1. Introduction
Potato is essential to the world’s food and economic security, given it is one of the most widespread food crops in the world [1]. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), in 2022, potato was cultivated on 17,788,408 ha worldwide [2]. Due to its ability to grow in various climatic and soil conditions, potato is the main source of income for many farmers and represents a significant part of international trade in agricultural products [3]. Promoting efficient and sustainable management of potato crops is vital to ensuring human well-being and global food security, especially in poor and developing regions [4,5,6,7]. Global potato production has increased significantly in recent decades, reaching hundreds of millions of tons annually. Major producing countries include China, India, Russia, Ukraine, and the United States [2].
Potato is rich in carbohydrates and high in essential vitamins and minerals [8,9]. Its consumption is diversified, given it can be prepared in various ways [10]. Dry matter and starch content influence the quality of potatoes and can impact their taste, texture, and use in various culinary preparations. Potato significantly contributes to overall starch intake, and it is involved in glycemic responses. The dry matter and starch accumulations in tubers depend on factors such as variety, the region where they are grown, the type of fertilization, and the metabolic changes occurring post harvest and during storage [11].
Potato cultivation faces various issues and challenges, including diseases and pests, climate change, the depletion of water and soil resources, and market fluctuations. The development of organic solutions to fight fungal potato diseases, which are among the most harmful, could be an advantageous asset that contributes to maintaining environmental sustainability. Such a solution may be the use of Allium cepa L. extracts in fighting fungal potato pathogens. The fungicidal effect of Allium cepa L. has been observed on a diversity of fungal isolates [12,13]. Kocić-Tanackovon et al. (2017) show the fungicidal effect of A. cepa L. essential oil on some representatives of Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., or Fusarium spp. isolated from food, while El-Nagherabi et al. (2016) show that A. cepa L. extracts exhibit good performance as natural fungicides in the fight against Aspergillus niger. Chakma et al. (2023), in a study on the efficacy of plant extracts against A. solani, found A. cepa extracts to be effective [14,15,16].
Continuous research and innovations in agriculture contribute to improving potato productivity and quality, as well as adapting to climate change and market demands [17]. Modern technologies such as precision agriculture, biotechnology, and the sustainable use of natural resources are increasingly important in enhancing sustainable potato production [18]. Assessing potato crop performance in different environmental conditions leads to valuable knowledge for the development of more suitable technologies and establishing sustainable agricultural practices in the context of climate change [19]. According to research in the field, variations in potato varieties and environmental factors, as well as their interaction, significantly influence yields and the characteristics of the potato [20,21,22]. Testing potato production, dry matter, and starch content according to fertilization, phytosanitary treatment, and environmental conditions is essential for optimizing yield, final product quality, and resource use efficiency in agriculture [23]. This information is vital to ensuring the sustainability and success of potato farming in the face of current and future challenges. Different approaches to fertilization technologies, crop rotation cycles, and cultivation techniques for potatoes, varying in the intensity of pre-crop preparation, the inclusion of cover crops, and the type of fertilization, resulted in noticeable effects on both yield and quality [24,25].
Soil nutrient and organic matter content is one of the most important factors in potato cultivation as it enhances soil structure, improves water retention, and provides essential nutrients for plant growth, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which are vital for the development of healthy tubers, promoting vigorous growth and higher yields. Organic matter also supports microbial activity in the soil, fostering a more resilient ecosystem that benefits potato crops. Research in the field also shows that organic fertilization increases carbon stocks across soil profiles, but more so in uplands. Phosphorus stocks rise only in the topsoil, and their increases are influenced by rainfall. Increases in soil carbon and nitrogen content lead to increased crop yields and depend on soil pH and the initial levels of these nutrients [26]. According to a study conducted by Liu et al. (2023), organic inputs increase soil carbon by 10.5% to 12%, nitrogen by 7.63% to 9.2%, and phosphorus by 2.62% to 5.13%, as well as raising C and C ratios and improving grain yields by 6.12% to 8.64%. It was found that organic fertilization alleviates soil carbon limitations caused by inorganic fertilizers alone and that increases in soil carbon and C:P ratios reach saturation after 13–16 years. Their research also shows that crop yield increases are regulated by soil properties and are negatively impacted by excessive inorganic nitrogen inputs [27].
Appropriate knowledge of the role played by agricultural inputs and environmental factors in potato yields and quality enables the identification of optimal combinations that lead to maximum production of high-quality potato and optimize resource use. Testing potato yields, dry matter, and starch accumulation in potato tubers makes it possible for agricultural practices to be adjusted and meet different challenges, such as improving the quality of the final product and meeting market demands; increasing the efficiency of the use of resources, which has direct impact on reducing costs and minimizing the impact on the environment; and assessing how different farming practices influence plant disease and pest resistance or how potato crops adapt to climate change and variability in weather conditions. The present research was conducted to emphasize, in the context of promoting sustainability, the significance of selecting the most suitable agricultural inputs, in terms of fertilizers and phytosanitary treatments, to achieve optimal potato yields and the desired levels of dry matter and starch content, under specific climatic conditions. The research aims to provide an original contribution to the state of knowledge by emphasizing a methodology of selecting agricultural inputs that enhance potato crop outputs in a climate-specific environment.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Location
The experimental part of the research was carried out in an experimental field located in the Gilău commune, Cluj County (46°45′20″ N, 23°23′21″ E), located in the northwest of Romania. The research was performed on a private farm, on an experimental field of 4500 m2, with plots of 50 m2 by experimental variant, and 10 cm distance between plots, in 2022 and 2023, during April–July. Argic phaeozem was the soil type, which characterizes the experimental area [28]. The results are expressed as average of the two years of the experimental period. The climate is moderate continental, characterized by four distinct seasons. The soil is of the argic phaeozem type (pH = 6.68), characterized by a good supply of nitrogen and phosphorus (0.247% N and 54 ppm P) and a very good supply of potassium (328 ppm).
2.2. Experimental Design
The research was organized as trifactorial experiment with the factors: Factor 1—variety, Factor 2—fertilization, and Factor 3—phytosanitary treatments. The combination of the factors results in 18 experimental variants. Each experimental variant was planted in three replicates, with 10 plants each (30 plants/experimental variant). Factor 1 has two components (a1: Roclas potato, which is a semi-early variety, a2: Redsec potato, which is a semi-late variety). Factor 2 has three components (b1: lack of fertilization, b2: mineral fertilization with N14:P7:K28 (Azomureș, Romania), b3: organic fertilization with cow manure). Factor 3 has three components (c1: no treatment, c2: conventional treatment with Polyram DF (BASF) with 70% Metiram as an active compound, treatment with herbal solution 4% Allium cepa L.). The herbal solutions were obtained by dissolving commercial A. cepa L. essential oil (99%) in distilled water. The mineral fertilization (in a dose of 40 t/ha) was applied four times per crop season, the first time being before sowing, while foliar fertilization was applied three times, in a dose of 4 kg/ha in 200–600 L of water. In autumn, preceding the planting of the potato crops, organic fertilization with fermented manure was applied in dose of 20 t/ha. The main potato pathogens in the research area are Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Barry and Alternaria spp. After the plant had reached 15 cm tall, the conventional treatment with 70% Metiram 1.8 kg/ha in 900 L of water and herbal treatments with 2%, and 4% A. cepa were applied two times.
2.3. Data Collection
In order to obtain the yields (t/ha), production was recorded by each experimental variant planted in three replicates and reported by cultivated area. Dry matter and starch accumulation were quantified in five replicates by experimental variant. Gravimetry and polarimetry were the laboratory methodologies used for identifying dry matter and starch accumulations [29].
Temperature, precipitation, wind speed, and humidity are all critical factors in the yield and health of potato crops. Temperature affects the tuberization process, with optimal temperatures ranging between 15 °C and 20 °C; higher temperatures can inhibit growth and reduce tuber size. Precipitation ensures consistent soil moisture, crucial for tuber formation, but excessive rainfall can lead to waterlogging and diseases like late blight. Wind speed can cause physical damage to leaves, desiccation, and soil erosion, which reduce water availability and affect plant stability. Humidity is essential for plant health; too much can lead to fungal infections, while too little can dry out tubers, negatively impacting yield [30]. Environmental parameters (air temperature (t, °C), relative air humidity (H, %), wind velocity (v, m/s), and rainfall (mm)) were recorded daily using a Meteobot® Mini (Prointegra Ltd., Varna, Bulgaria) mobile meteorological station. Site-specific climatic parameter values characterize the experimental period (Table 1).
2.4. Statistics
XLSTAT (2022.2.1v.) was utilized for data processing. Descriptive statistics were utilized to compute the means and dispersion measures (such as standard deviation and variability) of all the examined variables, yields, and dry matter and starch accumulation. ANOVA was conducted to assess the interactions of the factors and the significance of differences at a 5% level of probability. To identify the relationships between yields and dry matter and starch accumulations as a function of agricultural inputs (such as fertilizers and phytosanitary treatments), and environmental factors (temperature, relative air humidity, wind speed, and rainfall), simple Spearman correlation analysis (a nonparametric Spearman test is used because of the lack of linearity between dependencies), and exploratory analysis using principal component analysis (PCA) were conducted. In the PC1 × PC2 plot, the angle between vectors represents the correlation between variables, with smaller angles indicating stronger positive correlations. The length of the vector indicates the strength of the variable’s contribution to the principal components. Prior to PCA, the suitability of the data was assessed using the Keiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett tests, with threshold values above 0.500 and p < 0.01 considered appropriate, respectively [31].
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Potato Yields
Significant differences between potato yields are seen between the Redsec and Roclas potato varieties, the function of fertilization strategies, and treatments against late blight and alternariosis, (Table 2).
Unfertilized. When no fertilization is applied, Roclas shows a significantly higher yield (57.42 t/ha to 59.01 t/ha) compared to Redsec (48.51 t/ha to 49.32 t/ha). The use of conventional treatment or 4% A. cepa extracts does not substantially alter the yield within each variety (Table 1).
Mineral Fertilization. In Roclas, the highest yield is seen under conventional treatment (68.02 t/ha), and is significantly greater than in the untreated (63.27 t/ha) or 4% A. cepa-treated (63.26 t/ha) groups. Redsec also shows an increase with mineral fertilization, particularly under conventional treatment (57.12 t/ha).
Organic Fertilization. Like mineral fertilization, organic fertilization improves yields for both varieties, but they are slightly lower compared to mineral fertilization. The highest yield is observed in Roclas under conventional treatment (67.72 t/ha).
Phytosanitary Treatments. The conventional treatments consistently enhance potato yields in both varieties across all fertilization types. The 4% A. cepa extract treatments exhibit results comparable to the untreated control or slightly better and are less effective than conventional treatments in terms of potato yields.
3.2. Dry Matter Accumulation and Starch Content
In both potato varieties, the lowest dry matter accumulation and starch content are observed when no treatment and no fertilization are applied (Table 2 and Table 3).
Mineral fertilization significantly increases dry matter accumulation in both varieties. The use of conventional treatments and herbal extracts enhances dry matter accumulation, particularly in Roclas. Organic fertilization results in dry matter accumulation in percentages close to those observed under mineral fertilization. Irrespective of fertilization strategy, Roclas shows better performance compared with Redsec in all treatment scenarios (Table 3).
For both varieties, conventional treatments and 4% A. cepa extracts positively influence dry matter accumulation compared to the untreated control. The treatment with 4% A. cepa extracts generally yields dry matter percentages comparable to or slightly lower than conventional treatments but higher than the untreated control. For example, mineral-fertilized Roclas treated with conventional methods have significantly higher dry matter accumulation (28.43 t/ha) than the untreated (25.98 t/ha) or 4% A. cepa-treated (27.83 t/ha) potatoes (Table 3).
Without fertilization, both Redsec and Roclas show the lowest starch accumulation. Roclas has a slightly higher starch content (13.80% to 15.25%) compared to Redsec (13.10% to 15.35%). Mineral fertilization. Starch accumulation increases with mineral fertilization in both varieties. Roclas achieves the highest starch content under conventional treatment (17.87%), followed closely by 4% A. cepa extract (17.12%) treatment. In Redsec, we also observe a significant increase, particularly with conventional treatment (17.12%). Organic fertilization. Organic fertilization also enhances starch accumulation, though to a slightly lesser extent than mineral fertilization. In Roclas, better performance is observed compared with Redsec, with both varieties showing the highest starch content under conventional treatment (Table 4).
Phytosanitary treatments. Conventional treatments consistently lead to the highest starch accumulation in both varieties regardless fertilization types. The use of 4% A. cepa extract treatment results in starch content that is generally lower than conventional treatment but still higher than the untreated controls, indicating its potential as a viable alternative. When mineral fertilization is applied to Roclas potatoes, significantly higher starch accumulation is observed when conventional treatment is administered (17.87%) compared with untreated Roclas (14.92%), while in Redsec, significant differences are seen between the starch accumulation of untreated (14.45%) and conventionally treated (17.12%) potatoes (Table 4).
3.3. The Simple Correlations between Potato Yields, Dry Matter Accumulation, and Starch Content
Regardless of the type of fertilization, Redsec and Roclas potato yields corresponding to conventional and 4% Allium cepa treatments have a moderately positive and significant influence on dry matter content (Table 5).
When mineral fertilization is applied, in Redsec, the yield is moderately correlated with dry matter under conventional treatment (r = 0.55) and with dry matter treated with 4% A. cepa (r = 0.53). This suggests that both conventional and A. cepa treatments positively influence both yield and dry matter content, indicating a moderate association. A strong correlation is observed between yield and starch accumulation under conventional treatment (r = 0.60), indicating that conventional treatments lead to significant increases in starch accumulation in the Redsec potato variety.
In Roclas, the yield is strongly correlated with dry matter under conventional treatment (r = 0.59) and with dry matter when treated with 4% A. cepa (r = 0.57). This suggests that conventional and A. cepa treatments both contribute positively to yield increases and dry matter accumulation. The yield showed a strong correlation with starch accumulation under conventional treatment (r = 0.58), indicating a robust association and highlighting the effectiveness of conventional treatment in promoting starch accumulation.
When organic fertilization is applied, in the Redsec variety the yield of potatoes under conventional treatment shows a moderate correlation with dry matter under conventional treatment (r = 0.59) and dry matter when treated with 4% A. cepa (r = 0.55). This suggests that organic fertilization, particularly when paired with conventional treatments, positively affects both yield and dry matter content. The starch accumulation under conventional treatment is strongly correlated with yield under conventional treatment (r = 0.61), indicating that conventional treatments under organic fertilization significantly increase starch accumulation in Redsec. The starch accumulation when treated with 4% A. cepa also shows a strong correlation with yield under conventional treatment (r = 0.57), suggesting that the A. cepa treatment positively impacts starch accumulation in relation to yield.
In Roclas, the yield under conventional treatment is moderately correlated with dry matter under conventional treatment (r = 0.66) and with dry matter when treated with 4% A. cepa (r = 0.58). This indicates that organic fertilization combined with these treatments effectively increases both yield and dry matter in Roclas. The starch accumulation under conventional treatment is very strongly correlated with yield under conventional treatment (r = 0.74), suggesting a substantial positive effect of organic fertilization on starch accumulation when conventional treatments are used. However, starch accumulation when treated with 4% A. cepa shows only a weak correlation with yield under conventional treatment (r = 0.29), indicating a weaker effect of A. cepa treatment on starch accumulation in Roclas (Table 6).
3.4. The Principal Component Analysis
For a better understanding of the relationships between the main groundwater quality parameters when different fertilization strategies are applied, PCA was applied. The suitability of using PCA was demonstrated by KMO values above 0.500 and p < 0.01 for the Bartlett test. Irrespective of fertilization strategy, three main factors were identified, namely agronomic inputs (F1), climatic regime (F2), and soil fertility (F3). Because in all cases eigenvalues greater than 1 correspond to the first two mentioned factors (F1 and F2), only these were considered in the present analysis [31] (Figure 1).
In mineral-fertilized plants, the agronomic inputs are responsible for 63.01% of the variance, meaning they are associated with a strong influence on the analyzed potato characteristics, and the climatic regime is associated with 30.85% of the variance, which represents secondary influences or interactions (Figure 1a). When organic fertilization is applied, the agronomic inputs are responsible for 58.06% of the variance, and the climatic regime for 32.17% of the variance (Figure 1b). The environmental variables are dispersed across PC1 and PC2, indicating different influences on potato characteristics. Precipitation vector (4) is positioned farthest from the origin, particularly along the PC2 plan, suggesting it has a stronger influence compared to other factors, possibly affecting specific characteristics independently of the other climatic parameters. The agronomic inputs are positively correlated with the majority of the environmental factors (temperature—1, relative air humidity—2, and precipitation—4), and with potato traits corresponding to the majority of the conventional (5, 7, 9, 11, and 13) and herbal extract (6, 8, 10, 14, and 16) treatments. An exception is observed in Roclas yield when treated with 4% A. cepa (12), and starch accumulation when conventionally treated (15). The variables related to weather conditions (temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity, and precipitation) are spread out along the PC1 plan, and this suggests their significant role in influencing the observed potato characteristics (Figure 1a).
Irrespective of mineral or organic fertilization, Redsec and Roclas yield vectors (5, 6, 11, and 12) spread out in the PC2 plan, suggesting that yield is influenced by the environmental factors to a moderate degree. The conventional treatment vectors (5 and 11) have a stronger positive association with the PC1 plan, and F1, respectively, while the 4% A. cepa treatment vector corresponding to Roclas treatment (12) is negatively aligned with the PC1 plan, and is consequently negatively influenced by F1 (Figure 1a,b).
When mineral fertilization is applied, dry matter accumulation in Redsec and Roclas corresponds to both treatment vectors (7, 8, 13, and 14) and shows a similar clustering pattern but with some variance along the PC1 and PC2 plans. This suggests that dry matter content may be influenced by a combination of factors, with conventional treatment generally having a stronger association with F1 (Figure 1a). Dry matter accumulation (7, 8, and 14) shows more dispersion along PC2, indicating that precipitation (4) has a more significant impact on this trait when the organic fertilization strategy is used. The vector corresponding to conventional treatment in Roclas (13) is positioned at the greatest distance on the negative side of the PC2 axis. This suggests that dry matter accumulation in organically fertilized Roclas is negatively correlated with F2 (Figure 1b).
Irrespective of mineral or organic fertilization, starch accumulation for both varieties under different treatments vectors (9, 10, 15, and 16) are dispersed, particularly along the PC1 plan. This indicates a strong dependency on the environmental factors, with conventional treatment (variables 9 and 15) generally aligning more with the PC2 plan and F2, suggesting the positive influence of these conditions. In general, the conventional treatments for both varieties (variables 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13) tend to cluster closer to each other and are more aligned with the PC1 plan and F1, respectively. This suggests that they are more influenced by the agronomic inputs. The treatments with 4% A. cepa extracts (variables 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14) are dispersed, particularly along the PC2 plan and F2, respectively, indicating that they might respond differently to environmental conditions compared to conventional treatments (Figure 1a,b).
4. Discussions
The treatments against late blight and alternariosis have no influence on Redsec and Roclas potato yields in the absence of fertilization and when organic fertilization is used. The fertilization type and phytosanitary treatments significantly affect potato yields. Roclas consistently yields more than Redsec across all conditions, especially under mineral fertilization with conventional phytosanitary treatments. Organic fertilization also improves yields, though not as intensely as mineral fertilization. The 4% A. cepa extract treatment, while beneficial, does not outperform conventional treatments, particularly in yield enhancement under mineral and organic fertilization. According to our study, while the use of organic solutions (treatments with 4% A. cepa extracts) has a slightly lower impact on yields compared to conventional treatments, is exhibits significantly better results compared with the untreated, unfertilized control. This suggests its potential as an environmentally friendly alternative, mainly in organic agriculture practices, in fighting two significant potato pathogens with positive implications for crop yield enhancement. Pszczółkowski et al. (2020), in an experiment developed in different conditions on 14 potato cultivars, report, as a function of experimental variants, lower fresh mass yields of 36.46 t/ha—48.58%, compared to those obtained in our study [32]. According to Haverkort and Struik (2015), the estimated average potato yield worldwide ranges between 20 t/ha and 60 t/ha, but if appropriate management would be implemented, the potential could double, reaching 120 t/ha [33]. Po et al. (2010) obtained similar yields (51.90 t/ha–68.30 t/ha) in a study concerning potato yield heterogeneity in a specific production environment [34].
A high dry matter content of potato tubers indicates greater nutrient density, better water use efficiency, better storage conditions, and extended shelf life. It is often correlated with better taste, texture, and cooking qualities. In the Redsec variety only, the absence of fertilization and treatment has as a result the lowest performance in terms of dry matter accumulation. Both fertilization and phytosanitary treatments significantly influence dry matter accumulation and starch content in both potato varieties. Roclas shows higher dry matter percentages than Redsec, particularly under mineral fertilization and with the application of conventional phytosanitary treatments. The use of 4% A. cepa extracts offers a viable alternative to conventional treatments, especially under mineral and organic fertilization conditions. Roclas consistently shows higher starch content compared with Redsec, particularly under mineral and organic fertilization combined with conventional treatments. While the 4% A. cepa extract treatment did not lead to as high a starch accumulation as conventional treatments, it still improves starch content significantly compared to the untreated control, suggesting its potential mainly in organic agriculture. Abebe et al. (2012), in an experiment performed on 25 potato varieties in Ethiopia, identified similar dry matter accumulation compared to our results, ranging between 17.82 and 26.70%, and a starch content within the 9.75–17.85% range, identifying in the function of both dry matter and starch content, their most suitable uses [21]. In the Redsec variety only, the absence of fertilization and treatment has as a result the lowest performance in terms of dry matter accumulation. There exists research which shows that the dry matter, and consequently water content, of different potato cultivars may exert a significant effect on their glycemic impact [35]. Similar dry matter content, but higher starch accumulation, compared with our results, are reported by Haase (2003) who identified, in 34 potato varieties, a mean dry matter content of 25% and a mean starch content of 19.8% [36]. Lower dry matter (19.95–18.50%) and starch accumulation (12.45–13.82%) were observed by Kumaly et al. (2002) in four potato varieties, in environmentally specific conditions, in a trail that aimed to deliver data concerning the possibility of potato selection to obtain high dry matter content, which is a valuable trait for producers [37]. A larger variation interval, with inferior and superior limits compared to those reported in our study, was found by Pszczółkowski et al. (2020) in an experiment developed in different conditions on 14 potato cultivars, with values ranging between 16.3 and 28% for dry matter accumulation, and 12.4 and 20.3% for starch accumulation [32]. Pinhero et al. (2016) obtained higher starch contents compared to our study, between 60 and 70%, in 14 studied potato varieties [38]. The differences in dry matter and starch content of three potato varieties grown in Canada, Russet Burbank, AC Stempede Russet, and Karnico, were identified by Liu et al. (2007), who assumed that these differences may contribute to their different functional contributions [39].
Yield in potato cultivation is influenced by a multitude of factors, and among these factors, the physiological attributes of the potato tubers, such as their dry matter and starch content, play a crucial role in determining yield. Enhanced dry matter content is a premise for improving yield potential and resilience to environmental stresses. A higher dry matter content in potato tubers is generally associated with increased yields according to Haase (2003). The starch content of potato tubers is positively correlated with yield, but also with dry matter content. Lavanya et al. (2019), Mbah and Eke-Okoro (2015), and Khayatnezhad et al. (2011) report similar correlations, meaning positive and moderate (R = 0.530, R = 0.520, and R = 0.410, respectively), with those observed in our study, ranging between R = 0.510 and R = 0.640 regardless of the used inputs [40,41,42]. A stronger correlation (R = 0.787), compared with our results, was found by Bombik et al. (2019) between potato yield and dry matter accumulation, when the quality traits in 13 potato cultivars were studies [43]. Our study shows positive correlations between potato yield and starch accumulation, and also starch and dry matter accumulation, regardless of potato variety, fertilization, and treatment strategy, but their intensities are strongly dependent on above-mentioned factors [11]. The relationship between potato yield and starch accumulation range between R = 0.110 and R = 0.690. The strongest correlations are observed for mineral and mixed fertilization combined with herbal treatments. Khayatnezhad et al. (2011) report a positive correlation (R = 0.390) between potato yield and starch accumulation within the interval observed in our study, but Bombik et al. (2019) found a stronger correlation (R = 0.797) between the above-mentioned traits [42,43]. Irrespective of a mineral or organic approach, the presence of several moderate and strong correlations (highlighted in yellow) suggests that fertilization, particularly when combined with the conventional and 4% A. cepa treatments, has a significant impact on the relationships between yield, dry matter, and starch accumulation in both potato varieties. In general, the Redsec variety shows strong correlations between yield and starch accumulation under conventional treatment, indicating a more pronounced response to these treatments compared to Roclas. Bombik et al. (2019) and Wasu (2016) report stronger correlations between dry matter and starch accumulation (R = 0.872 and R = 0.930, respectively) compared to those found in our study [11,22,43]. These findings suggest the importance of considering both dry matter accumulation and starch content in optimizing potato yields, with various fertilization methods offering the potential to enhance these parameters. The principal component analysis shows the correlations between the agronomic inputs, climatic factors, and the traits of the Redsec and Roclas potatoes studied in the current trial. Concerning mineral fertilization, environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, wind velocity, and precipitation significantly impact potato yields, dry matter, and starch accumulation. Conventional treatments for both the Redsec and Roclas varieties tend to have a stronger association with environmental factors, suggesting they might be more effective under the conditions represented by the PC2 plan and F2, respectively. In contrast, treatments with 4% A. cepa extract show a more varied response, indicating a potential for different applications depending on specific environmental conditions. When organic fertilization is used, the conventional treatments for both potato varieties generally show a stronger and more consistent association with environmental factors, particularly those represented by temperature and wind velocity. The 4% A. cepa extract treatments, while still beneficial, demonstrate more variability, suggesting that their effectiveness may be more context-dependent, particularly in relation to factors linked to precipitation. Similarly with our results, the PCA conducted by Xie et al. (2021) shows a positive correlation between starch and dry matter accumulation [44]. The same finding is reported by Ahmadizadeh and Felenji (2011), in a study on the diversity of different potato varieties [45].
5. Conclusions
Combinations of mineral fertilization with conventional treatment and mixed fertilization with 4% A. cepa extracts result in the highest average yields, dry matter, and starch accumulation in both the Redsec and Roclas potato varieties. When there is no fertilization or when organic fertilization is used, treatments against late blight and alternariosis do not affect Redsec and Roclas potato yields. The absence of fertilization and treatment leads to the lowest performance in terms of dry matter accumulation in the Redsec potato variety. The best results, in terms of potato yield, correspond to mineral fertilization and conventional treatments, followed by mixed fertilization and 4% A. cepa treatment, for both the Redsec and Roclas varieties. Organic solutions, such as treatments with 4% A. cepa extracts against harmful potato diseases show similar positive influences on yields, dry matter, and starch accumulation in tubers, compared to conventional treatments, indicating their potential as environmentally friendly alternatives. The absence of fertilization and treatment leads to low dry matter accumulation in the Redsec potato variety. Irrespective of the type of fertilization, the potato yields of the Redsec and Roclas varieties show the moderately positive and significant influence of dry matter content, when conventional and herbal treatments against diseases are applied, and of starch accumulation when herbal treatments with 4% A. cepa are applied. Also, dry matter accumulation corresponding to herbal treatment with 4% A. cepa, irrespective of the type of fertilization, shows a moderately positive and significant influence on starch accumulation when conventional and herbal treatments with 2% A. cepa are applied. The studied potato traits are positively correlated with agronomic inputs, while they have different interactions with environmental factors, as a function of fertilization strategy. This is because, when foliar fertilization is used, positive correlations between agronomic inputs and all climatic factors are reported; hence, the strong influence of environmental factors on the studied potato traits may be considered a vulnerability.
Conceptualization, T.M.C.P. and A.C.M.O.; methodology, I.B., C.M. and C.-P.R.; software, C.M. and P.D.B.; validation, C.-P.R. and C.M.M.; writing—original draft preparation, T.M.C.P.; writing—review and editing, C.M.M., P.D.B. and B.M.M.; visualization, I.B.; supervision, A.C.M.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
Document provided for peer review.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Footnotes
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Enlarge this image.Figure 1. The representation in the PC1 × PC2 plans of the variables corresponding to environmental factors and potato traits as a function of agricultural inputs, in the Redsec and Roclas potato varieties, under mineral fertilization: (a) mineral fertilization; (b) organic fertilization. 1—temperature, °C; 2—relative air humidity, %; 3—wind velocity, m/s; 4—precipitation, mm; 5—Redsec potato yield, conventional treatment; 6—Redsec potato yield, treated with 4% A. cepa; 7—Redsec dry matter, conventional treatment; 8—Redsec dry matter, treated with 4% A. cepa; 9—Redsec starch accumulation, conventional treatment; 10—Redsec starch accumulation, treated with 4% A. cepa; 11—Roclas potato yield, conventional treatment; 12—Roclas potato yield, treated with 4% A. cepa; 13—Roclas dry matter, conventional treatment; 14—Roclas dry matter, treated with 4% A. cepa; 15—Roclas starch accumulation, conventional treatment; 16—Roclas starch accumulation, treated with 4% A. cepa.
The basic statistics for climatic parameters reported in the experimental field, April–July, by experimental period.
| Climatic Parameter | N | X | S | Min. | Max. | s |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Temperature, °C | 306 | 14.92 | - | 1.19 | 27.00 | 13.21 |
| Relative humidity, % | 306 | 76.13 | - | 45.00 | 93.00 | 18.34 |
| Wind velocity, m/s | 306 | 7.02 | - | 2.00 | 15.00 | 12.96 |
| Rainfall, mm | 137 | 4.23 | 629.25 | 0.50 | 29.00 | 11.43 |
Potato yields of Redsec and Roclas varieties, function of fertilization, and administered phytosanitary treatment, t/ha.
| Fertilization | Variety | Untreated | Conventional | Treatment with |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unfertilized | Redsec | 48.51e | 49.32e | 49.03e |
| Roclas | 57.42c | 58.91c | 59.01c | |
| Mineral fertilization | Redsec | 53.70d | 57.12c | 54.75d |
| Roclas | 63.27b | 68.02a | 63.26b | |
| Organic fertilization | Redsec | 53.05d | 56.82c | 54.11d |
| Roclas | 62.73b | 67.72a | 62.74b |
The differences between any two yield averages are significant if their values are followed by different letters or groups of different letters.
Dry matter accumulation in Redsec and Roclas potato varieties, function of fertilization, and administered phytosanitary treatment, %.
| Fertilization | Variety | Untreated | Conventional | Treatment with |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unfertilized | Redsec | 21.45c | 22.85c | 22.75c |
| Roclas | 22.41c | 24.01c | 24.63cb | |
| Mineral fertilization | Redsec | 25.00b | 27.85b | 26.60b |
| Roclas | 25.98b | 28.43a | 27.83b | |
| Organic fertilization | Redsec | 24.45bc | 27.20b | 25.81b |
| Roclas | 25.14b | 27.91b | 26.99b |
The differences between any two dry matter averages are significant if their values are followed by different letters or groups of different letters.
Starch accumulation in Redsec and Roclas potato varieties, function of fertilization, and administered phytosanitary treatment, %.
| Fertilization | Variety | Untreated | Conventional | Treatment with |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unfertilized | Redsec | 13.10b | 15.35b | 14.42b |
| Roclas | 13.80b | 15.65b | 15.25b | |
| Mineral fertilization | Redsec | 14.45b | 17.12ab | 16.91ab |
| Roclas | 14.92b | 17.87ab | 17.12ab | |
| Organic fertilization | Redsec | 14.75b | 17.05ab | 16.12ab |
| Roclas | 14.83b | 17.26ab | 16.41ab |
The differences between any two starch accumulation averages are significant, if their values are followed by different letters, or groups of different letters.
The Spearman simple correlations between potato traits (yield, dry matter, starch content) and the function of treatment against late blight and alternariosis, in the Redsec and Roclas varieties, under mineral fertilization.
| X | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1.00 | 0.38 | 0.15 | 0.55 | 0.53 | 0.13 | 0.60 | 0.58 | 0.22 | 0.12 | 0.17 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.80 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.03 |
| 2 | 0.38 | 1.00 | 0.10 | 0.59 | 0.54 | 0.14 | 0.64 | 0.62 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.18 | 0.09 | 0.06 | 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.16 |
| 3 | 0.15 | 0.10 | 1.00 | 0.29 | 0.29 | 0.12 | 0.23 | 0.21 | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.19 | 0.14 | 0.12 | 0.18 | 0.11 | −0.09 | 0.04 |
| 4 | 0.50 | 0.52 | 0.29 | 1.00 | 0.25 | 0.35 | 0.58 | 0.52 | 0.09 | 0.12 | −0.12 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.06 | 0.06 |
| 5 | 0.54 | 0.59 | 0.29 | 0.25 | 1.00 | 0.09 | 0.31 | 0.25 | 0.15 | −0.07 | −0.08 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.53 | 0.05 | 0.09 |
| 6 | 0.13 | 0.14 | 0.12 | 0.35 | 0.09 | 1.00 | 0.25 | 0.26 | 0.07 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.12 | 0.06 | 0.08 | 0.09 |
| 7 | 0.60 | 0.64 | 0.23 | 0.58 | 0.31 | 0.05 | 1.00 | 0.35 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.12 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.02 |
| 8 | 0.58 | 0.62 | 0.21 | 0.52 | 0.25 | 0.06 | 0.35 | 1.00 | 0.02 | 0.09 | −0.08 | 0.16 | 0.12 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.07 |
| 9 | 0.22 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.15 | 0.17 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 1.00 | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.08 |
| 10 | 0.12 | 0.02 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.07 | 0.10 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.06 | 1.00 | 0.11 | 0.03 | 0.59 | 0.57 | 0.05 | 0.58 | 0.35 |
| 11 | 0.17 | 0.18 | 0.19 | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.35 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.06 | 0.11 | 1.00 | 0.01 | 0.55 | 0.53 | 0.30 | 0.56 | 0.28 |
| 12 | −0.11 | 0.09 | 0.14 | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.12 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 1.00 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.22 | 0.21 | 0.09 |
| 13 | −0.13 | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.12 | 0.02 | 0.59 | 0.55 | 0.04 | 1.00 | 0.09 | 0.27 | 0.59 | 0.50 |
| 14 | −0.08 | 0.11 | 0.18 | 0.05 | −0.02 | 0.52 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.57 | 0.53 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 1.00 | 0.51 | 0.24 | 0.05 |
| 15 | 0.04 | 0.04 | −0.11 | −0.10 | −0.13 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.22 | 0.27 | 0.51 | 1.00 | 0.09 | 0.24 |
| 16 | 0.05 | 0.08 | −0.09 | −0.06 | −0.05 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.58 | 0.56 | 0.21 | 0.59 | 0.24 | 0.09 | 1.00 | 0.11 |
| 17 | 0.03 | 0.16 | −0.04 | −0.06 | −0.09 | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.35 | 0.28 | 0.09 | 0.50 | 0.05 | 0.24 | 0.11 | 1.00 |
1—Redsec potato yield, conventional treatment; 2—Redsec potato yield, treated with 4% A. cepa; 3—Redsec dry matter, untreated; 4—Redsec dry matter, conventional treatment; 5—Redsec dry matter, treated with 4% A. cepa; 6—Redsec starch accumulation, untreated; 7—Redsec starch accumulation, conventional treatment; 8—Redsec starch accumulation, treated with 4% A. cepa; 9—Roclas potato yield, untreated; 10—Roclas potato yield, conventional treatment; 11—Roclas potato yield, treated with 4% A. cepa; 12—Roclas dry matter, untreated; 13—Roclas dry matter, conventional treatment; 14—Roclas dry matter, treated with 4% A. cepa; 15—Roclas starch accumulation, untreated; 16—Roclas starch accumulation, conventional treatment; 17—Roclas starch accumulation, treated with 4% A. cepa. p < 0.05; in yellow, moderate significant correlations; the green color emphasizes the correlation coefficient r = 1; sample size is 30 plants/experimental variant.
The Spearman simple correlations between potato traits (yield, dry matter, starch content) function of treatment against late blight and alternariosis, in the Redsec and Roclas varieties, under organic fertilization.
| X | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1.00 | 0.12 | 0.06 | 0.59 | 0.55 | 0.05 | 0.61 | 0.57 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.10 |
| 2 | 0.32 | 1.00 | 0.03 | 0.57 | 0.54 | 0.09 | 0.58 | 0.52 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.10 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.08 |
| 3 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 1.00 | 0.23 | 0.30 | 0.28 | 0.23 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.09 | 0.05 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.09 |
| 4 | 0.59 | 0.52 | 0.23 | 1.00 | 0.42 | 0.33 | 0.25 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.04 | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.13 | 0.08 |
| 5 | 0.55 | 0.54 | 0.10 | 0.12 | 1.00 | 0.34 | 0.52 | 0.50 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.56 | 0.13 |
| 6 | 0.05 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.33 | 0.34 | 1.00 | 0.23 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.54 | 0.06 | 0.10 | 0.08 |
| 7 | 0.61 | 0.57 | 0.03 | 0.25 | 0.52 | 0.23 | 1.00 | 0.21 | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.13 | 0.12 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.10 |
| 8 | 0.57 | 0.52 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.50 | 0.26 | 0.21 | 1.00 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.12 | 0.06 | 0.13 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.08 |
| 9 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.32 | 0.05 | 0.22 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 1.00 | 0.17 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.38 | 0.46 | 0.08 |
| 10 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.04 | −0.06 | −0.17 | 1.00 | 0.13 | 0.01 | 0.66 | 0.58 | 0.18 | 0.74 | 0.29 |
| 11 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.35 | 0.13 | 1.00 | 0.08 | 0.59 | 0.53 | 0.33 | 0.60 | 0.28 |
| 12 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.34 | 0.44 | 0.52 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.08 | 1.00 | 0.11 | 0.05 | 0.25 | 0.24 | 0.05 |
| 13 | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.48 | 0.53 | 0.56 | 0.06 | 0.66 | 0.59 | 0.11 | 1.00 | 0.12 | 0.23 | 0.28 | 0.03 |
| 14 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.06 | 0.14 | 0.62 | 0.13 | 0.06 | 0.58 | 0.53 | 0.05 | 0.12 | 1.00 | 0.26 | 0.56 | 0.51 |
| 15 | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.38 | 0.18 | 0.33 | 0.05 | 0.23 | 026 | 1.00 | 0.02 | 0.27 |
| 16 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.13 | 0.06 | 0.10 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.46 | 0.74 | 0.60 | 0.04 | 0.28 | 0.58 | 0.02 | 1.00 | 0.12 |
| 17 | 0.10 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.63 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.29 | 0.28 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.51 | 0.27 | 0.12 | 1.00 |
1—Redsec potato yield, conventional treatment; 2—Redsec potato yield, treated with 4% A. cepa; 3—Redsec dry matter, untreated; 4—Redsec dry matter, conventional treatment; 5—Redsec dry matter, treated with 4% A. cepa; 6—Redsec starch accumulation, untreated; 7—Redsec starch accumulation, conventional treatment; 8—Redsec starch accumulation, treated with 4% A. cepa; 9—Roclas potato yield, untreated; 10—Roclas potato yield, conventional treatment; 11—Roclas potato yield, treated with 4% A. cepa; 12—Roclas dry matter, untreated; 13—Roclas dry matter, conventional treatment; 14—Roclas dry matter, treated with 4% A. cepa; 15—Roclas starch accumulation, untreated; 16—Roclas starch accumulation, conventional treatment; 17—Roclas starch accumulation, treated with 4% A. cepa. p < 0.05; in yellow, moderate significant correlations; the green color emphasizes the correlation coefficient r = 1; sample size is 30 plants/experimental variant.
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Details
; Mîrza, Camelia Manuela 3
; Burduhos, Petru Daniel 1
; Mălinaș, Cristian 4
; Moldovan, Bianca Maria 1 ; Antonia Cristina Maria Odagiu 1
1 Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, 3-5 Calea Mănăștur, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
2 Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Babeș Bolyai University, 11 Arany Janos Street, 400028 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
3 Faculty of Medicine, “Iuliu Hațieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 8 Victor Babeș Street, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
4 Faculty of Forestry and Cadastre, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, 3-5 Calea Mănăștur, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;