A Socioecological and Maqāṣidi Analysis of Domestic Gender-Based Violence in Yemen

Abstract

This study uses an integrated multidimensional lens to investigate the ongoing issue of domestic gender-based violence (DGBV) against women in conflict areas of Yemen, with a specific focus on the city of Taiz. Yemeni society has historically operated within a framework emphasizing traditional gender roles, which can unfortunately lead to situations where women bear the brunt of societal pressures and misattributed blame. Against this backdrop, this study explores the nature and causes of violence faced by Yemeni women during the period 2021-2023, as well as the role of Islam in addressing and curbing violence against women in Muslim societies. Through applying a qualitative approach involving triangulation and utilizing qualitative data analysis software, namely ATLAS, this study integrates primary data derived from interviews with affected women and secondary data sourced from humanitarian organizations, including Bena Charity for Human Development (BCHD), Nahaḍa Youth for Marginalized Development (NYMD) and Civic Center for Advocacy and Support (CCAS) in Yemen. To illuminate the causes and dynamics of this violence, the analysis draws on Auda's (2008, 2022) concept of maqāṣid alsharī ah, the socioecological approach (Heise, 1998), social cognitive theory (SCT) (Bandura, 1986; Bandura, 2001), feminist insights on patriarchy, and the power and control wheel concept (Dobash & Dobash, 1979; Walker, 1980; Pence & Paymar, 1993). The findings unveil an alarming escalation of violence in Taiz. This study reveals the multifaceted factors contributing to the high domestic gender-based violence (DGBV) index during the Yemeni war period. By examining the complex factors involved, this study provides a comprehensive prototype for policymakers and organizations to address and prevent violence in Yemen's conflict areas, safeguarding women's rights, advancing gender equality, and fostering social justice within Yemen and potentially in broader Arab contexts.

Headnote

Abstract

This study uses an integrated multidimensional lens to investigate the ongoing issue of domestic gender-based violence (DGBV) against women in conflict areas of Yemen, with a specific focus on the city of Taiz. Yemeni society has historically operated within a framework emphasizing traditional gender roles, which can unfortunately lead to situations where women bear the brunt of societal pressures and misattributed blame. Against this backdrop, this study explores the nature and causes of violence faced by Yemeni women during the period 2021-2023, as well as the role of Islam in addressing and curbing violence against women in Muslim societies. Through applying a qualitative approach involving triangulation and utilizing qualitative data analysis software, namely ATLAS, this study integrates primary data derived from interviews with affected women and secondary data sourced from humanitarian organizations, including Bena Charity for Human Development (BCHD), Nahaḍa Youth for Marginalized Development (NYMD) and Civic Center for Advocacy and Support (CCAS) in Yemen. To illuminate the causes and dynamics of this violence, the analysis draws on Auda's (2008, 2022) concept of maqāṣid alsharī ah, the socioecological approach (Heise, 1998), social cognitive theory (SCT) (Bandura, 1986; Bandura, 2001), feminist insights on patriarchy, and the power and control wheel concept (Dobash & Dobash, 1979; Walker, 1980; Pence & Paymar, 1993). The findings unveil an alarming escalation of violence in Taiz. This study reveals the multifaceted factors contributing to the high domestic gender-based violence (DGBV) index during the Yemeni war period. By examining the complex factors involved, this study provides a comprehensive prototype for policymakers and organizations to address and prevent violence in Yemen's conflict areas, safeguarding women's rights, advancing gender equality, and fostering social justice within Yemen and potentially in broader Arab contexts.

Keywords: Domestic gender-based violence (DGBV), Humanitarian organizations, Maqāṣid alsharī'ah, Yemen, ATLAS

Introduction

Yemen, as a lower-income country, faces significant socioeconomic challenges, exacerbated by one of the highest poverty rates in the Arab world, as well as an extensive gender disparity in education. The latter is starkly evident as nearly 60% of Yemeni women are illiterate, a statistic that underscores the systemic barriers they face (Carapico, 1998; Binwaber, 2019; UNICEF, 2021). Historically, southern Yemen was relatively progressive concerning women's rights, but following unification in 1990, the North's conservative influence intensified, solidifying traditional gender roles and a patriarchal system deeply embedded within the national fabric. This backdrop, combined with the onset of civil war in 2015, has catalyzed the escalation of domestic gender-based violence (DGBV), manifesting in various forms. These include physical abuses such as beatings and maiming; psychological abuses like intimidation and coercive control; sexual violence including rape and forced marriages; economic deprivation; restricting access to resources; involvement of women in high-risk jobs to support their families; and social discrimination such as enforced isolation and societal stigmatization. Furthermore, child marriages of girls as young as 9 or 10 have been reported, underscoring the severe violations of human rights and highlighting the complex challenges faced by women and girls in Yemen. These aspects highlight discriminatory practices that not only perpetuate gender-based violence but also reinforce societal structures that disadvantage women, making them more vulnerable to various forms of abuse (Al-Dhamari, 2021; UNFPA, 2023; Beuze, 2023; MCD, 2022).

In this war context, the poignant 2011 artwork of Yemeni cartoonist Rashad Al-Samei powerfully encapsulates the plight of Yemeni women, using the image of tears and traditional attire transformed into weapons to highlight their suffering and resilience. This depiction aligns closely with this study's focus on the pervasive issue of DGBV in Yemen's conflict cities, especially Taiz, between 2021-2023 (Othman, 2022). This period, marked by continuous conflict and socio-political instability, has seen a disturbing increase in DGBV incidents, as reported by various humanitarian organizations. This research aims to provide a detailed picture of the dynamics of DGBV in Yemen from 2021-2023, offering insights into the lives of the women affected and proposing actionable solutions for policymakers and aid organizations. It addresses a critical gap in research on DGBV during Yemen's protracted conflict, which is illustrated by alarming statistics from humanitarian organizations reporting a disturbing rise in incidents of domestic violence across conflict zones in Yemen (Al-Dhamari, 2021).

Key questions guiding this investigation included examining the types of DGBV prevalent in Yemen, any significant changes in prevalence between 2021 and 2023, common causes of DGBV in Taiz, any potential alignment between primary and secondary data from interviews and humanitarian reports, and the role of maqāṣid al-sharīah in mitigating DGBV. By applying Auda's maqāṣid al-sharīah framework, which emphasizes the higher objectives of Islamic law, this study offers a culturally sensitive approach to understanding the dynamics of DGBV and identifying effective prevention strategies. This distinctive approach demonstrates how Islamic ethical principles can be effectively aligned with modern approaches to mitigate the impacts of DGBV, thus making a unique contribution to the field and addressing an identified research gap.

Despite the Islamic faith's condemnation of violence, reports from organizations like UN Women and UNICEF highlight a concerning rise in DGBV in Yemen, a Muslim-majority country (UN Women, n.d.; UNICEF, 2021). This study distinguishes itself by integrating Auda's Islamic framework with a multidimensional approach that integrates (Heise, 1998) social cognitive theory (SCT) (Bandura, 1986, 2001) and feminist theories related to patriarchy and power dynamics (Dobash & Dobash, 1979; Walker, 1980; Pence & Paymar, 1993). This unique synthesis fosters a culturally contextualized analysis that aligns Islamic ethical principles with diverse contemporary social theories, resulting in a holistic understanding of DGBV that is sensitive to Yemeni cultural and religious values while providing actionable insights for policy and community interventions. The methodological and theoretical innovation of this study allows for practical applicability of the research, significantly contributing to both scholarly discourse and practical efforts to combat DGBV in conflict-affected areas.

In response to Yemen's ongoing conflict, over a hundred local organizations have called for international and regional action to prioritize the well-being of its citizens, especially women who disproportionately suffer from the war's devastating effects. This advocacy highlights a critical need for solutions to the ongoing humanitarian crisis, a need that is often obscured by inadequate media coverage (Reliefweb, 2022; UNHCR, 2023). Despite these challenges, the resilience shown by the women of Taiz, with support from international bodies such as UN Women, UNICEF, and the International Labour Organization (ILO), highlights not only their resilience and survival instincts but also the potential for substantial progress in achieving gender equality and economic empowerment. These organizations play a crucial role in providing immediate support and long-term strategies to transform the socio-political landscape in Yemen and significantly improve the lives of its women.

Literature Review: Gender-Based Violence in Yemen

There is substantial literature on gender-based violence (GBV) in conflict-affected Muslim-majority countries, highlighting its intense impact, underlying causes, and possible avenues for intervention and prevention (Skaff, 2012; Anani, 2013; Alsaba & Kapilashram, 2016; Ibrahim & Bny Uoda, 2018; Alkan et al., 2022; Reliefweb, 2023). These studies contribute valuable insights for understanding the multifaceted nature of violence against women in wartime and in Muslim contexts. In the same vein, several studies offer nuanced perspectives on the challenges and implications of violence and propose potential strategies to address and mitigate these pressing issues (Skaff, 2012; Mokhtar, 2019; Abouelenin, 2021; Abdo, 2022; Abujilban et al., 2023). These research findings collectively underscore the urgent need for comprehensive measures to safeguard women's well-being and basic human rights in the face of conflict-induced vulnerabilities in Arab nations like Syria, Iraq, and Yemen. In Yemen, particularly in Taiz, the UN (2024) reports significant trends in violence, emphasizing its impact on civilians, especially women. Figure 2 below illustrates the distribution of violence in Taiz, Yemen, from 2021 to 2024, showing that GBV, including physical, verbal, psychological, and economic abuse, constitutes 29.2% of the city's violence. The remaining 70.8% represents other forms of violence, such as casualties from armed conflict, injuries from landmines and explosive remnants of war (ERW), incidents involving small arms fire, and general violence like kidnappings and robberies. This distribution highlights the urgent need for targeted interventions to address both GBV and the broader spectrum of violence affecting the civilian population in Taiz (UN, 2024).

Despite some reported decreases in violence and civilian casualties from 2021 to 2023, the persistent nature of conflict continues to place women at high risk (UN, 2024). These statistics underscore the urgent need for interventions to safeguard women's wellbeing and basic human rights. The UN's reports on Yemen offer a detailed review of the country's humanitarian landscape, noting a steady decline in civilian casualties in Taiz from 400 in 2021 to 296 in 2023, and a similar decrease in reported violence incidents from 550 in 2021 to 470 in 2023 (UN, 2024). These figures suggest either enhancements in security or improvements in reporting accuracy. However, the 2024 data shows that 23% of women still face significant vulnerabilities in GBV; the statistics may also be influenced by better recognition and reporting of the issue. Reports from the Civilian Impact Monitoring Project (CIMP) for 2022 and the first three quarters of 2023, along with the United Nations Population Fund's Yemen Reports (UNFPA, 2023), reflect the ongoing conflict's harsh impact on civilians, especially women (UN, 2024).

The existing literature on Yemeni women predominantly draws from reports by local and international organizations, along with internet articles and other popular sources. Scant scholarly research exists to fully capture the dire situation they face. This lack of in-depth analysis is particularly concerning given the pervasive threat of violence, particularly domestic violence, that intertwines with narratives on women's activism in the Yemeni context (Crawford, et al. 2013; Velzboer-Salcedo & Novick, 2000). This violence stems from patriarchal ideas that prioritize men's interests. Yemeni women regularly confront violence in various settings, including public spaces, homes, and in the form of discriminatory laws and policies. Ba-Obaid and Bijleveld (2002) present official statistics on violence against Yemeni women in Sana'a, documenting victimization rates. In a survey of 120 women, over half of the respondents reported that they had faced threats, 55% experienced physical abuse, 34% endured financial victimization, and 17% encountered sexual violence. Only 28% had not experienced any form of violence. Notably, age, marital status, and education level influence vulnerability to victimization. This study exposes husbands as the primary perpetrators of violence, with unknown individuals or strangers in public spaces also contributing significantly. The qualitative insights illustrate the normalization of violence and women's perceptions of societal bias against them and paint a clear picture of the complex challenges Yemeni women face.

Holt (2020) delves into these challenges, shedding light on the prevalent violence and discrimination against women. Through a poignant example, Holt's article highlights a disturbing incident where a young girl in Hodeida was accused of immorality by her father for playing outside, leading to her arranged marriage to an older man who subjected her to abuse. This narrative is representative of the subordinate position of women and girls in Yemen (Erturk, 2016), highlighting the need for organizations like the Yemeni Women's Centre for Empowering Women, which provides support and addresses women's rights violations. Al-Sakkaf traces persistent domestic violence in the context of Yemeni women's activism (Al-Sakkaf, 2010). This violence occurs within a patriarchal framework where men's entitlement overshadows women's needs and is used as a tool to maintain male dominance (Ba-Obaid, 2006, p. 161; Haj-Yahia, 2000, pp. 240- 241; Wagers, 2015). The intertwining of religion exacerbates the situation, as religious laws can conflict with and sometimes supersede public laws, leading to the invalidation of women's constitutional rights. A survey on violence against women in Yemen reveals alarming statistics, with over half of women reporting physical abuse. Many women regard such violence as ordinary due to societal norms (Ba-Obaid & Bijleveld, 2002).

Rohwerder (2017) investigates how Yemen's conflict has affected gender dynamics. The majority of evaluations of the situation in Yemen since March 2015 have been "gender blind" (Basharen, 2016, p. 1). Academic literature on gender in the current Yemeni conflict is scarce. This study uses a mix of qualitative and quantitative data from the UN and NGO, highlighting the impact of conflict. The research acknowledges the historical discrimination faced by Yemeni women but also recognizes a shiftduring the 2011 Yemeni Revolution, which promoted greater participation of women in public life. This suggests a potential for increased agency for Yemeni women.

Despite this, GBV remains a sensitive issue to report, often hindered by fear and threats of further violence or even death. Various types of abuse experienced in Yemen, includes "beating, cursing, shouting, mockery, verbal abuse, handcuffing girls, depriving girls of education, [and] restricting the movement of girls" (Al-Dhamari, 2021). According to the preliminary findings of Al-Dhamari's survey, 71% of community members surveyed in the four governorates of Taiz (Al- Shamāytīn and Al-Māafr), the capital Sana'a (Al-Sabeen), Aden (Dar Sa'ad), and Lahj (Al- Musimir) have defended husbands who beat their wives. In reference to social norms that grant men the authority to punish women and girls if they disobey, women themselves concur that "a woman deserves to be punished by her husband if she leaves the house without his permission" (Al-A'nsi, 2020, para. 2). In most cases, men were overwhelmingly responsible for the abuse of women. 11% came from the husband, 10% came from a relative, 2.5% came from a mother, and 1.5% came from a son (Al-A'nsi, 2020). This patriarchal perspective aligns with the outlook of the Houthis,2 who similarly contend that educating women presents risks. The Houthis also equate women's labor outside the home with corruption and consider freedom as being concealed behind a veil. The Houthis assert that women's involvement in public life alongside men results in an escalation of criminal activities. To substantiate their assertion, they reference unverified statistics from unspecified newspapers (Al-Surayhi, 2022).

Furthermore, the cycle of violence in Yemen extends beyond homes, with women facing abduction and mysterious disappearances in public spaces. Sam Organization (2021) documented arbitrary arrests and disappearances in Sana'a perpetrated by the Houthi militia, impacting women from various backgrounds. Victims, including those from the opposition, human rights defenders, and journalists, endured isolation, inhumane treatment, and torture in prisons, with no regard for pregnant mothers' rights. Underage marriages increased amid economic decline, leading to displacement and detention. Legal protections for assaulted women were absent, contributing to pervasive GBV. Girls, activists, and female journalists experienced abduction and physical abuse (Al-Shunwaah, 2022; Sam Organization, 2021).

In the context of Yemeni women's experiences, the symphony of pain and suffering takes on different tones over time. Tragically, some women resort to suicide as a consequence of cyberbullying, a scourge that infringes upon their freedom of expression, confidence, and self-esteem. Al-Šhāri (2022) notes the disproportionate impact of cyberbullying on women, with 69% affected compared to 32% of men. Societal attitudes and the absence of deterrent laws contribute to this disparity. Desire to undermine competitors is a prominent factor (17%), and people under 20 are most susceptible (60% of cases).

Houthi-imposed restrictions, notably the requirement for a male guardian (a ma&1E25;ram) since March 2021, have hindered Yemeni women's mobility, impacting their ability to work and conduct humanitarian fieldwork. These constraints, not part of Yemeni law, particularly affect women in Houthi-controlled areas, creating gender discrimination (Sam Organization, 2021). Moreover, militias in Yemen worsened the situation by forming "zaynabiyyāt battalions" involved in military operations, recruiting girls and children from orphanages (Colburn, 2021). Trained to handle weapons, these battalions also control women's movements, particularly working women, imposing restrictions and engaging in psychological violence. The zaynabiyyāt undertake various roles, including espionage, opposition entrapment, opinion monitoring, and prosecution (Sam Organization, 2021).

This study distinguishes itself from prior studies by centering its investigation on the nature and continuity of violence within the conflict-ridden region of Taiz. This study digs deeper into the utilization of a multifaceted framework that draws upon Auda's (2022) maqāṣid al-sharīah, a socioecological approach proposed by Heise (1998), the SCT formulated by Bandura (1986), a feminist critique of patriarchy, and the idea of a power and control wheel. The power and control wheel is a conceptual framework that illustrates the various abusive tactics used by perpetrators to maintain dominance over their partners, including emotional blackmail, economic withholding, threats, and physical violence, integrating these into a systemic pattern of abuse (Dobash & Dobash, 1979b; Walker, 1980; Pence & Paymar, 1993). This multifaceted approach allows for a deep analysis of the persistent violence in Yemen, exploring how socio-political and religious dynamics, psychological factors, and gender norms intersect to exacerbate the situation. These various lenses were combined to effectively address and identify strategies to mitigate the escalation of this phenomenon within Yemen's conflict zones, particularly as it has intensified as a result of warfare.

Materials and Methods

This study primarily adopts a qualitative approach, employing a two-method design that includes interviews and triangulation, which involves cross-referencing data from multiple, independent sources to ensure the consistency and comprehensiveness of results (Patton, 1999). Using qualitative data analysis (QDA) with the help of the computer program ATLAS facilitated the thematic analysis through coding and organization of data. Standardized, semi-structured faceto- face interviews allowed for flexibility and depth (Alasuutari et al., 2008; Magaldi & Berler, 2020), and were tailored to explore the specific context of DGBV in Yemen (Lindlof & Taylor, 2011). This study aligns with the American Psychological Association's Ethics Code, ensuring participants were informed about the study's purpose, duration, and procedures (American Psychological Association, 2002). Participants' rights to decline and withdraw were emphasized (NESH, 2019) and confirmation letters from humanitarian organizations verifying their voluntary participation were obtained. Authorization was also obtained from the International Peace College South Africa (IPSA) in Cape Town and Taiz University in Yemen, with no associated risks. This study adheres to theological, social, and psychological ethics, prioritizing respect, safety, privacy, and anonymity. Information was collected strictly for research purposes; confidentiality to safeguard participant privacy was maintained at all times (Allen et al., 2008).

The choice of Taiz as the geographical focus was deliberate; it was selected for its prominence as an epicenter of socio-political conflict within Yemen. This area provides unique challenges and data opportunities, allowing for a deep exploration of the nuances of gender-based violence in a context that is pivotal to understanding Yemen's broader socio-political landscape. Taiz exemplifies the broader conflict's impact across Yemen, and it has experienced a particularly severe level of violence. Despite these challenges, Taiz provides a unique opportunity for research due to its rich cultural background and the availability of data from ongoing humanitarian efforts. Moreover, the researcher encountered difficulty with choosing cities like Sana'a because of the difficulty of traveling for women to northern cities of Yemen and restrictions placed upon those coming from the South. The most compelling reason for focusing on a specific geographical context within the Taiz districts, namely, Al-Qahirah, Al-Mu&1E0D;afar and Sālah, is that it has the largest population involved in this conflict. The study's timeframe from 2021-2023 coincides with a period of increased conflict, intensity, and a notable scarcity of contemporaneous research, dictating the choice of Taiz due to the availability of targeted data from collaborations with key organizations.

This study focused on 50 married and divorced women from Taiz to explore DGBV amid ongoing conflict. Employing a mix of purposeful and snowball sampling, the study aimed to gather participants with relevant contextual knowledge. The sample expanded through participant recommendations; however, out of the 50 approached, only 20 agreed to confidential interviews due to financial constraints or safety concerns, while 30 declined interviews because they were not offered financial compensation for participating. This lower participation rate may not fully represent the spectrum of experiences and introduces a potential bias in understanding the broader impact of DGBV in Taiz.

Interviews were restricted to the lead researcher and a woman psychotherapist who provided feedback in ten interviews, supporting participants facing emotional abuse, anxiety, and depression through cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Open-ended questions were asked to seek rich, detailed, and descriptive data. Participants were given pseudonyms, and only the first letter of their names was used in the study to ensure confidentiality. Interviews were primarily conducted in the homes of participants or homes of their friends in Taiz, locations deemed safe and private. However, the variable safety conditions in Taiz, where residents often temporarily relocate to areas like Al-Hawban during heavy bombings, only returning home months later, further complicated the stability and continuity of this study's participant base. Participants were informed about the study's scope and their rights through detailed consent forms, which was crucial for fostering an environment conducive to open discussions.

The financial challenges highlighted by the 30 participants who declined participation because of lack of compensation underscore the economic hardships many face, emphasizing the need for potential financial incentives in future studies. This is particularly pertinent as some participants rely on local organizations for basic support due to their dire economic conditions, highlighting the complex interplay between financial insecurity and research participation in conflict-affected regions. Participants consisted predominantly of women from poor or middleclass backgrounds, including those who are educated and employed.

The inclusion of divorced women was limited to three individuals who obtained divorces during the war years (2018, 2020, 2022), highlighting the specific vulnerabilities and societal pressures faced by women in these circumstances. The stigma associated with being divorced in Yemeni society influenced the interview approach to avoid emphasizing the duration of marriage or divorce in the selection process, based on the psychotherapist's advice to avoid adding discomfort or risking re-traumatization among participants. Table 1 shows the demographic details of the participants.

Conceptual Framework

This study addresses the complexity of DGBV in conflict zones, utilizing a multidimensional approach encompassing social, cultural, economic, and political dimensions. By identifying root causes, this study contributes to the development of tailored preventive measures for DGBV in conflict-ridden regions of Yemen. Emphasizing an integrated approach, this study draws from Auda's maqāṣid al-sharī'ah (Auda, 2008, 2022), Heise's socioecological approach (1998), SCT (Bandura, 1986), a feminist approach to patriarchy and power, and the idea of a power and control wheel (Dobash & Dobash, 1979; Walker, 1980; Pence & Paymar, 1993) to combat DGBV and promote safer environments. The power and control wheel theory explains how various abusive behaviors-such as coercion, threats, emotional abuse, isolation, economic control, and child abuse-are strategically employed to maintain power and control over victims. Examining these behaviors and the complex, systemic encouragement of them facilitates opportunities for intervention and prevention strategies more relevant to the cultural context in which Yemeni women live.

Utilizing ATLAS QDA software, this study adopts a multidimensional approach to explore specific thematic concepts associated with DGBV. Auda's framework of maqāṣid al-sharī'ah promotes justice, equality, and prevention strategies in line with Islamic principles (Auda, 2008, p. 7; Cruz-Osorio & Essayag, 2021). Bandura's SCT recognizes the interplay between behavior, personal factors, and the environment in understanding DGBV, particularly the influence of early exposure to violence (Bandura, 1986). Integrating Auda's framework with SCT enhances the understanding of DGBV and facilitates effective interventions. This study also incorporates a feminist approach to patriarchy and the power and control wheel to critically examine societal norms perpetuating DGBV and outline abusers' tactics (Dobash & Dobash, 1979; Walker, 1980; Pence & Paymar, 1993). This integrated approach, along with Heise's socio-ecological model, considers ontogenetic, microsystemic, exosystemic, and macrosystemic factors, providing a comprehensive understanding of the nature of DGBV and informing the development of prevention strategies (Heise, 1998). The inclusion of an Islamic approach further enhances the comprehensive examination of DGBV (Auda, 2022).

Maqāṣid al-sharī'ah (Auda, 2008, 2022) serves as the main approach for tailored preventive measures within a multidimensional framework, as Auda's exploration on maqāṣid resonates with prominent Islamic scholars, emphasizing justice, ethics, and societal welfare (Ibn Ashur, 2013; Al-Qaradawi, 2013; El-Mesawi, 2020). This emphasis aligns with Ibn Ashur's discussions on the significance of maqāṣid within fiqh (jurisprudence), stressing the importance of aligning legal rulings with the objectives of sharī'ah for societal welfare. Auda's exploration of mafāhīm, the underlying concepts within Islamic law and ethics, corresponds with Al-Qaradawi (2013) who focuses on interpreting Islamic concepts in contemporary contexts. Auda's analysis of fi'āt,3 sunan,4 qiyyam,5 ḥujaj,6 and awāmir7 within Islamic legal thought aligns with various explorations (Kamali, 2008; 'Izz al-Dīn, 2004; Al-Alwani, 2003, and Al-Raysuni, 2005) of Islamic scholarship, collectively contributing to the development and interpretation of fiqh. They stress the importance of aligning legal rulings with the higher objectives of sharī'ah, offering valuable insights into how fiqh can effectively address contemporary challenges while simultaneously upholding justice, ethics, and societal welfare.

Results and Discussion

This section presents an analysis of both primary data from interviews and secondary data obtained from the humanitarian organizations. It explores the nature and causes of violence faced by participants while considering the impact of the Yemeni civil war on women. Utilizing ATLAS QDA software, this study systematically examines interview transcripts to understand the representation of DGBV in conflict areas. Thematic and systematic analyses identified key concepts from the interviews, and participant responses were efficiently captured and coded using common themes, following the approach outlined (Saldaña, 2016).

This study addressed the first research question by identifying various forms of DGBV in the conflict zone of Taiz, including physical, verbal, social, economic, psychological, and digital violence. Interviews revealed a surge in DGBV against women from 2021 to 2023, correlating with challenging living conditions, fear, insecurity, and financial constraints due to the ongoing war. Family members, specifically husbands, fathers, and brothers, emerged as the primary perpetrators of abuse, with a noticeable escalation during the time period mentioned. This alarming trend was exemplified by one participant's comment, indicating a shiftin spousal violence. Mrs. R expressed: "We are not rich, but our husbands were not as violent as they are now with the change in living conditions since the beginning of the war in Taiz," and such a view was also shared by Mrs. L. Furthermore, the impact of domestic violence is underscored by two participants who reported suffering miscarriages as a result of the actions of their abusive husbands.

A common thread emerged among all participants, who pointed to the deteriorating economic situation and the rising cost of living as significant contributors to DGBV. This revelation sheds light on the influence of the civil war, as evident in the responses gathered and analyzed through ATLAS QDA computer software (see Figure 3).

Participants repeatedly emphasized a distressing shiftin dynamics. Mrs. A stated: "Violence has become a means to acquire money, particularly targeting vulnerable workers who are silent and submissive," a sentiment shared by Mrs. C, F, K, and O. Similarly, Mrs. B remarked: "These circumstances were not prevalent before the war," and such a view was also echoed by Mrs. F, L, M, P, and Q. The mounting pressures have led to heightened tension, a lack of patience and understanding, and a pervasive erosion of trust among couples whose lives have been drastically altered during the war period.

The study analyzed the complex factors contributing to the escalation of DGBV across multiple levels: ontogenetic, microsystemic, exosystemic, and macrosystemic dimensions in response to the second research question of the study. At the ontogenetic level, individual psychological factors-such as fear, insecurity, financial constraints, and men's attitudes and behaviors-are significant contributors to violent behaviors. Factors such as employment and income, educational level, and exposure to and learning of aggressive behavior through family and society also play a role. Effective interventions, such as counseling and trauma-informed care, are proposed to address these factors. At the microsystemic level (situational factors), familial and interpersonal dynamics-including gender power imbalances within the family, hyper-masculinity inequality (economic control and dependence on men), marital conflict, and challenging living conditions-are key contributors to DGBV (Gottfried,1998). These circumstances require the creation of safe environments and access to resources for survivors.

At the exosystemic level (war-related factors), the impacts of war, economic pressures, travel abroad, isolation of women/families, unemployment/low income, militia involvement and street shootings contribute to the escalation of DGBV. The sunan of maqāṣid emphasize the pursuit of economic justice as a way to alleviate violence. By promoting zakāt (charitable giving) and equitable wealth distribution, the maqāṣid framework helps reduce financial stressors that often escalate domestic and gender-based violence.

At the macrosystemic level, societal norms and cultural beliefs exacerbate DGBV. Factors such as the political and institutional disruption of social norms (breakdown of institutions), legal and injustice systems, and the influence of media also contribute to the persistence of DGBV. Efforts to transform these harmful norms and promote gender equality are essential. Auda's maqāṣid framework, particularly through awāmir, advocates for non-violence and respect for human rights. These principles align with Islamic teachings that call for compassion, fairness, and justice, which guide efforts to address the root causes of DGBV and create a more equitable society

In response to the third research question, this study uncovered that the causes of violence faced by Yemeni women (see Figure 4), including a complex range of factors. These factors span masculinity, socioeconomic status, control, family pressure, insecurity, economic pressures, and behavioral issues. In addition, contributors such as poverty, war, exploitation, crime, conflict, and gender inequality further exacerbate the situation. The cost of living, distrust, disrespect, and threats also play a role, alongside victimization and injustice, as significant drivers of DGBV.

Incorporating Auda's maqāṣid framework and the integrated approaches can help Yemeni society work towards curbing DGBV and create an environment where women are treated with dignity, equality, and respect. This Islamic strategy resonates with secondary data from humanitarian organizations (BCHD, NYMD, and CCAS) to contribute to a comprehensive understanding of DGBV causes as indicated in Figure 5.

The results from humanitarian organizations align with participant responses on the causes of DGBV in Taiz, addressing the fourth research question of the study. Conflict escalation emerged as a significant factor in all three areas: Al-Qāhirah (9 participants), Al-Mu&1E0D;afar (3 participants), and Sālah (4 participants). This corresponds to the impact of war cited by 50 participants in Al- Qāhirah and 293 in Al-Mu&1E0D;afar, highlighting the prevalence of violence in conflict-affected regions. The level of education correlated with violence, with 47 participants in Al-Qāhirah and 295 in Al-Mu&1E0D;afar identifying education as a factor, while none in Sālah mentioned it. This difference indicates variations in the role of education in influencing DGBV in different areas. Age differences were also noted, with 293 participants in Al-Qāhirah, 567 in Al-Mu&1E0D;afar, and 30 in Sālah citing age as a contributing factor, indicating potential variations in societal norms and vulnerabilities among age groups across regions.

Family problems and an unstable relationship with the perpetrator emerge as significant factors contributing to DGBV across all three regions. Economic situations contribute to violence in Al-Qāhirah (222 participants) and Al-Mu&1E0D;afar (350 participants), while none in Sālah mentioned this factor. The breakdown of social structures substantially impacts violence, with high participant numbers from all regions (818 in Al-Qāhirah, 1360 in Al-Mu&1E0D;afar, and 33 in Sālah) identifying it as a contributing factor. The continuity of participant responses with humanitarian organizations' data highlights the consistency of this study. These results emphasize the complex, multi-dimensional nature of DGBV in Taiz, highlighting the need to address varying underlying causes for effective combating and prevention of violence in the region.

To effectively address the final research question, maqāṣid al-sharī'ah, rooted in Islamic principles, underscores various virtues (mafāhīm) to nurture a society that unequivocally denounces violence and advocates for gender equality. This framework provides essential guidance in understanding and addressing the complex issues related to gender-based violence. Auda emphasizes qiyyam attributes like compassion, respect for human dignity, and urging men to treat women with kindness and equality. Surah An-Nisā (4:19) in the Qur'an (wa'ashiruhuna bilma'rūf) reminds individuals to treat their wives with kindness and fairness (Quran, n.d.). Similarly, Surah An-Nisā (4:34) holds that men are protectors and maintainers8 of women, emphasizing that they should treat them with fairness. This verse further calls for challenging harmful norms and promoting a more equitable family structures.

In Yemen, where patriarchal structures are prevalent, Auda's maqāṣid focuses on challenging oppressive norms within fi'āt, and empowering women is especially vital (Auda, 2022). The sunan of maqāṣid directly addresses the economic instability that exacerbates DGBV. The sunnah encourages the creation of safety nets and social support systems that provide women with financial independence, reducing their vulnerability to abuse. Auda (2022) argues that following sunnah promotes justice and economic stability, which can help alleviate these pressures. In addition, The Qur'an, in Surah Al-Baqarah (2:267), encourages charitable spending to support those in need during challenging times (Quran, n.d.), which fosters a more stable and supportive community environment. This economic support is pivotal in reducing stressors that can escalate into domestic and gender-based violence, thus connecting economic teachings with actions that mitigate DGBV. By addressing these economic pressures, maqāṣid principles aim to mitigate violence within households by empowering women with the financial stability needed to escape DGBV. The Qur'anic evidence (ḥujaj) further emphasizes compassion, fairness, and justice, aligning with maqāṣid principles (Auda, 2022). The framework's awāmir advocates nonviolence and human rights. By embracing maqāṣid principles, Yemen can align its efforts to safeguard women's rights, enhance gender equality, and eradicate violence, based on the Qur'anic principles found in Surah An-Nisā (4:1, 19-135), Surah Al-Baqarah (2:190), and Surah Adh- Dhariyat (51:19-20) that highlight compassion, fairness, justice, gender equality, and non-violence (Quran, n.d.).

These religious principles align with Yemeni constitutional principles that emphasize the family's role in society, rooted in religion, morals, and patriotism (Constitute, n.d.). DGBV in Yemen leads to severe psychological, social, and health consequences, requiring psychological treatment and the establishment of awareness programs in line with maqāṣid al-sharī'ah objectives. The persistence of DGBV is rooted in societal norms and fear of public shame, demanding a transformation of societal attitudes and systems. Women endure violence to avoid condemnation, hindered by macrosystemic and exosystemic factors that contribute to societal violence. The concept of fi'āt as well as a variety of cultural beliefs underscore the role of social expectations in perpetuating violence. Fear of consequences and limited social support reflect the power of perpetrators. Women's subordination under patriarchal behavior reinforces the persistence of violence. Effective strategies must challenge societal norms, empower women, increase awareness about DGBV, and offer valuable guidance in addressing the effects of violence.

The results illustrated in the following figure 6 demonstrate a strong alignment of the primary data, gathered through interviews with affected individuals, with the secondary data obtained from humanitarian organizations. These datasets offer valuable insights into several factors, including the underlying causes of different types of DGBV, the impact of the psychological and socioeconomic conditions of perpetrators, and the escalation of the violence index during the wartime period in Taiz. Furthermore, the study identifies factors contributing to the tenacity of DGBV and the effects of violence on psychological, social, and health status.

Participants in the study reported varied experiences when seeking support for DGBV. The majority noted a lack of assistance from family and friends, while one participant sought help from an online friend who is a psychiatrist living outside Yemen. However, four victims expressed the desire to seek support but emphasized the need for complete secrecy due to societal stigma. When it comes to seeking support from a psychiatrist or digital mental health interventions (DMHIs), all participants responded negatively. Despite this, their willingness to discuss violence suggests their hope for finding help and improving their current situation, highlighting a discrepancy with the teachings of Islam, which emphasizes the importance of women's voices.

In addressing these issues, the role of maqāṣid principles, including mafāhīm, fi'āt, sunan, qiyyam, ḥujaj, and awāmir, is crucial. Integrating maqāṣid principles into interventions may help combat gender-based violence, promote awareness, and provide support for victims. Furthermore, incorporating economic support, awareness, education, personal support, health support, legal support, and psychosocial assistance aligns with the objectives of maqāṣid in creating a society free from violence and upholding the rights of individuals, particularly women (Auda, 2022).

Table 2 presents a prototype for an integrated, multidimensional approach that addresses the causes of gender-based violence, provides protection, and suggests targeted interventions. This prototype framework incorporates maqāṣid principles within ontogenetic, microsystem, exosystem, and macrosystem levels to offer a comprehensive solution.

In summary, each incorporated theory contributes to an understanding of DGBV by addressing different aspects of the socioecological approach. The socioecological approach (Heise, 1998), considers violence within a broader context, including individual, interpersonal, community, and societal factors. The social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) helps explain how individuals develop and maintain violent behaviors within this framework. A feminist approach and the idea of a power and control wheel (Dobash & Dobash, 1979; Walker, 1980; Pence & Paymar, 1993) focus on power dynamics within intimate relationships, shedding light on the interpersonal domain of the socioecological model. Together, these theories provide a comprehensive understanding of the complex phenomenon of DGBV and its prevention measures from an Islamic point of view.

Conclusion

This study of Domestic Gender-Based Violence (DGBV) in Taiz, Yemen, adopts a multidimensional approach, integrating theoretical frameworks that reveal an increase in violence in line with the deteriorating living conditions from 2021 to 2023. Primary perpetrators identified include husbands, fathers, and brothers, underscoring the familial and societal underpinnings of violence. This study synthesizes individual and situational factors, war impacts, and entrenched societal norms to provide a holistic understanding of the causes of DGBV. It leverages Islamic principles, notably Auda's maqāṣid al-sharī'ah, envisioning a Yemeni society that robustly condemns violence and champions gender equality. Data correlation between primary and secondary sources underscores the validity of the findings and highlights the intricate dynamics of DGBV in Taiz. Despite its limitations, this research marks a substantial stride in understanding violence against women in conflict zones and has the potential to inform policy discourse. It calls for comprehensive strategies that challenge societal norms, empower women, raise awareness about violence, and integrate Islamic principles to address gender-based violence in Yemen and similar contexts.

This study advocates for the urgent implementation of psycho-educational interventions to address psychological trauma, recommending the use of trans-theoretical models and online programs tailored for high-risk environments. For severe cases, it suggests integrated therapies combining cognitive-behavioral therapy with AI-powered applications to ensure accessible and confidential mental health support (Zhou et al., 2022; Prendergast & Davis, 2023). Further research is needed to assess the efficacy of digital technologies in psychological treatments within conflictaffected settings (Donker et al., 2009).

The findings point towards actionable measures to alleviate the severe conditions faced by Yemeni women. It is crucial to foster just societies through tailored support, advocacy, and the creation of inclusive communities. This study specifically calls for strategic partnerships between local NGOs, international humanitarian organizations, and government bodies. These partnerships should focus on co-developing community-based interventions that are culturally sensitive and effectively mobilize resources to combat DGBV. Entities like Bena Charity for Human Development, Nahaḍa Youth for Marginalized Development, and others, which have been instrumental in providing ground data, should play central roles in such collaborations. By aligning efforts and sharing expertise, these partnerships may more effectively address the complexities of DGBV and work towards a thriving future free from violence and injustice for Yemeni women.

This study proposes a multi-faceted approach to addressing DGBV in Yemen, emphasizing interventions that span community engagement, legal reforms, economic empowerment, healthcare, education, and technology. It advocates for the establishment of community watch programs involving local leaders, women's groups, and youth organizations to monitor and report violence, creating immediate community-based safeguards. Furthermore, it calls for stricter laws against domestic violence, encompassing economic and psychological abuse, to ensure comprehensive protection. Economic initiatives such as vocational training and microfinance are suggested to reduce dependency and economically empower women. The establishment of accessible trauma-informed care centers would provide tailored mental health services for survivors. Educational campaigns and school-based programs aim to reshape societal attitudes toward gender norms by engaging youth in discussions on gender equality and respect. Lastly, the development of confidential technological platforms would enable women to report violence and safely and anonymously access support, reinforcing protective measures across different levels of society. This integrated strategy aims to foster just societies by combining legal, economic, health, educational, and technological solutions, tailored to the unique challenges faced by Yemeni women in conflict zones.

Acknowledgments

The researcher gratefully acknowledges the significant contributions of several humanitarian organizations that provided valuable secondary data essential for this study, including Bena Charity for Human Development (BCHD), Nahaḍa Youth for Marginalized Development (NYMD), and Civic Center for Advocacy and Support (CCAS) in Taiz. The researcher also acknowledges her use of ChatGPT-4, an AI language model, to enhance the readability of some paragraphs. This assistance was limited to language refinement and did not alter the substantive content or conclusions of the work. All ideas, analyses, and interpretations in the article are her own. In addition, all interviews and their interpretations were conducted and analyzed personally by her.

Footnote

2 The Houthis, a tribal group from northern Yemen, have historically been active in the Saada region. Their influence grew significantly during the Yemeni Civil War in 2015, although their presence in Yemen predates the conflict. They became a dominant political and military force after capturing Sanaa in 2014, transitioning from a local tribal group to a key player in the ongoing conflict. Despite their political rise, the Houthis' tribal roots remain a core aspect of their identity and influence in Yemen.

3 Often refers to various categories or groups within society, emphasizing their roles and interactions in Islamic governance.

4 Represents established traditions, but in Auda's context, it particularly focuses on their application in modern Islamic thought.

5 Values that are central to Islamic ethical and moral teachings, emphasized in Auda's framework to guide societal behavior.

6 Used to denote authoritative proofs or evidence in deriving legal and ethical norms in Islam.

7 Commandments in Islamic law that dictate specific duties, often discussed in terms of their relevance to contemporary issues in Auda's work.

8The translation of this verse (specifically the term qawāmmun) is debatable, partially because of its root term qama, to stand/straighten up. As such it is a significant source of critique in feminist discourse, as well as translation studies on the Qur'an. The word qawāmmun has appeared in English translations of the Qur'an as caretaker, protector, maintainer, and sometimes even rendered as "in charge of."

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