. A participant says: “Consequence: the minority that no longer integrates feels marginalized and alone. A boy in the distance listening to his phone alone in the park, to me, it’s like those who don’t integrate and give in to solitude”.

An example of this first theme of lack of integration is shown in Figure 14.

In this context, poverty and solitude are depicted as interconnected themes contributing to a lack of integration. The image captures an individual with a migrant background, evoking the idea of poverty and solitude. As noted by a participant, this representation symbolizes how a lack of integration can lead to feelings of isolation and marginalization. Poverty serves as a significant factor, as economic hardship can isolate individuals from social activities and opportunities for engagement, thereby reinforcing solitude. The photo aims to illustrate how both poverty and solitude can become intertwined barriers to integration, with one leading to the other and creating a cycle that hinders full participation in community life.

• 8.. War: The Destructive Force Against Integration

Another theme of lack of integration is War, highlighting how conflict exacerbates tensions and the perception of threat, distancing people from each other and hindering integration. A group member says: “With war, you don’t create integration but hatred, and you definitely hate the population. […] Telling people that weapons bring nothing good”.

Another person added: “I am struck by the fact that there is a cannon; it seems to be placed there to symbolize power, but in reality, it should be a condemnation” (Figure 15).

It is likely that the historical moment in which the focus groups were conducted influenced this theme, namely after the initial period following the outbreak of the war in Ukraine. Indeed, other participants brought the peace flag to denounce the negative effects of war on integration as well.

• 9.. Isolation

The last theme representing lack of integration is Isolation. Group participants underlines that some migrant groups live in forgotten areas, far from the community, leading to social isolation and a lack of integration. A participant says, regarding the following photo: “Yes, I wanted to represent the fact that very often immigrants do not have a fixed place of residence or that they are not given one in a short time. They have to wait years and years and, in the meantime, find precarious, undignified places. And this is not great, but a shelter, let’s say, is used as a refuge” (see Figure 16).

In the same direction, a participant referring to isolation adds, “I photographed […] simply a square where there is nothing—no people, no things. So, if there are neither appropriate spaces nor people, then there is surely no integration. Because if someone goes out to the square and there is no one and nothing to do, then there is no integration”.

At last, regarding places of isolation and non-integration, a participant states, “I remember the early years […] there were syringes on the ground or people harassing you, and in my opinion, it is not a place of integration. […] There are areas very close by where you pass through an underpass, and even there, they are places where it is not ideal for a high school student, or for anyone else, as they are not safe. Those from Reggio know these places”.

The participant characterizes this location as a space of failed integration, citing its dangerous and degraded conditions as impediments to fostering positive relationships. This environment is associated with negative and risky encounters, including those related to drug dealing. Different members agree that some areas are isolated or dangerous, closed off, and inaccessible, even though everyone is aware of their nature. These are places where one cannot move freely, especially at certain times.

4. Discussion

The findings from this study offer a nuanced understanding of integration and its challenges as experienced by young people in a multicultural city. Using the Photovoice methodology, participants were able to express their perspectives on integration through visual and narrative means, highlighting both positive experiences and significant obstacles.

The theme of Two-way Integration: Reciprocal Engagement and Inclusion highlights a key critique of traditional integration models that often place the onus solely on migrants to adapt. This approach neglects the role of the local population in the integration process, overlooking the necessity for reciprocal efforts. By emphasizing mutual engagement, the concept of two-way integration underscores the importance of shared responsibility in fostering inclusion. Both migrants and host communities are called to adapt, interact, and contribute to creating inclusive spaces, promoting a more balanced and equitable approach to integration that values diversity and encourages genuine dialogue [51]. This finding aligns with Berry’s (1997) acculturation theory, which emphasizes the reciprocal process of adaptation between migrants and host societies, reinforcing the idea that successful integration depends on the efforts and openness of both groups [11,51]. Additionally, this perspective is supported by Ward and Geeraert (2016) [52], who assert that successful integration necessitates active participation and mutual adjustment from both migrant and host communities. The visual data depicting informal and spontaneous exchanges in shared spaces further corroborate the importance of everyday interactions in fostering integration. In more detail, the visual data depicting informal and spontaneous exchanges in shared spaces corroborate the importance of everyday interactions in fostering integration [14]. These interactions play a crucial role in dismantling stereotypes and building trust and support, thereby reinforcing Pettigrew and Tropp’s (2006) [27] contact hypothesis, which posits that sustained positive intergroup contact can reduce prejudice and promote social cohesion. Furthermore, such interactions are instrumental in preventing and mitigating discrimination, a key barrier identified in the integration process. It is important to highlight that hurtful words and actions that perpetuate social exclusion are significant barriers to integration, resonating with the broader literature on the negative impacts of discrimination on social and psychological well-being [6]. Another pivotal role is played by the education and development of young people, which emerged as a critical theme for successful integration. This aligns with the developmental framework of emerging adulthood, where identity formation is crucial [3,4]. The positive interactions among children of different ethnic backgrounds in schools and community settings reinforce the notion that these environments are vital for integration [53]. These findings underscore the necessity for policies that promote inclusive education and social programs aimed at fostering intercultural competence, particularly from an early age [9].

Furthermore, the role of successful individuals as models of integration is significant. These role models, who have navigated the complexities of migration to achieve recognition and stable employment, provide tangible examples for others. This theme is supported by Bandura’s (1977) [54] social learning theory, which suggests that observing successful behaviors can inspire and motivate others to follow similar paths. More recently, research highlights how role models can facilitate career advancement by providing mentorship and guidance [55,56]. The narratives of these role models highlight the significance of resilience and the potential for successful integration, even in the face of systemic barriers.

The study also identified several key themes related to the lack of integration, highlighting significant barriers that impede the successful integration of migrants. First, poverty and solitude were identified as both causes and consequences of failed integration. This finding is consistent with research indicating that socio-economic challenges hinder migrants’ ability to fully participate in society [57]. Recent studies further emphasize the detrimental impact of poverty and social isolation on migrant integration. For instance, Ager and Strang (2008) [58] highlight that limited access to resources and social networks can significantly impede the integration process. Similarly, Phillimore (2012) [59] highlights that economic hardship and social isolation represent critical barriers preventing migrants from fully engaging in their new communities. Isolation—whether stemming from geographical location or social exclusion—was identified as a significant obstacle to integration. Residing in neglected or unsafe areas corresponds with existing research emphasizing the importance of accessible and inclusive environments for fostering integration [18,19]. Furthermore, the impact of war on integration emerged as another significant theme, underscoring how conflict exacerbates tensions and perceptions of threat, thereby alienating individuals from one another. This theme is particularly relevant in the context of the ongoing war in Ukraine, which has created additional challenges for migrant integration. The participants’ reflections echo the broader understanding that geopolitical conflicts have local repercussions, affecting social cohesion and integration processes [26].

Furthermore, the PAR approach through Photovoice fostered positive intergroup relations. The inclusive and participatory nature of Photovoice allowed participants from different backgrounds to share their experiences and perspectives, promoting mutual understanding and empathy. The relaxed and open atmosphere during the sessions encouraged meaningful dialogue and collaboration, which are essential for building trust and reducing prejudices. This aligns with findings by Gaboardi et al. (2022) [38], who highlight the effectiveness of Photovoice in bridging gaps between diverse community members and fostering social change.

Participants were able to narrate and share their stories in a process that fostered increased awareness and empowerment. Interactions among individuals from different backgrounds stimulated group cohesion and prompted reflections on shared narratives and perspectives, helping participants connect beyond language barriers. Group participation promotes empowerment [60,61], a sense of self-efficacy, personal autonomy, and control [62,63]. In addition, the participants had a responsible role in the sharing of their views with the wider community, particularly in the university context. The university, a symbol of cultural exchange, gave a ‘voice’ to those who live the issue of integration. The photographs are a stimulus for social awareness, in order to overcome stereotypes and prejudices that can lead to discrimination, as evidenced by the participants’ photographs.

The presence of peer researchers (PRs) in the group was central to the success of the Photovoice activity. They shared experiences and characteristics with the study community and facilitated access to groups typically wary of external figures, thereby increasing trust and enhancing the quality of the data collected. Even more valuable is the heterogeneity of the peer researchers themselves; one PR was a university student, closely aligning with the peers in terms of intergroup relations, which allowed for better engagement with younger participants. The other PR, a worker with a different cultural and experiential background, was more relatable to another segment of the group, thus broadening the study’s reach. Their deep understanding of cultural and social nuances contributed to the formulation of more relevant questions, facilitating discussion between all the participants and the broader interpretation of responses. PRs supported the design of research instruments, collected data, and facilitated communication between the research team and the community, promoting ethical practices and the empowerment of the community itself.

5. Conclusions

Photovoice’s primary aim is the promotion of change, which distinguishes it from other photo-based methodologies due to this specific focus [64].

In the context of this project, change is understood on multiple levels: individual, group, and societal. At the individual level, this was clearly achieved, as the young participants demonstrated an increased critical awareness and reflection on the integration issues directly affecting them. Group-level change was also evident, as participants were able to recognize themselves as part of a cohesive group, working collaboratively to reach consensus (e.g., on the selection of photos and captions) that collectively represented them. This process allowed them to broaden their individual perspectives by integrating and hybridizing them with those of others. The third level, social change, is more challenging to achieve, as it requires transformation at both political and cultural levels—processes that necessitate time and greater engagement from a country’s political authorities. In this case, the university fulfilled a social function as a public institution capable of fostering a culture of inclusion and multiculturalism.

In conclusion, this study underscores the complex and multifaceted nature of integration as experienced by young people in a multicultural city. The themes identified through the Photovoice methodology highlight both successful strategies for two-way integration and persistent barriers. Addressing these challenges requires the implementation of comprehensive policies that encourage and promote reciprocal engagement, invest in the younger generation, support role models, combat discrimination, alleviate poverty, and ensure safe and inclusive environments. Future research should continue to explore these themes, with a focus on developing and implementing effective integration policies that foster social cohesion and mutual understanding in increasingly diverse societies.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.C., D.M. and M.G.; methodology, E.C., D.M. and M.G.; formal analysis, E.C.; investigation, E.C.; writing—original draft preparation, E.C.; writing—review and editing, E.C., D.M., M.G., C.G. and C.R.; visualization, E.C. and D.M.; supervision, D.M. and M.G.; project administration, C.R.; funding acquisition, C.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Commission of the Department of Psychology, Catholic University of Milano (CERPS protocol number 18–20 MIMY, 6 July 2020) for studies involving humans.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

I thank all the MIMY participants for sharing their time and stories and all our fellow MIMY researchers for their contribution to the project.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Figures

Figure 1. Title: Exchange. Caption: Friendship always brings about an exchange of experiences, stories, and teachings. When these exchanges occur between people of different cultures, they have an added value, as they allow us to see the world without the lenses of ignorance and fear of the unknown (V., from Romania).

Figure 2. Title: Love is the master key to every door. Caption: Universal language capable of breaking down all barriers and the key to integration. Contact that becomes sentiment (M., local).

Figure 3. Food has always brought people together; what if, therefore, food itself could act as a unifying force? Caption: Sushi all over Italy, pizzerias scattered throughout Europe—food, more than anything else, transcends borders (D., from Romania).

Figure 4. Title: Welcome. Caption: “Welcome to school”: A powerful and simple explanation of welcome by children (M., local).

Figure 5. Title: Space to explore. Caption: an area dedicated to young people, where they can express themselves freely, play, and discover all the colors of the world without fear (F., local).

Figure 6. Title: 20 Years of integration. Caption: Integrating is not easy; at times it may even seem impossible, but with a lot of determination and willpower, it can be achieved, and this is proof of that. The important thing is to never let yourself be discouraged, even when others are (K., from Morocco).

Figure 7. Title: Beyond ethnicity, 360-degree integration, respect for others. Caption: When difficulties meet opportunities, stories that also impact the lives of others are bound to emerge. M., a young man who, with his shyness and curiosity, writes his own story of fulfillment (D., from Romania).

Figure 8. Integration Everywhere. Caption: Integration also involves work and equitable access to employment. An inclusive work environment fosters integration (C., from North Africa).

Figure 9. Big obstacles, small solutions. Caption: Some solutions allow everyone to integrate and participate in society’s activities. Mental space also becomes physical space for integration (D., from Romania).

Figure 10. Title: Help. Caption: [“Space for youth”] The state tries to integrate young people into the workforce. To be part of a community, there need to be points of reference and opportunities; this is an example (P., from Romania).

Figure 11. Title: Here I’ve Put Down Roots. Feeling a sense of belonging to a place is not necessarily connected to the country of origin. For the new generations in particular, the host country has become the new country of origin (D., from Romania).

Figure 12. Title: Points of View: Integration Through Free Choice. Caption: A territory where hospitality extends to places of worship and respects religious affiliation, normalizing diversity (G., local).

Figure 13. Title: Speechless. Caption: When words are dangerous and violent. They strike, destroy, and alienate. An example of failed integration (K., from Morocco).

Figure 14. Title: The man on the bus. Caption: Poverty and the different ways of experiencing certain places and common spaces depending on one’s social background. (S., from Chile).

Figure 15. Title: Dis(integration). Caption: The War that Hurts, Separates, Induces fatigue, Kills, (Dis)Integrates (O., from Ukraine).

Figure 16. Title: Waiting for a Better Future. Caption: The long waits for the regulation of residence documents also mean living in uncomfortable, isolated places, far from the community, which exhaust and divide (K., from Morocco).

References

1. Interactive World Migration Report 2024. Available online: https://www.iom.int/wmr/interactive (accessed on 13 October 2024).

2. Gozzoli, C.; Regalia, C. Migrazioni e Famiglie: Percorsi, Legami, Interventi Psicosociali; FrancoAngeli: Milan, Italy, 2005.

3. Arnett, J.J. Emerging Adulthood: What Is It, and What Is It Good For?. Child Dev. Perspect.; 2007; 1, pp. 68-73. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2007.00016.x]

4. Arnett, J.J. The Oxford Handbook of Emerging Adulthood; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2015.

5. Marcia, J.E. Development and validation of ego-identity status. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol.; 1966; 3, pp. 551-558. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0023281] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5939604]

6. Schwartz, S.J.; Unger, J.B.; Meca, A.; Lorenzo-Blanco, E.I.; Baezconde-Garbanati, L.; Cano, M.Á.; Piña-Watson, B.; Szapocznik, J.; Zamboanga, B.L.; Córdova, D. et al. Personal Identity Development in Hispanic Immigrant Adolescents: Links with Positive Psychosocial Functioning, Depressive Symptoms, and Externalizing Problems. J. Youth Adolesc.; 2017; 46, pp. 898-913. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0615-y] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27882458]

7. Manzi, C.; Vignoles, V.L.; Regalia, C. Accommodating a new identity: Possible selves, identity change and well-being across two life-transitions. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol.; 2010; 40, pp. 970-984. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.669]

8. Manzi, C.; Ferrari, L.; Rosnati, R.; Benet-Martinez, V. Bicultural identity integration of transracial adolescent adoptees: Antecedents and outcomes. J. Cross-Cult. Psychol.; 2014; 45, pp. 888-904. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022114530495]

9. Motti-Stefanidi, F. Resilience among immigrant youth: The role of culture, development and acculturation. Dev. Rev.; 2018; 50, pp. 99-109. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2018.04.002]

10. Crapolicchio, E.; Matuella, M.; Carones, G.; Marzana, D.; Regalia, C. Identity Threats and Individual, Relational, and Social Resources among Refugees in Italy. Soc. Sci.; 2023; 12, 149. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/socsci12030149]

11. Berry, J.W. Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Appl. Psychol.; 1997; 46, pp. 5-34. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x]

12. Ward, C.; Ng Tseung-Wong, C.; Szabo, A.; Qumseya, T.; Bhowon, U. Hybrid and Alternating Identity Styles as Strategies for Managing Multicultural Identities. J. Cross-Cult. Psychol.; 2018; 49, pp. 1402-1439. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022118782641]

13. Phinney, J.S.; Romero, I.; Nava, M.; Huang, D. The role of language, parents, and peers in ethnic identity among adolescents in immigrant families. J. Youth Adolesc.; 2001; 30, pp. 135-153. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1010389607319]

14. Miller, R.; Ong KI, C.; Choi, S.; Shibanuma, A.; Jimba, M. Seeking connection: A mixed methods study of mental well-being and community volunteerism among international migrants in Japan. BMC Public Health; 2020; 20, 1272. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09381-2] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32819356]

15. Marzana, D.; Alfieri, S.; Marta, E.; Paloma, V. Community Involvement as a Vehicle for Integration: A Study with Young Immigrants. J. Civ. Soc.; 2020; 16, pp. 138-157. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17448689.2020.1752020]

16. Marzana, D.; Damia, S.M.; Marta, E.; Pozzi, M.; Martínez, M.L. Engagement in migrant organizations for immigrant integration: A mixed-method study with Peruvians in Chile. Int. Migr. Integr.; 2022; 23, pp. 2125-2146. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12134-021-00928-9] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35125972]

17. Lai, P.-H.; Gudergan, S.; Young, T.; Lee, K. Resident intention to invite friends, relatives, and acquaintances: The dynamic process of place identity as a motivator. Tour. Manag.; 2021; 84, 104251. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104251]

18. Scannell, L.; Gifford, R. Defining place attachment: A tripartite organizing framework. J. Environ. Psychol.; 2010; 30, pp. 1-10. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.09.006]

19. Scannell, L.; Gifford, R. The experienced psychological benefits of place attachment. J. Environ. Psychol.; 2017; 51, pp. 256-269. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.04.001]

20. Twigger-Ross, C.L.; Uzzell, D.L. Place and identity processes. J. Environ. Psychol.; 1996; 16, pp. 205-220. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jevp.1996.0017]

21. Anton, C.E.; Lawrence, C. Home is where the heart is: The effect of place of residence on place attachment and community participation. J. Environ. Psychol.; 2014; 40, pp. 451-461. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2014.10.007]

22. Fincher, R.; Iveson, K. Conceptualizing Recognition in Planning. Planning and Diversity in the City; Palgrave: London, UK, 2008; pp. 84-104.

23. Marzana, D.; Pozzi, M.; Fasanelli, R.; Mercuri, F.; Fattori, F. The relation between participatory social practices and social representations of citizenship in young adulthood. VOLUNTAS Int. J. Volunt. Nonprofit Organ.; 2016; 27, pp. 1152-1170. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11266-015-9607-x]

24. Bauman, Z. Living in the era of liquid modernity. Camb. Anthropol.; 2000; 22, pp. 1-19.

25. Skrobanek, J.; Solvejg, J. Liquid integration. Thinking beyond conventional understanding. Migration as a Resource for Socio-Economic and Demographic Development. Series “Demographics. Sociology. Economy”; Sergej, V.; Ryazantsev, M.; Khramova, N.; Anastasia, S.M. Econ-Inform: Moskow, Russia, 2019; pp. 307-321.

26. Pisarevskaya, A.; Levy, N.; Scholten, P.; Jansen, J. Mapping migration studies: An empirical analysis of the coming of age of a research field. Migr. Stud.; 2020; 8, pp. 455-481. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/migration/mnz031]

27. Pettigrew, T.F.; Tropp, L.R. A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol.; 2006; 90, 751. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16737372]

28. Davies, K.; Tropp, L.R.; Aron, A.; Pettigrew, T.F.; Wright, S.C. Cross-Group Friendships and Intergroup Attitudes: A Meta-Analytic Review. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev.; 2011; 15, pp. 332-351. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088868311411103] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21844287]

29. Vezzali, L.; Stathi, S.; Giovannini, D.; Capozza, D.; Trifiletti, E. The greatest magic of H arry P otter: Reducing prejudice. J. Appl. Soc. Pyschol.; 2015; 45, pp. 105-121. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12279]

30. Vezzali, L.; Pagliaro, S.; Di Bernardo, G.A.; McKeown, S.; Margherita Cocco, V. Solidarity across group lines: Secondary transfer effect of intergroup contact, perceived moral distance, and collective action. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol.; 2023; 53, pp. 450-470. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2914]

31. Wang, C.C. Using Photovoice as a Participatory Assessment and Issue Selection Tool: A Case Study with the Homeless in Ann Arbor; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2003.

32. Wang, C.; Burris, M.A. Photovoice: Concept, Methodology, and Use for Participatory Needs Assessment. Health Educ. Behav.; 1997; 24, pp. 369-387. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/109019819702400309]

33. Wang, C.C. Youth Participation in Photovoice as a Strategy for Community Change. J. Community Pract.; 2006; 14, pp. 147-161. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J125v14n01_09]

34. Johnson, K.; Martínez Guzmán, A. Rethinking Concepts in Participatory Action Research and Their Potential for Social Transformation: Post-structuralist Informed Methodological Reflections from LGBT and Trans-Collective Projects. J. Community Appl. Soc. Psychol.; 2013; 23, pp. 405-419. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/casp.2134]

35. Checkoway, B.; Richards-Schuster, K. Youth Participation in Community Evaluation Research. Am. J. Eval.; 2003; 24, pp. 21-33. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/109821400302400103]

36. Gaboardi, M.; Lenzi, M.; Disperati, F.; Santinello, M.; Vieno, A.; Tinland, A.; Vargas-Moniz, M.J.; Spinnewijn, F.; O’shaughnessy, B.R.; Wolf, J.R. et al. Goals and principles of providers working with people experiencing homelessness: A comparison between housing first and traditional staircase services in eight European countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health; 2019; 16, 1590. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16091590]

37. Catalani, C.; Minkler, M. Photovoice: A Review of the Literature in Health and Public Health. Health Educ. Behav.; 2010; 37, pp. 424-451. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1090198109342084] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19797541]

38. Gaboardi, M.; Santinello, M.; Lenzi, M.; Disperati, F.; Ornelas, J.; Shinn, M. Using a modified version of photovoice in a European cross-national study on homelessness. Am. J. Community Psychol.; 2022; 70, pp. 139-152. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12586] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35137958]

39. Migliorini, L.; Rania, N. A qualitative method to “make visible” the world of intercultural relationships: The photovoice in social psychology. Qual. Res. Psychol.; 2017; 14, pp. 131-145. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2016.1263698]

40. Ronzi, S.; Pope, D.; Orton, L.; Bruce, N. Using photovoice methods to explore older people’s perceptions of respect and social inclusion in cities: Opportunities, challenges, and solutions. SSM-Popul. Health; 2016; 2, pp. 732-745. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2016.09.004]

41. Cai, Y. Bonding, bridging, and linking: Photovoice for resilience through social capital. Nat. Hazards; 2017; 88, pp. 1169-1195. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-017-2913-4]

42. Brandt, H.M.; Haynes, V.E.; Rice, L.J.; Campbell, D.; Williams, E.; Wilson, S.; Glover, S.H. Using photovoice as a tool for community engagement to assess the environment and explore environmental health disparities. J. Health Disparities Res. Pract.; 2017; 10, pp. 68-86.

43. Cai, Y. Visualizing vulnerability for inclusive community resilience: Photovoice evidence from the Philippines. J. Plan. Educ. Res.; 2024; 44, pp. 102-114. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0739456X20949644]

44. Derr, V.; Simons, J. A review of photovoice applications in environment, sustainability, and conservation contexts: Is the method maintaining its emancipatory intents?. Environ. Educ. Res.; 2020; 26, pp. 359-380. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2019.1693511]

45. Greene, S.; Burke, K.J.; McKenna, M.K. A Review of Research Connecting Digital Storytelling, Photovoice, and Civic Engagement. Rev. Educ. Res.; 2018; 88, pp. 844-878. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0034654318794134]

46. Lögdberg, U.; Nilsson, B.; Kostenius, C. Young Migrants’ Experiences and Conditions for Health: A Photovoice Study. Sage Open; 2020; 10, 2158244020920665. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2158244020920665]

47. Marzana, D.; Gaboardi, M.; Crapolicchio, E.; Giuliani, C.; Regalia, C. Using Photovoice with Migrant and Non-Migrant Youth to Explore Integration in Local Communities. Migr. Lett.; 2023; 20, pp. 111-121. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.59670/ml.v20i5.2930]

48. Rania, N.; Migliorini, L.; Rebora, S.; Cardinali, P. Enhancing critical dialogue about intercultural integration: The Photovoice technique. Int. J. Intercult. Relat.; 2014; 41, pp. 17-31. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.06.006]

49. Roman, M.; Roșca, V.I.; Cimpoeru, S.; Prada, E.-M.; Manafi, I. A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words: Youth Migration Narratives in a Photovoice. Societies; 2023; 13, 198. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/soc13090198]

50. Nienaber, B.; Oliveira, J.; Albert, I. Doing Action Research with Young Migrants in Vulnerable Conditions; Université du Luxembourg: Luxembourg, 2023.

51. Schinkel, W. Imagined Societies: A Critique of Immigrant Integration in Western Europe; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2017.

52. Ward, C.; Geeraert, N. Advancing acculturation theory and research: The acculturation process in its ecological context. Curr. Opin. Psychol.; 2016; 8, pp. 98-104. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.09.021]

53. Suárez-Orozco, C.; Gaytán, F.X.; Bang, H.J.; Pakes, J.; O’Connor, E.; Rhodes, J. Academic trajectories of newcomer immigrant youth. Dev. Psychol.; 2010; 46, 602. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018201]

54. Bandura, A.; Walters, R.H. Social Learning Theory; Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA, 1977; Volume 1.

55. Ghosh, R.; Reio, T.G. Career benefits associated with mentoring for mentors: A meta-analysis. J. Vocat. Behav.; 2013; 83, pp. 106-116. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.03.011]

56. Weinberg, F.J. How and When Is Role Modeling Effective? The Influence of Mentee Professional Identity on Mentoring Dynamics and Personal Learning Outcomes. Group Organ. Manag.; 2019; 44, pp. 425-477. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1059601119838689]

57. Portes, A.; Zhou, M. The New Second Generation: Segmented Assimilation and its Variants. Ann. Am. Acad. Political Soc. Sci.; 1993; 530, pp. 74-96. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002716293530001006]

58. Ager, A.; Strang, A. Understanding integration: A conceptual framework. J. Refug. Stud.; 2008; 21, 166. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fen016]

59. Phillimore, J. Implementing integration in the UK: Lessons for integration theory, policy and practice. Policy Politics; 2012; 40, pp. 525-545. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1332/030557312X643795]

60. Gaboardi, M.; Zuccalà, G.; Lenzi, M.; Ferrari, S.; Santinello, M. Changing the method of working with homeless people: A photovoice project in Italy. J. Soc. Distress Homeless; 2018; 27, pp. 53-63. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10530789.2018.1446407]

61. O’Shaughnessy, B.R.; Michelle Greenwood, R. Empowering Features and Outcomes of Homeless Interventions: A Systematic Review and Narrative Synthesis. Am. J. Community Psychol.; 2020; 66, pp. 144-165. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12422] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32176327]

62. Washington, O.G.M.; Moxley, D.P.; Taylor, J.Y. Enabling Older Homeless Minority Women to Overcome Homelessness by Using a Life Management Enhancement Group Intervention. Issues Ment. Health Nurs.; 2009; 30, pp. 86-97. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01612840802597580] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19212866]

63. Koudenburg, N.; Jetten, J.; Dingle, G.A. Personal autonomy in group-based interventions. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol.; 2017; 47, pp. 653-660. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2230]

64. Liebenberg, L. Thinking Critically About Photovoice: Achieving Empowerment and Social Change. Int. J. Qual. Methods; 2018; 17, 160940691875763. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1609406918757631]