Introduction
Technology is an impetus to change, including the changing methodology, forms, format, modes of news presentation, and the evolving structure of newsrooms (Pavlik, 2000; Spyridou et al., 2013). Researchers have highlighted the need to understand this change (Bradshaw, 2010) since it ushered in a distinct era in journalism, where new forms of storytelling were combined with interactive interfaces, dynamic visualization, and data. The widespread use of technology has contributed to its diverse forms. The convergence of reporting, statistical analysis, computer science, and visualization resulted in this new form of journalism. They are conversational, data, drone, network, robot, selfie, slow, and virtual reality journalism (Papadopoulou and Maniou, 2021). Most of these current terms in journalism are associated with technology development, the relationship between audience and journalism, the emphasis on funding news media, or geography-related. For example, solution journalism relates to reporting style; drone and augmented journalism concentrate on technology or data-led approaches; and slow journalism is focused on time-related dimensions. These classifications assist in tracing, mapping, and understanding the changes and complexities over time through the labels or names given to them (Ahva and Hautakangas, 2018).
Technology is a crucial driver in the new news era, as publications vie to create efficiency in scale for production, distribution, and value delivery. Understandably, with their inherited advantage, technology companies have jumped into the fray with user-generated content, taking advantage of falling circulation figures, mounting losses, and changing audience profiles and preferences in the news media (Wu et al., 2019). The traditional media have been unable to ignore these tech giants, such as Facebook and Google. The Australian government proposed a code of conduct for news intermediaries, which includes compensating the news media for using its content (Guardian, 2020). Though these companies have been unwilling to encourage discussions on payment negotiation, when fruitful, it could impact several countries, including India (Mukul, 2021).
The newspaper industry in India gradually adopted some of these changes. Still, the exigencies of a worldwide pandemic have hastened this change, forcing journalists to stay indoors and write news from home after a spot visit. The advent of the COVID-19 pandemic squeezed print media publications from both ends, and their readership fell sharply as stay-at-home readers stopped buying newspapers. Advertising revenue, the lifeblood of most newspapers, significantly shrank as jobs were lost, buying power shrank, and advertisers cut their advertising budgets. This shrinking fortune of the news-media industry in India was captured by Nielsen, the global consulting firm, in its 2020 survey. This survey noted that, as a trend, readership was slowly falling across print media, including English, Hindi, and regional newspapers. Taking one month’s growth figures, in Q4 2019, Nielsen presented a growth comparison. If print shrank by 2 percent (4 million), television viewership grew by 7 percent (840 million), radio by 11 percent (226 million), and the internet by a walloping 123 percent (449 million). The Reuters Digital News Report (Newman, 2021) expanded this data by reporting that government advertisements in print were down from USD 2.74 billion (2018–19) to USD 1.20 billion (2019–20), resulting in wage cuts across the news media. In the face of a health calamity on a global scale, Indian print media was cut down to size, resulting in many laid-off employees, slashed salaries, merging or closing editions, and temporarily suspending print publications despite strengthening their online presence.
Thus, this article seeks to address how digital technologies transform the nature of journalism and the shift from a traditional approach in the Indian context through the lens of the labor process theory framework. Several current studies have focused on digital technologies and their influence on their work (Hayes, 2021), labor-focused agenda in analyzing the working conditions of journalists (Cohen, 2018), journalistic work in an analytics-driven labor environment (Petre, 2018), the relation of labor and technology (Cohen, 2015; Örnebring, 2010), and outlined the employment relationship using labor process lens (Hayes and O’Sullivan, 2023). However, none of the existing research has delved into understanding the changing focus and priorities in using new forms of journalism during and after the pandemic in the news media. This is addressed by the present study, which further explores how new technologies adopted in the newsroom influence journalists and editors in journalistic practice in Indian print media. Labor process theory is a Marxist approach that examines relations of production in industrial capitalism (Cohen, 2015; Hayes, 2021). Accordingly, the study examines the technological paradigm in journalism, analyzes the changing role and reorientation of journalistic work, and examines the view of journalists towards this transition that has hastened in digital journalism. The study will analyze the key trends in technology and technological transformation in the present news media and investigate the constraints and their impact on journalistic practice. Using the labor theory framework, this paper contributes to the existing literature by focusing on the changes that the Indian newspaper industry underwent on account of the COVID-19 pandemic and underscoring the issues, from editorial transformations to business-oriented considerations. In addition, it provides a critical perspective on the adoption of technology, understanding the challenges and broader social and societal factors that play key roles.
Theoretical framework
Labor process theory framework
Labor Process Theory was notable in the 1970s with the publication of Harry Braverman’s Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (1974), and Marx and Gramsci’s political and economic writings. According to Braverman, incorporating new technology means accomplishing deskilling to escalate the authority of the labor process (Cohen, 2015; Marjoribanks, 2000a, 2000b). As drawn from Karl Marx’s primary concept in cultural work, labor process theory mentions profiteering in labor-capital associations. Scholars are keenly interested in exploring cultural work in different aspects that involve media, culture, and communication (Cohen, 2015). It provides valuable insights into the news media’s technological, cultural, and organizational developments (Im, 1997). Similarly, Hardt and Brennen (1995) emphasize the role of news workers and the role of labor in the advancement of media capitalism. The commoditization of news leads to commercial interests. The advancement in the industrial growth of print media in terms of human capital involves the financing of labor, expertise, and participation in the employment of media ownership.
The Detroit newspaper strike in the 1990s represented the impacts of growth in corporate concentration, advancement in technology, surge in technology change, and progress in the information and media sectors (Rhomberg, 2012). There is an argument that examining journalism as labor involves the daily incorporation of technology in a journalist’s routine life and the history of the connection between journalism and technology. More consideration needs to be given to journalism as labor. Thus, labor process theory is significant as it mainly involves the relationship between technology and labor. Incorporating technology into their routine work makes it a substantial cause for this sustaining stability in the technological paradigm. So, the argument is about how technology is used in journalism, and it is redefining the journalistic job. For instance, user-generated content, the rise of citizen journalism, and 24/7 news. Taking labor as a lens, the present issues related to journalism can be addressed. Earlier, the labor approach was not relevant as most journalists had permanent jobs in stable organizations. Moreover, labor the work scenario has changed to more independent work profiles like freelancing, blogging, and contractual work (Örnebring, 2010).
Media organizations are developing business models that focus on new forms of materialistic gain. Organizations are substituting paid employees with unpaid internships; writers earn for their work on profitable websites like The Huffington Post; and skilled workers lose their jobs as news organizations like CNN have shown more reliance on content submission by volunteers or citizen journalists through crowdsourcing (Cohen, 2015). Earlier, journalists did not need to be aware of printing; similarly, less importance was given to expertise in production technologies for TV and radio scribes. In this profession, skills, including writing and information-gathering competency, are considered significant over technical credentials (Ursell, 2004; Singer, 2004). Hence, the support staff had expertise in the production of news. This specifies that the technical know-how was detached mainly from journalism. However, this is changing; journalists should now have technical knowledge of computer-based and digital production technologies for newsgathering (Ursell, 2004). Marjoribanks (2000a, 2000b) points out that journalists are supposed to have technical skills and be computer literate. For instance, Ursell, (2004) states that the British Press Agency (Britain) has segregated its newsgathering and processing operations. Thus, news process personnel or production reporters collect information and convert it into profitable news products, and they do not necessarily require a journalism degree.
Technology acts as a tool that assists managers in making organizational changes with the objective of cost-saving, as in the case of journalistic labor and can be efficiently supervised. This is possible when journalists take on labor that was earlier done by high-cost technical experts or by terminating journalists from their work that low-cost employers can replace. This means that the transformation and expertise in journalistic labor are not so much directed by technological requirements as by capitalist requirements to decrease labor expenditure (Marjoribanks, 2000a). Adopting new technologies in news production is also associated with time and speed. News organizations observe that technologies are significantly used to get an edge over the competitive market through speed. News productivity is associated with fast news. This requirement for speed is an integral factor in technology and is outside the control of specific journalists but is absolutely under the control of the capital. Technological progress is more likely to restructure the organization, especially in work distinctions and skill levels. For instance, several tasks carried out by the newspaper staff, like setting the page and distributing pages for printing, are now done by a journalist with the help of a computer. The developments point out that several jobs for craft workers are in peril from this transition to computerized production in the print media organization (Marjoribanks, 2000a). In some of the studies related to cultural work, Marx’s concept of exploitation is approved, where the struggle reveals tension between the artistic aspiration for creative liberty and the requirements of benefit-oriented cultural production. This struggle is labor-focused, as there is an argument over commodification and exploitation of labor power (Cohen, 2015).
To better understand the relationship between the leading technological edge and the company’s restructuring, there is a need to examine the institutional context in which the actors are placed. In his paper, Marjoribanks (2000b) cites the example of the Financial Times undergoing restructuring with the idea of saving costs and being on par with the technological innovation adopted by the competitor, News International. This implies the need to incorporate new developments and adopt new computer technology to survive in the competitive market. The management contemplates adopting “new forms of technology” as a road ahead for restructuring the “newspaper’s workforce” (Marjoribanks, 2000b, p. 582). Technology has been the driver for this restructuring in the newspaper, which has led the management to publish newspapers at a lower cost and with a different set of skilled manpower. One of the main changes in the organization was the addition of technology, which led to the “loss of complete functions in production” (Marjoribanks, 2000b, p. 582). This study considers the perspectives of labor process theory, to analyze how a capitalist mode of production transforms the nature of work and how it would contribute to worker labor tensions. It further examines the use of technology to increase productivity, the deskilling of labor, how automated technology results in increased differentiation of the labor process in journalism, and the merging of a few roles and specialist skills.
This theoretical framework provides insight into how Indian journalists perceive adoption of new technology as it is creatively integrated into their routine work. How technology drives the new form of journalism in developing countries like India needs to be explored. Additionally, this discussion is critical to understanding the technology-led changes and reorientation of journalistic roles and work. Journalists are supposed to possess technical skills and automated technology in news production. Thus, the interview questions in this study focus on this theory to address the research questions. The research questions delve into this area to assess the role of technology in aiding journalists in their work and its impact on journalistic parlance. None of the previous studies focused on the current scenario, capturing the transformation in the Indian print media newsroom during the post-pandemic period. Through the research questions, this study seeks insight into the adoption of new forms and technologies, the new labor relationship, the struggle to survive in the competitive market, and the future scope of print media.
Review of literature
The proliferation of new technology has affected media organizations, journalists, and readers alike in India and across the globe. Readers sought engaging, interactive, and immersive real-time stories. This forced print publications to adopt new business models, acquire new technical skills, and evolve journalistic practices (Spyridou et al. 2013). The influence of new forms in journalism is apparent with the acceptance of new strategies for sustainability (Singer, 2014), like the advent of citizen journalism, collaborative storytelling formats, and participatory journalism that demonstrate the influence of new media on journalism by upending conventional ideas of professional authority and gatekeeping (Deuze, 2005). Early research highlighted the potential of new media technologies to create and enhance value for readers (Pavlik, 2000), boost viewership, maximize appeal to advertisers, and reduce production costs (Boczkowski, 2004). Further, publications could involve more readers (Metykova, 2008) and publish, share, and analyze better, backed by improved data visualization capabilities (Wu et al., 2019). Data analytics enabled the creation of localized content quickly and efficiently. ‘Computational’ and ‘data’ journalism spearheaded evidence-based reporting and investigative journalism, enhancing the credibility of news (Coddington, 2014).
Artificial intelligence (AI)—the new addition to the journalistic stable—further changed the news terrain, using algorithms and machine intelligence to help deliver machine-written content quickly (Van Dalen, 2012). AI impacts journalism, and this transition is witnessed in both traditional media and new media (Sun et al., 2022). The introduction of generative AI has widened the journalism area, presenting both scope and threats in this field (Pavlik, 2023). Gondwe (2023) defines generative AI as the branch of artificial intelligence that delves into generating systems or models capable of creating new and authentic content. Generative AI platforms like ChatGPT follow the skill to qualify for the Turing Test, thus acting as a risk to human journalists and those associated with media. ChatGPT is proficient at refining the information, filtering it, and delivering it in text format that might appear human. Thus, research to explore and analyze generative AI systems like ChatGPT or DALL-E and understand their relevancy in the fields of journalism and media education is imperative (Pavlik, 2023). Aided by AI, the Associated Press now produces 3700 quarterly earnings reports during the earnings season, representing a 12-fold increase in earnings coverage compared to what it did manually earlier (Galily, 2018). News organizations like Buzzfeed, Huffington Post, CNN, and Mail Online paved the way for reaching broader audiences using social media and search options. Tech tools such as Google Alert for setting alerts for trending and customized information, Google AMP (accelerated mobile pages) for search traffic, Facebook Instant Articles for reach, and Facebook referrals were all adopted by media players to grow their numbers and stall competition (Kleis, 2017).
Traditional media’s adoption of new technology in newsrooms is not without critique. News media organizations are reacting to the moves of digital intermediaries (social media and search engines) and are afraid of missing out on their reach (Kleis, 2017). Small and medium-sized news organizations face obstacles in incorporating AI tools. Here comes the need for a consistent study to comprehend AI further than to blame or fear it (Sun et al., 2022). The majority of the AI news projects are dependent on technology companies for funding. Thus, AI’s capabilities are restricted to small news organizations (de-Lima-Santos and Ceron, 2021). The media transformation is witnessed in the changing positions in the market, increased media competition, the development of new media types, and multitasking by journalists (Metykova, 2008). The automated content and algorithmic-generated news based on popular searches from Google, search engine optimization logic, and click-stream logic let the organization know what the public seems to want at that moment and is not filtered for appropriateness so the public can make informed decisions as citizens (Clerwall, 2014). The possibility of fragmentation of the news audience due to personalized news creation could cut off readers “from the larger currents of public information in society” (Metykova, 2008, p. 43). Advertisers might focus most of their spending on targeting this niche audience by creating a disconnection from traditional media (Taneja, 2019). At the regional or local level, digital users with limited technical knowledge have constraints on accessing the web’s multimedia content, depriving the larger population of those who do not have digital access (Boczkowsk, 2004). Further, technological changes could impact the media’s labor, authority, productivity, ethics, and journalistic practices (Wu et al., 2019).
The Indian context
The Digital News Report 2021 reported that the news media’s COVID-19 pandemic had hit the print media and accelerated technological transformation. It influenced journalistic work, business processes, and technology used during the next ten years (Newman, 2021). The pandemic saw legacy newspapers like the Times of India, Hindustan Times, and The Hindu lose more circulation and advertisements. It led to layoffs, salary cuts, and the closing down of editions because of the economic slowdown that accompanied the lockdown (Newman, 2021). Newsprint costs increased by 20 percent (PTI, 2021), forcing the industry to cut expenditures. The Deccan Chronicle and The Asian Age closed their editions from Kerala, Bengaluru, Mumbai, and Kolkata, respectively (Dutta, 2020).
The Indian Express announced a salary cut (Bhatnagar, 2020), and Outlook magazine temporarily suspended its print edition in 2020, though its e-version was available for readers. Business Standard (business daily) stopped publishing its Patna and Raipur (Hindi editions). The Telegraph shut down its Jharkhand and Guwahati editions. Mail Today’s print edition was shut down in August 2020 (Ninan, 2021) and has completely switched to an e-paper and news website from Delhi, run jointly by the British newspaper Daily Mail and the India Today Group. Similarly, the English-language newspaper Mumbai Mirror, owned by Bennet, Coleman, and Company, has switched online (Bhatia, 2020). The Indian Newspaper Society (INS) reported a loss of USD 1878.92 million during the first eight months of 2020 due to the pandemic. The loss affected around 3 million employees (direct and indirect employees). INS appealed to the government for a stimulus package for the print media during this crisis (PTI, 2020). Thus, it is pertinent to delve into how the focus and priorities changed in print media after the pandemic hit print media. This study explores how technology is integrated into the newsroom and impacts journalistic practice based on labor process theory framework.
Research method
Research questions
The four research questions are:
RQ1: When technology is embedded in news production, what changes have occurred in the role and function of journalists?
RQ2: What is the new labor relationship like?
RQ3: What is the connection between these changes and India’s social culture, media organizational structure, and news production practices?
RQ4: What are the organizers’ management philosophy and producers’ interests in the new production network?
Methods
Data for this exploratory study was collected using semi-structured interviews. This qualitative approach is best suited to exploring new phenomena and helps capture respondents’ thoughts and feelings by aiding the interpretation of meaning and processes (Ayres, 2008). Semi-structured interviews help to dive deep into the topic, obtain new information, and provide data to support expected outcomes as the interactive discussion unfolds (Ahlin, 2019).
Sampling design
Purposive sampling helps justify selections based on analytical, logical, or theoretical grounds and can benefit qualitative research (Berndt, 2020). This study used the purposive sampling method, which allowed us to select respondents and experts based on our judgment. A total of 30 journalists participating in this study were selected based on their valuable experience and technical expertise, representing the media fraternity.
Sample profile
Our sample consisted of 30 journalists and editors from India’s eight leading English-language national dailies. The study involves in-depth interviews with fifteen journalists, eight editors, and seven photojournalists. Out of 52 journalists (33 male and 19 female) approached for the interview, 30 (21 male and nine female) journalists participated in the study through email, online chat, and telephonic conversation. The responses have been analyzed and included in this study. The identity of the respondents was protected because of the non-disclosure contracts they had signed with their organization. The respondents participated in the interview willingly and were not paid for it.
The Academic Integrity Committee (AIC) approved this study at the corresponding author’s parent university. A discussion guide and consent form were prepared for all the participants in this study. Participation in the study was voluntary, and the identity was confidential and protected. Data saturation occurs in qualitative studies when the sample size is between 20 and 30 respondents (Marshall et al., 2013). This research limited the sample size to 30. Data saturation was reached with the 25th interview, indicating that the dataset was becoming redundant as new ideas failed to emerge further. All journalists and editors interviewed had over 15 years of work experience and were full-time employees. They held senior positions, led teams, and were above 35 years old.
Data collection methods
The interviews were conducted through email, online chat, and telephone conversation. The study involved synchronous and asynchronous interviews in gathering information, as mediated approaches encouraged engagement and sharing (Barada, 2013). Altogether, the study involved eighteen synchronous interviews through telephone conversation and twelve asynchronous interviews (email and online chat). A discussion guide was used, and the interviews lasted 30 min to an hour and were recorded between November 2020 and March 2021. The interview questions were allied to the four research questions to explore the transformation in journalism during and after the post-COVID-19 pandemic. One hundred and fifteen pages of transcript data resulted from 30 interviews. The next step involved the transcription of each interview. The first author transcribed the interviews soon after they were completed. The verbatim transcriptions were summarized and analyzed. Finally, the transcripts were coded and evaluated.
Coding
The findings were presented after arranging the open codes into axial codes and grouping all the codes under relevant themes. The coding process was done manually, and the two coders ensured the reliability of codes and themes. One coder was a Ph.D. research scholar with three years of experience in qualitative research. The other was a faculty member with over 20 years of experience teaching qualitative and quantitative research.
The four themes that have emerged from the interview data are: (i) changes in the role of journalists; (ii) the new labor relationship; (iii) the relationship that exists between these advances and the news production techniques, media structure, and social culture in India; (iv) producers’ interests and organizers’ principles of management in news media. An individual theme can have subthemes as a subclass that provide an extensive perspective of data and divulge a pattern regarding the respondent’s version (Vaismoradi et al., 2016). The sub-themes are selected based on the prevalence of keywords from the respondents’ interviews in response to the research questions. The themes and sub-themes selected after the data analysis are outlined in Table 1.
Table 1. The themes and sub-themes that emerged from the data analysis.
Emerging themes | Sub-themes |
|---|---|
Transition in the role of journalists | • Multitasking and content creators for multiple platforms • Acquire digital content creation skills • Create a personal brand • Engage directly with audience • Fact-checkers, coding, and data visualization • SEO optimization, multimedia storytellers, and social media engagement |
The new labor relationship | • More productivity while saving costs • Increase in workload • Rise in data-driven news projects • AI/ML algorithms integrated in the newsroom • Collaboration with data scientists and AI engineers • The importance given to audience preference and relevant business models |
The news production techniques, media structure, and social culture in India | • Expanding and investing in digital platforms • Changing patterns in news content and distribution • Digital media democratized access to information • Social media platforms are shaping public discourse and influencing societal attitudes • Targeting potential spenders as an audience • Compromise journalistic ethics |
Producers’ interests and organizers’ principles of management in the news media | • Data-driven decision-making • Audience-centric approach • Web traffic monetization • Attract revenue and drive business results • Invest in new technologies and diversify revenue streams • Explore innovative storytelling techniques and multimedia formats |
Findings
Transformation of journalistic practice
The first research question focuses on the embedding of technology in news production, which has brought about several significant changes in the role and function of journalists. Noticeably, using the labor theory process framework, the respondents interviewed have indicated that the increased adoption of digital technology in the newsroom for multiple purposes is the new norm. All thirty respondents believe technology dependence in the newsroom has led to a transition in their job roles and workforce. Journalists multitask as they are no longer confined to traditional print media formats. Their job profile has expanded to include multimedia storytellers as they generate content across various multimedia platforms, including video, text, audio, infographics, and interactive web formats. Digital tools assist in publishing content instantly on different platforms: newspapers, online editions, social media platforms, mobile apps, and newsletters. This requires proficiency in multiple storytelling techniques and multimedia production tools.
In this study, the respondents believed that adopting new forms of journalism required innovative tools. News organizations were experimenting with new techniques and tools, and journalists were donning multiple roles and taking on varied functions to speed up the process of newsgathering, production, and distribution. Journalists must balance multiple responsibilities and acquire digital content creation skills, including analytics, to handle multimedia tools. It was further underlined by a male chief sub-editor (46) who has worked for nearly 20 years in print media: The possibilities across text, voice, and video formats look limitless. No one can resist this change and brood in a corner. Even the vernacular newspapers and television channels are adopting new technologies wherever suitable. On similar lines, a male senior principal correspondent (37) with 15 years of working experience with print and television media shared his perspective:
We now present the news with charts, graphs, and pictures. It is a new experience for journalists to use technology like Facebook Live and software to transfer photos and edit in the newsroom and field.
The newsmakers optimize content for search engines and social media algorithms to reach a wider audience and maximize engagement. In addition, journalists are increasingly cultivating their own personal brand online through social media, blogs, podcasts, and personal websites. Twenty journalists and editors opined that a strong personal brand can help journalists build credibility, attract followers, and create new opportunities for career advancement. Digital platforms allow journalists to engage directly with their audience through social media, live chats, and interactive features. Journalists solicit feedback, answer questions, and foster discussions with their audience, enhancing transparency and building trust. Further, most news organizations in India use data analytics to understand factors driving traffic to their website, promote the home page, engage the audience, target specific users, and know their audiences. The respondents in this study pointed out that podcasts, mobile applications, and data-driven journalism were quickly making inroads into the Indian newsroom. This is followed by adopting big data, live streaming, network journalism, content management systems, tools to detect fake content, and the building or adoption of digital tools or apps. While drone journalism, slow journalism, artificial intelligence, machine learning, and cloud computing were making forays gradually. Echoing Pavlik and Bridges’ (2013) observation of a shift in audience preferences from traditional to more engaging social media and mobile media platforms, a female Special Correspondent (44 years) associated with a national daily newspaper with 22 years of experience within our sample observed:
Print media is trying to scale itself up with new technology and tools. News organizations now want news more quickly.
The other aspect of verification and fact-checking has become an integrated part of this profession. The proliferation of misinformation and fake news online has made verification and fact-checking essential components of journalism. Journalists use technology tools and digital resources to verify sources, authenticate content, and debunk false information. Most news organizations have a team of journalists who have undergone training to be fact-checkers. The news organizations take the help of fact-checking organizations for verification too. Overall, given the rapid pace of technological change and working in this digital space, all 30 media professionals admitted the need to continuously adapt and acquire new skills. They attend workshops, online courses, and conferences to stay updated on digital journalism’s latest tools, trends, and best practices. The respondents agreed that the focus has shifted from general to personalized news. Hence, online editions learned the importance of digital space and experimented with new forms. The respondents highlighted that the pandemic led to much more data consumption in the digital space. There is an increased focus on creating digital content, including a wider acceptance of podcasts. Technology is being adopted for data visualization, finding patterns, and figuring out how numbers make sense. In many newspapers, news stories were generated first for the paper’s website and then for the print publication. The respondents remarked that people on digital platforms became more critical and decisive. The focus is on creating more video content for the online audience. If the journey from print to online created challenges, the pandemic nudged reporters to learn new skills and upgrade their knowledge. In addition, media professionals need to understand the backend process and master social media publishing. Thus, technology has expanded the role of journalists beyond traditional reporting, empowering them to produce multimedia content, engage with audiences directly, verify information rigorously, and distribute news across digital platforms. Embracing technology is essential for journalists to thrive in today’s rapidly evolving media landscape. A senior male assistant editor (48) with a national daily who has been associated with business news for more than two decades stated:
As we gradually give importance to the digital space, we must gain new skills to enhance our digital competence. Digital skills have helped speed up processes and improve efficiency.
Adaptability and agility in the rapidly evolving media landscape
The second research question investigates the new labor relationship in the news media industry. The evolution of media labor has been profound, reflecting shifts in technology, audience behavior, and economic models. Labor is a significant concept for examining journalistic work (Örnebring, 2010), and the rise of digital media has transformed how journalists function. Traditional print journalists now often produce content for online platforms, which requires different skills like SEO optimization, multimedia storytelling, and social media engagement. The news cycle has become continuous with the advent of the internet and social media. Journalists are expected to produce and update content around the clock, leading to increased pressure and faster turnaround times. The 27 respondents discussed that the expectation from the organization is more productivity while they are understaffed. Nearly all 30 respondents believe the increase in workload is catering to multiple platforms and meeting the deadline.
The other significant transition in the newsroom is the prominence given to data journalism. The availability of vast amounts of data has given rise to data journalism. Journalists use coding to analyze and visualize data to uncover stories and trends. Technology has enabled journalists to access and analyze large datasets, leading to the emergence of data journalism. They use statistical analysis, data visualization tools, and programming languages to uncover trends and patterns, provide context, and tell data-driven stories. The respondents stated that the number of data-driven news projects backed by high-quality visuals and deep insights that promote easy understanding was rising. Data journalism has multiple sides and is used by various media and online publications. These new tools bring efficiency to applying data, multimedia packages, and creating and publishing social media content.
Hence, twenty-eight respondents confirmed that the tools and apps increased journalistic efficiency and assisted in delivering accurate news quickly. A female principal correspondent (39) with 16 years of experience says that the news media can sustain its quick delivery and keep pace with the latest trends. It is all about market demand and speed. It has further enabled a reduction of human error and eliminated time-consuming processes. Consequently, journalists could allocate time more efficiently, concentrating on value addition, insights, analytics, and investigations. Further, the AI tools aid in fact-checking, avoiding repetition, and dealing with information overload. Thus, it saves both time and money in news production. In this regard, a male news editor (45) with 23 years of experience working in print media opined:
The new forms empower journalists to be at their creative best and be more efficient. It has turned journalists into innovative storytellers, helping break stories and verify multimedia content in real-time.
Consequently, the new labor relationship is impacted by the incorporation of AI and machine learning algorithms, which are increasingly used to personalize content for individual users. Journalists and editors collaborate with data scientists and AI engineers to optimize content distribution and audience engagement. In the Indian context, a handful of newspapers are experimenting with artificial intelligence (AI) in the news production process. Twenty-two respondents revealed that their news organization seriously considers and is looking at the prospects and possibilities of AI tools adopted in the newsroom. A female senior assistant editor (42) with 19 years of experience in print media remarked:
I do not think any newspaper organization is experimenting with virtual reality in India, and AI adoption in print media is still at a nascent stage here. The pandemic has given it a push to incorporate AI technology into the newsroom.
While excitement over adopting new technologies was universal, concern over job security was not far behind. In contrast, others pointed out the advantages of using this tool in the newsroom but with caution about the superiority of human reporters over robot journalism when it comes to generating news stories. Some news organizations experimenting with AI and ML in the newsroom believe that AI integrated into the newsroom aids in the newsgathering process, creating reports, and updating the trend. AI assists in the personalization of news stories and news recommendations. Further, it clarifies what the readers or audience are interested in and improves the news content accordingly. A male senior editor (44 years) with 22 years of experience in print media revealed:
We have not yet made any investments in AI, but we have plans to do so. AI in the newsroom could help plan and change the media industry to be people-friendly. AI applications in media in the digital age would help increase audience engagement and improve content creation while taking audience insights (feedback) and bringing automation to procedures.
Many referred to the pandemic as a “challenging time” for journalists. As traditional advertising revenues decline following the pandemic, media organizations are exploring alternative revenue streams like subscriptions, events, and merchandise. Journalists may be involved in revenue-generating activities like sponsored content, event hosting, or brand partnerships. Moreover, audience engagement and interaction are crucial. Social media has facilitated direct engagement between journalists and their audience. Journalists now interact with readers and viewers on platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram, responding to feedback, sharing updates, and building personal brands. A male chief news photographer (48) with 27 years of experience in an English-language newspaper summed it up:
In print media, jobs were lost in almost all organizations. Our organization has had a 30–40 percent pay cut since the pandemic started.
The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the shift towards remote work in the media industry. Currently, journalists rely on collaboration tools like Slack, Zoom, and Google Docs to work together across different locations and time zones. Technology facilitates collaboration among journalists working in different locations. Remote collaboration tools like video conferencing, cloud storage, and project management platforms enable journalists to collaborate on stories, share resources, and coordinate workflows seamlessly. Overall, the respondents highlighted that the media labor landscape has become more dynamic and multifaceted, requiring journalists to adapt to new technologies, audience preferences, and business models to remain relevant in a rapidly changing industry.
Transformative power of technology in shaping societal dynamics
The third question explores the changes in news media that are driven by technological advancements that have had a profound impact on India’s social culture, media organizational structure, and news production practices. India’s diverse and rapidly evolving social culture influences the type of content produced and consumed by the audience. India’s media and entertainment industry is valued at around 2.3 trillion Indian rupees in 2023. This industry has recuperated from the pandemic, and the growth is 8 percent in 2023 (Basuroy, 2024). Further, the number of periodicals registered with the Registrar of Newspapers for India (RNI, 2021) has witnessed a surge in the number of registered periodicals to 1,48,363 as of March 31, 2023. This indicates an increase of 1.59 percent over the previous year (RNI, 2021).
Traditional media organizations in India are adapting their structures to incorporate digital-first approaches. Legacy newspapers and TV channels are expanding their online presence and investing in digital platforms to reach a wider audience. New digital-native media outlets are emerging, challenging the dominance of traditional players. Social media platforms have become key drivers of news consumption in India, shaping public discourse and influencing societal attitudes. Twenty-two respondents voiced their opinion that the viral spread of news stories and opinions on platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and WhatsApp has significant social and political implications. All 30 respondents agreed that the rise of digital media has democratized access to information, allowing individuals from various socio-economic backgrounds to engage with news and express their opinions. Currently, there are over 751 million active internet users as of January 2024 in India (Basuroy, 2023a). In the 2023 digital news consumption survey, it was reported that 86 percent of respondents used legacy TV channel apps or websites to get news. Meanwhile, 55 percent claimed that they used legacy newspapers’s apps or websites to source news online. Similarly, a survey in 2023 revealed that 72 percent of respondents from India received their news online, including on social media. On the other hand, 40 percent of respondents used newspapers for news (Basuroy, 2023).
With on-demand content gaining currency, our respondents raised concerns regarding creating content to appease paying audiences. Since only upper- and middle-income groups could afford to pay for news, our respondents feared that it would exclude people with low incomes, minorities, and other oppressed and underrepresented groups from reaping the benefits of technological developments. The news media could give short shrift to people-centric news, thereby abandoning content creation that addressed the larger good. The respondents opined that as the target audience of newspapers shifted to digital platforms, the news industry was “chasing the revenue pockets of readership, leaving less space for certain parts of the spectrum of the reading population.” Thus, online subscriptions were one of the strategies newspapers adopted for digital growth and revenue generation. A male editor-in-chief (49) with 27 years of extensive experience with an esteemed newspaper explained: The news industry targets the middle and higher classes, potential spenders. It leaves no space for the lower spectrum of the population, which could become detrimental in the future. The responses from the interview further highlighted the rural-urban divide, which was significant in India. It left behind a considerable chunk of rural Indians from mainstream media, such as the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Indian Tribes (SITs). The upper-caste people in the mainstream media have defined language, images, oral communication, and grammar. Technology has barred rural people from accessing digital content, music, and online news. A male deputy editor (44) with 20 years of experience in a business daily newspaper expressed:
All these years, elite and upper-class people have dominated and presented themselves in mainstream media. Their voices are unheard. Now, technology must be made universal, available, and affordable.
Further, the respondents confirmed that news organizations had devised innovative ways to boost readership and enhance business operations in response to the pandemic. With a growing base of digital audiences, these organizations accelerated the adoption of digital technologies and invested in digital platforms. They had upgraded digital infrastructure and digital skills. Hence, there was a greater reliance on advanced technologies such as live streaming, big data, data-driven journalism, digital tools, and mobile applications. It was further underlined by a female technology correspondent (44) with 20 years of media experience:
The adoption of emerging technologies has increased organizational agility and improved its financial performance. New technologies have churned out more news stories that appeal to digital audiences, personalized content, quickened news delivery, and widened the reach.
But there are constraints faced by journalists, and they try to understand how they can adapt to this ecosystem. Among respondents who are skeptical about adopting AI in news production, there is fear of job loss and uncertainty over its impact on the news industry. According to most of the respondents, AI can be used for specific works and cannot substitute human presence in the newsroom. AI could take over those tasks, including data analysis, but the human element is inevitable when conveying a live event. In this regard, a male news editor with 18 years of experience in this field highlighted that using AI in newsrooms may reduce the need for human resources for the organization and help it cut costs. However, when it comes to news, it is a human relationship that matters. Google algorithms are an example—they have made journalists write news, keeping search engine ranking in mind, even while Twitter taught journalists the value of hashtags. The respondents reiterated an earlier notion: only television journalists break stories. Print journalists are doing the same, using algorithms and hashtags and rewriting headlines when the content is for the web. Thus, a clash between the traditional approach and the adoption of new forms of journalism is quite visible in newspaper organizations. The respondents added that new-age tools and data-driven journalism helped relay news faster in the face of such change. The idea is to use high-tech tools that gather live commentary from readers, engage them effectively, verify collated comments, and distribute this authenticated content across platforms in multiple forms in real-time. Such changing patterns in news distribution create challenges for journalists. A male senior assistant editor (53) with vast media experience spanning more than 31 years commented:
Media houses will continue to evolve with the adoption of technology. Journalism has stayed the same; only the channels have. It is much more challenging to cater to a much more diverse audience, from the followers on Twitter to the old faithful newspaper reader.
Our respondents believed that they were witnesses to tremendous changes in the news. They predicted that new news forms would be the growth area for the future. All 30 respondents have reiterated that the constantly changing news media landscape will evolve further in the coming decade, posing challenges in producing and delivering the same content in diverse forms across multiple platforms. The news would become even more personalized, user-based, and customized. Consumers would look around for newer, more accessible, and faster ways of accessing news fed by on-demand content. The younger generation, which spent more time staring at screens than reading papers, would render news paperless, making downloads more popular than collecting press clippings and photocopies to archive news.
While welcoming the changing trends, the media professionals we interviewed also raised concerns over the abuse of new technologies to manipulate news and compromise journalistic ethics in a rush to beat the competition and meet deadlines. India’s linguistic diversity presents both opportunities and challenges for news production. Digital platforms have enabled news dissemination in regional languages, catering to diverse linguistic communities. Moreover, ensuring accuracy and maintaining editorial standards across multiple languages can be challenging for media organizations. It promotes titillating and sensational news to garner eyeballs and promote opinions and prejudice based on readers’ views. The respondents voiced their concern about the fake and manipulated news circulation online. A male special correspondent (46) with more than two decades of experience in media summed up the situation:
Sometimes, unverified facts could be peddled as news in a rush to be the first to break the news. Secondly, the fast news generation could be provocative and sensational, affecting law and order and disturbing peace. Thirdly, reader engagement, based on opinions and prejudices, could deepen the divide.
According to respondents, the relationship between media organizations and the government can further influence news coverage and editorial decisions. Press freedom issues, including censorship, intimidation of journalists, and legal challenges, continue to be areas of concern in India’s media landscape. Overall, the changes in the news media intersect with India’s social culture, media organizational structure, and news production practices, reflecting the country’s dynamic and rapidly evolving media ecosystem. All 30 respondents highlighted that adaptation to technological advancements, regulatory frameworks, and societal trends is essential for media organizations to remain relevant and fulfill their role in informing and engaging the public.
Structures of media markets adopting new business models
The fourth question examines the context of the management philosophy of organizers and the interests of producers within a digital ecosystem that are influenced by several factors. The respondents highlighted that the management in the new production network prioritizes audience-centricity, digital innovation, revenue diversification, data-driven decision-making, collaborative culture, ethical integrity, and talent development. The interests of producers align with these principles as they strive to create compelling content, engage with audiences, drive business results, and contribute to the organization’s success.
The publishers have taken an audience-centric approach that prioritizes understanding and meeting the needs of their readers. They invest in audience research, data analytics, and audience engagement strategies to deliver content that resonates with their target demographic. Producers align their efforts with audience preferences and feedback to create content that drives engagement and loyalty. According to the respondents, traditional newspaper business models try to think outside the box to attract revenue, therefore attempting to publish stories on various channels and work on reader management. Our 30 respondents uniformly said that the Indian print media was constantly experimenting with new journalistic forms to stay abreast of recent trends, evolve strategies to meet market demand, and accommodate the changing needs of their audience. Most of the media professionals we interviewed confirmed that the print media struggled to survive amidst competition, and these publications urgently needed new approaches to leverage innovation and technology. The new generation of print media was trying to reach younger audiences and expand its reader and viewer base by adopting multimedia tools. A male senior editor (52) with more than three decades of experience associated with a reputed business newspaper stated:
As technologies progress rapidly, news organizations have no choice but to adopt appropriate reader-friendly technologies to reach wider audiences and create impact. Since social media has carved a ‘niche’ for itself in people’s daily lives, the news generated by news organizations like print and television media has taken a back seat. To cope with the futuristic needs of the people, the usage of new-age technologies is mandatory.
Organizers emphasize digital innovation and experimentation to stay ahead in the competitive media landscape. They invest in new technologies, platforms, and content formats to enhance the user experience and attract new audiences. Producers are encouraged to explore innovative storytelling techniques, multimedia formats, and distribution channels to captivate audiences and differentiate their content. Creativity in journalism comprises artistic methods, arts-based research, and different ways of researching, theorizing, examining, and highlighting data in journalism. Creativity gives the scope to better understand and drive sentiments in journalism. Thus, journalism stories are told more comprehensively (Witschge et al., 2019). Journalism is an inseparably creative task. It assists journalists in generating new story ideas, collecting information in unusual ways, or finding new avenues to take up their tasks with audiences (Koivula et al., 2020). Though the pandemic made virtual reporting real for print journalists, they also recognized that writing news content for the web required different skill sets. Journalists had to pay attention to the selection of the topic, its form, length, angle, and presentation.
In addition, print media in India has started integrating text, audio, photo, and video into the content, resulting in a shift of focus from computers to smartphones and tripods. Further, some publications delivered the news to multiple channels, including third-party publications such as Facebook Live and their in-house print and online publications. It required journalists to combine videos, photos, messages, and podcasts, which challenged technology-shy journalists and undermined the confidence of many journalists. The confrontation lies in covering an important story; one must simultaneously be a journalist, photographer, and videographer. A male technology correspondent (38) with 16 years of experience in a news agency and print media noted that the brain works on three components: text, video, and photographs. One is worried about how the text would shape up, the source of natural light in photographs, and the framing in a video. A professional could handle it, but this is a big challenge for journalists when their constant focus is on these tools. He further reiterated:
Earlier, photographers played an essential role in news media. Not now. Despite having a traditional approach, the organization encourages journalists to use their phones to take photographs, shoot videos, carry mini-mikes, and take a piece to camera (PTC). However, not all journalists are comfortable on camera and are not good at shooting images.
The publishers rely on data-driven decision-making processes to optimize content performance and drive business outcomes. They analyze audience metrics, engagement metrics, and revenue data to inform editorial decisions, content strategies, and resource allocation. Producers collaborate with data analysts and digital strategists to interpret data insights and tailor content strategies accordingly. Further, the performance of a journalist is based not just on the number of stories generated but is increasingly judged by the metrics, reflecting the impact of their work and the effectiveness of their engagement with the audience. Higher page views suggest greater audience interest and engagement with the journalist’s work. A male deputy editor (43) of a business newspaper with 21 years of experience highlighted these differences. According to him, news content must be short, concise, and sensational. Sex and violence sell, and bizarre stories attract attention. Important stories concerning social issues do not appear on the popular hit list in the digital edition.
In addition, organizers seek to diversify revenue streams beyond traditional advertising. They explore subscription models, memberships, events, and sponsored content to generate revenue and reduce reliance on advertising. Producers may be incentivized to create content that aligns with revenue-generating initiatives, such as premium subscription offerings or branded content partnerships. The other concern related to investment was highlighted by the respondents. Publications have to invest in technology, maintain technological platforms, recruit tech-savvy specialized staff, spend more on search engine optimization, monitor traffic, and invest in cyber-security for their sites, apart from spending on their brick-and-mortar editions. Web traffic monetization is possible only for publications with a considerable following, equivalent to circulation figures for print publications. Because of investment constraints, many news organizations have neither dedicated teams to develop digital content nor dedicated apps to deliver customized information to their target audiences. With plummeting bottom lines, many print publications were betting on their online versions to bail them out in the future. Consequently, more and more content is hidden behind paywalls, hoping people will pay to read exclusive content. As a male senior editor (55) with more than 31 years of experience associated with a national business daily stated:
Print media is not making money, even though the reading habit has increased and revenues are plunging. We do not know how to monetize print. So, we are reinvesting in digital media with the hope that readers will pay to read in the future.
Conclusion
The key findings of this study using the labor process theory framework reveal the transition in the journalistic role and functions in this changing technological landscape. The development and incorporation of technology in journalism have led to a change in the function of journalism as labor. In line with Hermida (2010), the change is witnessed in the labor theory framework that highlights a deviation from the traditional way of working, wherein journalists directly interact with the audience and integrate technologies to create and disseminate news content. Moreover, adding to the previous research in this field, this study extends it further and explores the opportunities and challenges of new journalistic forms post-COVID-19 pandemic. The study reveals that the focus has shifted to digital content, developing digital skills, and engaging the digital audience. As the COVID-19 pandemic acted as a thrust in adopting new forms and endorsed new technology in the newsroom, this study attempts to offer insights into how the COVID-19 pandemic has redefined Indian journalism and provides a more practical approach to examining journalistic work. It has presented valuable indicators of the shifting dynamics of news markets after the expansion of internet-enabled media and ongoing tensions between news organizations and internet intermediaries. Overall, it examines the transition from traditional journalism to digital news. Adding to the previous research, it represents how technology facilitates this process in the digital age in developing economies like India. In keeping with Wu et al. (2019, p. 9), who posit that the adoption of new technology would enhance the capabilities of news organizations to pursue “deeper journalism” and “more creative work,” this study found that the Indian print media have gained further financial stability with the adoption of new technologies and accelerated the digitalization of many print publications.
Our findings indicate that new technologies were adopted to optimize, modernize, and compete with technology companies, beginning to dominate the digital news space. This study, like the earlier study by Thurman and Schifferes (2012), highlights the use of analytics in the newsroom to understand audience behavior in real-time and track the number of shares, clicks, page views, and comments that act as an indicator for estimating the acceptance and impact of the content. The creative use of advanced technology in the news production process helped it reach out to its target audience, broaden its viewer base, and tailor content to match market appetite. Heeding Gynnild’s (2013) warning that missing out on innovation results in economic losses for some traditional news media companies, the Indian print media expanded its online presence, investing in new media technologies, modernizing newsrooms, upskilling staff, and delivering computer- and mobile-friendly digital content. Journalists and editors worked on digital marketing strategies and improved their understanding of backend processes, which sustained their newspaper’s digital operations. Digital content was delivered first to online readers, while journalists honed their skills in delivering near-identical content on multiple platforms in varied forms.
Content became intense, visually appealing, interactive, and inclusive as journalists multi-tasked as writers, photographers, and multimedia creators. Storytelling became compelling, creative, and easy to read. In line with Newman and Levy (2013), this study reveals that journalists are now taking on the role of marketers, promoting their stories online to increase views and engagement. This has led to dismantling the barriers that previously separated a media house’s journalistic and marketing departments. However, social media integration, content recommendation, cost minimization, and decision-making on the placement of classifieds and advertisements became the norm. Similar to the findings of Munoriyarwa et al. (2021), Jamil (2020), and Kothari & Cruikshank (2021), this study reveals the skepticism behind the adoption of AI in the newsroom. The transition from the traditional approach in the newsroom to the adoption of AI brings fear of job loss, insecurity, and a lack of training. The automated content and algorithm-generated news provide personalized news stories that target digital audiences and readers who can foot the bill. Thus, as print media publications gradually moved a greater quantum of their exclusive content behind paywalls, they invested heavily in the digital versions of their publications, driven by the hope that these editions would shore up their sagging bottom lines. Digital news promised the future as print media inched closer to being online for many media houses.
Future scope and limitation
This study contributes to existing literature by analyzing recent developments and identifying emerging trends in news forms enabled by technology in data journalism, multimedia storytelling, audience engagement, and artificial intelligence. The research identifies the new emerging technologies that serve multiple purposes in the newsroom and their impact on journalistic practice. This study provides a comprehensive overview of current knowledge in this evolving news media landscape. Thus, this synthesis can help researchers and practitioners understand the evolution of new forms and the role of technology in shaping journalism practices. It provides insights into how technology shapes the way journalists work, new labor relationships, and how news media are evolving in response to technological advancements. In addition, practitioners can assess audience engagement strategies and examine their business models and sustainability.
Future research on technology adoption in news media is dynamic and multifaceted, driven by the rapid advancements in digital technologies and their impact on journalism. Researchers can explore the ethical considerations and transparency requirements of AI-driven journalism, ensuring that the use of AI technologies aligns with journalistic values and maintains the audience’s trust. Further, research to examine the role of social media and online platforms in shaping news consumption patterns, the impact of algorithmic filtering on news dissemination, and strategies for journalists to effectively engage with online audiences can be examined.
This study has its own set of limitations, too. It presented the views of media professionals to map the transformation in print media newsrooms. However, it excluded readers’ opinions on whether these changes—such as paid content—were palatable to them. The sample considered the views of nine female and twenty-one male journalists. The women were fewer in the sample, reflecting the gender gap in print media. Due to the pandemic, in-person interviews were not possible and were conducted online. Thus, the non-verbal aspects and social cues were missed during the interview. Further, this study focuses on only newspapers, leaving the scope to understand the transformation in other news media like television and digital news media. It interviewed only journalists working with English-language print media publications but excluded those working with the vernacular press. The breadth and width of the vernacular print media are much more extensive than those of the English dailies in India and could present opportunities for future research.
Author contributions
Both authors made equal contributions to the study and manuscript preparation.
Funding
Open access funding provided by Symbiosis International (Deemed University).
Data availability
The supporting data for this study can be obtained from the authors on request. This information is not available to protect the confidentiality of the participants and privacy restrictions.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical approval
All procedures involved in studies involving human subjects were in line with the ethical norms of the institutional and national research committees. This study was approved (13/09/2021) by Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Independent Ethics Committee (No. SIU/IEC/304), Pune, India. This research was performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations applicable when human participants are involved, as per Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) guidelines (2017).
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from all the participants in this study. All participants in this study received a discussion guide and a consent form, which were delivered individually via email and messaging. Participation in the study was voluntary, and all participants' identities were kept anonymous and protected.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Abstract
This exploratory research uses in-depth interviews with journalists and editors of print news media outlets to explore how new forms of journalism support and augment the news production process. The paper employs labor theory as a theoretical framework to examine how the use of technology and financial influence has transformed the role of reporters and the tasks that they perform. The study findings reveal that the print media industry has leveraged the digital media space and is trying to understand its intricacies and possibilities post-COVID-19 pandemic. Media professionals are acquiring digital skills beyond text in audio and video formats for financial viability. This shift to digital content has led to adopting diverse journalistic forms and given momentum to producing quality news.
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Details
; Upadhyay, Ashwani Kumar 1
1 Symbiosis International (Deemed University) (SIU) Lavale, Symbiosis Institute of Media & Communication (SIMC), Pune, India (GRID:grid.444681.b) (ISNI:0000 0004 0503 4808)