Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes

1. Introduction and Scope

Mining is an indisputable pillar of the world economy, and it faces constant challenges that demand technological innovations and continuous adaptation.

Mining processes involve extracting ore from the ground, transporting it to processing plants, crushing it, separating it, refining it, and then disposing of waste. However, due to the constant current problems that this industry faces, such as, a decrease in its mineral grades, shortage of drinking water, increase in waste generation (for example tailings), etc., in addition to a set of emerging technologies, from artificial intelligence to carbon capture, this industry has been forced to modernize, not only to maximize production but also to do so efficiently and responsibly, minimizing environmental impact and maintaining the safety and health of workers [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11].

Extractive metallurgy corresponds to the set of processes carried out to selectively separate the species of interest from those of no value. This is conducted through physical and chemical processes in order to increase the degree of purity of the mineral. This branch is also part of materials science. In this context, extractive metallurgy provides the fundamental metals and base materials necessary for the development of alloys or metals needed in the chemical and mining industries [12]. Therefore, adaptive metallurgy uses these materials and optimizes their physical and mechanical properties, maximizing their efficiency and performance.

It is important to note that for every job created in mining extractive processes, 2.55 indirect jobs are created [1] in related fields, such as studies and development of materials with metals, metal recycling, transportation, water treatment, etc.

Also, modeling, simulation, and optimization in mining extractive processes are crucial for enhancing efficiency amid challenges like declining mineral grades and increasing sustainability demands. These tools help represent complex processes, predict system behavior, and support informed decision-making. Their impact includes reduced operating costs, improved productivity, and minimized environmental risks [13].

This Topic is focused on the following research fields: leaching, solvent extraction, electrowinning, flotation, thickening, pyrometallurgy, modeling, simulation, and optimization in mining extractive processes, extractive metallurgy industry materials, and waste treatment and reuse, as well as studies carried out on items that are generated indirectly by the mining industry.

2. Contributions

This Topic contains a total of 27 articles covering the main studies in this field:

Gao et al.’s (Contribution 1) manuscript is titled “Selective Etching of Sr-Modified and Directionally Solidified Industrial Al–Si Eutectic Alloys for Fabricating Fibrous Eutectic Si”. They studied the selective etching of Sr-modified and directionally solidified industrial Al–Si eutectic alloys to fabricate fibrous eutectic Si. They found that optimal Sr content (0.04–0.07 percent) resulted in better corrosion resistance, with Sr-modified samples showing lower current density and shallower pit depth compared to non-modified samples. Potentiodynamic polarization and cyclic voltammetry were used to test corrosion behavior, and the study concluded that Sr-modification improved corrosion resistance.

Pinna et al. (Contribution 2), in their manuscript titled “A Novel Recycling Route for Spent Li-Ion Batteries”, developed a new recycling method for spent Li-ion batteries (LIBs). The study investigated the recovery of metal content from both electrodes and conducted an economic analysis of the process. Results indicated that nearly all materials could be recycled, with close to 100% dissolution rates for lithium and cobalt. Furthermore, the synthesis of valuable lithium and cobalt compounds from the leach liquor proved viable. An economic analysis showed that the recovered products have high commercial value and industrial interest, making the process both environmentally and economically viable.

Oye Auke et al.’s (Contribution 3) manuscript is titled “Terephthalaldehyde–Phenolic Resins as a Solid-Phase Extraction System for the Recovery of Rare-Earth Elements”. The authors developed a solid-phase extraction system for recovering rare-earth elements (REEs) using formaldehyde-free resole-type phenolic resins synthesized from terephthalaldehyde and resorcinol. These resins demonstrated an ion-exchange capacity exceeding 50 mg/g for REE extraction and allowed for REE recovery through a back-extraction step using a 2 M HNO₃ solution. The study presents a viable, formaldehyde- and phenol-free option for REE extraction.

Jeldres M. et al. (Contribution 4), in their manuscript “Reducing Magnesium within Seawater Used in Mineral Processing to Improve Water Recovery and Rheological Properties When Dewatering Clay-Based Tailings”, studied the effect of lime pretreatment of seawater on dewatering tailings. Mixing treated seawater (TSw) with raw seawater (Rsw) at different ratios was found to improve the flocculated settling rate, aggregate size, and vane yield stress in synthetic clay-based tailings. The research concluded that reducing magnesium concentrations in seawater enhances water recovery and underflow transport, with partial magnesium removal through blending TSw and RSw being sufficient for acceptable industrial performance.

Soto et al. (Contribution 5), in their manuscript “Study of Molybdenite Floatability: Effect of Clays and Seawater”, examined the natural floatability of pure molybdenite through microfloatation assays and contact-angle measurements. They studied the effects of two clays—kaolin (non-swelling) and Na-montmorillonite (swelling)—on molybdenite’s floatability in both freshwater and seawater at pH 8. The research found that clays reduce molybdenite’s natural floatability by adhering to its surface and decreasing its contact angle. The extent of this effect depends on the type of clay and water: kaolin strongly adheres to molybdenite in both types of water, while Na-montmorillonite has a more pronounced effect in seawater. In freshwater, a higher concentration of Na-montmorillonite is required to significantly reduce molybdenite’s hydrophobicity.

Nieto et al. (Contribution 6), in their manuscript “Flocculation of Clay-Based Tailings: Differences of Kaolin and Sodium Montmorillonite in Salt Medium”, explored the water recovery process by studying the sedimentation of clay-based tailings flocculated with anionic polyelectrolytes in industrial water and seawater. Their batch tests assessed aggregate size distribution, hindered settling rate and the structure of flocs, including fractal dimension and density. The research revealed that water type affects the efficiency of primary-particle aggregation. In industrial water, some particles remained unflocculated, whereas in seawater, additional cationic bonds promoted better primary-particle agglomeration for all tailing types, leading to more effective flocculation.

Yang et al. (Contribution 7), in their manuscript titled “Extraction of Magnesium and Nickel from Nickel-Rich Serpentine with Sulfation Roasting and Water Leaching”, investigated the recovery of magnesium and nickel from nickel-rich serpentine using sulfation roasting followed by water leaching. They explored the factors affecting the extraction percentages of Mg and Ni and examined the roasting kinetics. The study found that the roasting process was controlled by internal diffusion within the temperature range of 350–650 °C. The activation energies for magnesium were 17.45 kJ⋅mol⁻¹ (0–30 min) and 14.12 kJ⋅mol⁻¹ (60–120 min), while for nickel, they were 15.48 kJ⋅mol⁻¹ (0–30 min) and 12.46 kJ⋅mol⁻¹ (60–120 min). Additionally, kinetic equations for the process were derived.

Dong et al.’s (Contribution 8) manuscript is titled “Hydrothermal Separation of Titanium Vanadium and Chromium from a Pregnant Oxalic Acid Leachate”. This study presents a novel method for separating titanium, vanadium, and chromium from oxalic acid leachate. Titanium was effectively precipitated as high-purity anatase TiO₂ using a hydrothermal method. Vanadium and chromium were then separated from the titanium-free filtrate through a three-stage extraction with acidified N235 extractant and a four-stage stripping with HCl. The process provides a new approach for the comprehensive utilization of these metals in oxalic acid systems.

Saldaña et al.’s (Contribution 9) manuscript is titled “Copper Mineral Leaching Mathematical Models—A Review”. This review summarizes the theoretical background of mathematical modeling in copper mineral leaching. It covers technological advancements, the development of mathematical and theoretical models, and discusses the challenges and potential of comprehensive models for accurately representing leaching dynamics.

An et al.’s (Contribution 10) manuscript is titled “Study on Reduction of Partially Oxidized Cauliflower-like Copper Powder by Hydrogen”. In this study, partially oxidized copper powders were reduced using hydrogen. Internal diffusion was identified as the rate-controlling step in the hydrogen reduction reaction. Post-reduction, the copper powder particles remained compact, with the dendrite arm tips becoming rounded and smooth. The apparent density of the powders decreased after reduction; however, excessive temperatures led to sintering, which increased the apparent density. The authors concluded that lower reduction temperatures combined with longer reduction times produced better apparent density results.

Castro et al.’s (Contribution 11) manuscript is titled “Behavior of As/AsxSy in Neutral and Oxidizing Atmospheres at High Temperatures—An Overview”. In this study, the literature data were analyzed and correlated to identify the predominant phases and reaction mechanisms during the thermal decomposition and oxidation of arsenic, both in its elemental form and in sulfide phases. The authors determined that the predominant phases were primarily composed of arsenic allotropes, sulfides, and dimers.

He et al.’s (Contribution 12) manuscript is titled “Study on Reduction Stripping Kinetics of Ce⁴⁺ Using a Constant Interfacial Area Cell with Laminar Flow”. The reduction-stripping kinetics of Ce⁴⁺ by HEH/EHP were studied using a constant interfacial area cell with laminar flow. The effects of various factors, including stirring speed, temperature, specific interfacial area, Ce⁴⁺ concentration in the organic phase, free extractant concentration in the organic phase, HCl concentration, and H₂O₂ concentration, on the stripping rate were investigated. The control mode and steps of the stripping process were identified, and the kinetic equation for stripping was derived. The authors concluded that the stripping process is controlled by both diffusion and interfacial chemical reactions.

Sun et al.’s (Contribution 13) manuscript is titled “Study on Mass Transfer of Phosphorus Based on New Hot-Metal Dephosphorization Kinetic Model”. In this work, a new dephosphorization model was developed using the concept of “dynamic relative area”, and its validity was confirmed through literature data and comparisons with existing models. The study investigated the mass transfer process of phosphorus using CaO, Ca(OH)₂, and CaCO₃ as fixatives in equal molar amounts. It was found that the overall mass transfer coefficients were 0.0216 cm/s with Ca(OH)₂ and 0.0363 cm/s with CaCO₃, both significantly lower than the 0.0840 cm/s observed with CaO.

He et al.’s (Contribution 14) manuscript is titled “Study on Extraction Performance of Vanadium (V) from Aqueous Solution by Octyl-Imidazole Ionic Liquids Extractants”. This study investigated vanadium (V) extraction using [Omim]Cl, [Omim]Br, and [Omim][BF4] as extractants. It examined the effects of diluents, equilibrium time, temperature, and anion species. Results showed that n-pentanol was the best diluent. The lattice energy of the ionic liquids decreased in the order [Omim]Cl > [Omim]Br > [Omim][BF4], with larger anion volumes leading to lower lattice energy. Statistical analysis found that while equilibrium time and temperature had minimal impact, the type of anion significantly influenced extraction efficiency.

Roa-Jofré et al.’s (Contribution 15) manuscript is titled “Experimental Determination of the Conversion Rate of Molten White Metal by Supplying Individual Air Bubbles”. This study examined the oxidation rate of molten white metal by introducing individual air bubbles. The bubbles were characterized using experimental data along with theoretical and empirical correlations. Conversion tests were carried out under different temperature conditions and with varying oxidizing gas injection dynamics. The results provide important insights for optimizing industrial conversion furnace operations, particularly in improving gas injection through the tuyeres. A crucial aspect of enhancing conversion systems is balancing the retention and size of bubbles in the molten metal to ensure adequate oxygen supply for the conversion process.

Xue et al.’s (Contribution 16) manuscript is titled “Recovery of Zinc and Iron from Steel Mill Dust—An Overview of Available Technologies”. This work began with an analysis of the sources and characteristics of steel mill dust (SMD) from various processes. It then presented and compared the mechanisms for SMD disposal, including physical, hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical, and combined pyrometallurgy–hydrometallurgy processes. These methods were evaluated based on energy consumption, process complexity, and industrial application. The study concludes with recommendations and future prospects for SMD utilization, identifying pyrometallurgical processes and pyrometallurgy–hydrometallurgy combined treatments as the primary trends in SMD recycling.

Zhang et al.’s (Contribution 17) manuscript is titled “Effect of Smelting Time on Vanadium and Titanium Distribution Behavior and Slag Viscosity in HIsmelt”. This study investigated the effect of smelting time on vanadium and titanium distribution and recovery during HIsmelt smelting of vanadium–titanium magnetite. It used experiments and thermodynamic calculations to analyze the relationship between slag viscosity and temperature. Findings indicated that longer smelting times increase FeO content in the slag, while shorter smelting times improve vanadium and titanium recovery rates. Slag viscosity decreases with longer smelting times, but the formation of high-melting-point titania spinel and CaTiO₃ phases at 1300 °C significantly increases viscosity.

Chen et al.’s (Contribution 18) manuscript is titled “Leaching of Gold and Silver from a Complex Sulfide Concentrate in Copper-Tartrate-Thiosulfate Solutions”. This paper explored the leaching behaviors of gold and silver from a complex sulfide concentrate using copper–tartrate–thiosulfate solutions. It systematically studied the effects of temperature, initial pulp pH, and the concentrations of copper, tartrate, and thiosulfate. The results showed that the copper–tartrate–thiosulfate-leaching system performs well with complex sulfide concentrates. The authors concluded that this leaching method is a viable alternative, providing an environmentally friendly, nontoxic, and cost-effective solution for extracting gold and silver from ores or concentrates.

Zhang et al.’s (Contribution 19) manuscript is titled “Desulfurization of Cu–Fe Alloy Obtained from Copper Slag and the Effect on Form of Copper in Alloy”. This study describes a method for producing a Cu–Fe alloy by reducing copper slag and using reducing agents to improve desulfurization. Fe–Mn and CaC₂ were employed as desulfurizers to prevent the introduction of unwanted elements. Thermodynamic calculations showed that Fe–Mn had a negative Gibbs free energy for desulfurization reactions, while CaC₂ successfully reduced sulfur levels in the alloy to 0.0013% and 0.0079%, respectively. The desulfurization process also influenced the morphology of copper in the alloy, with some copper existing as nano-copper spheres, which increased in size after desulfurization. The study demonstrated that reducing agents are effective in facilitating the desulfurization of stable sulfides.

Castellón et al.’s (Contribution 20) manuscript is titled “Froth Flotation of Chalcopyrite/Pyrite Ore: A Critical Review”. This study presents a comprehensive bibliographic review, offering updated insights into the microscopic fundamentals affecting the flotation of chalcopyrite, the primary copper mineral. It specifically addresses the challenges posed by pyrite, a non-valuable mineral that consumes part of the collector and floats, thereby diminishing concentrate quality. The manuscript explores the critical chemical and physical mechanisms of reagent adsorption on mineral surfaces, the impact of pH and alkalizing agents, and the role of pyrite depressants, including both those currently used in industry and those still under investigation.

Salimi et al.’s (Contribution 21) manuscript is titled “Nano Porous Zinc Synthesis on Soft Polyurethane Foam Using Conductive Ink and Electroplating Method”. This study examined an electroplating technique for producing zinc coatings with a high specific surface area using conductive ink. It evaluated the effects of graphite size, coating time, and bath composition on current efficiency and SEM microstructure. The optimal graphite size was found to be 3 µm. Zinc coating increased linearly with current efficiency for up to 5 h, after which it decreased. Increasing zinc concentration in the electrolyte to 0.12 mol/L slightly improved loading while keeping current efficiency nearly constant. Higher concentrations enhanced loading by up to 16 times and current efficiency by up to 86%. The coating morphology transitioned from dendritic to compact plates, spheres, and semi-spheres.

Castellón et al.’s (Contribution 22) manuscript is titled “Leaching of Copper Concentrate with Iodized Salts in a Saline Acid Medium: Part 1—Effect of Concentrations”. This study assessed the effectiveness of iodide ions in enhancing copper extraction from chalcopyrite concentrate in an acidic seawater medium. Results showed that adding iodide ions improves leaching kinetics, with 100 ppm KI being more effective than higher concentrations, like 5000 ppm KI. At higher concentrations, some iodide ions tend to sublimate or form iodinated compounds, such as CuI, which reduces their availability for copper oxidation. Copper extraction achieved 45 percent within the first 96 h and approached 70 percent by 216 h.

He et al.’s (Contribution 23) manuscript is titled “Removing of Fe, Pb and Hg from Crude Selenium by Fractional Crystallization”. This study explores a fractional crystallization method for purifying crude selenium using a rotating, gas-cooled crystallizer, known as a cooled finger. Optimal conditions were found to be a crystallization temperature of 222 °C and rotation rates of 120 and 300 rpm. This method improved selenium purity from 99.9% to over 99.997%. It outperforms traditional zone-melting techniques by achieving several purifications in less than a day and offers better results, with contaminant removal rates of 28.70% for mercury (Hg), 97.63% for lead (Pb), and 96.28% for iron (Fe).

Saldaña et al.’s (Contribution 24) manuscript is titled “Optimization of the SAG Grinding Process Using Statistical Analysis and Machine Learning: A Case Study of the Chilean Copper Mining Industry”. This study develops models for a semi-autogenous grinding (SAG) mill using statistical analysis and machine learning (ML) techniques, including regression, decision trees, and artificial neural networks. The objective is to boost process productivity by analyzing production and energy consumption metrics. The digital model simulations suggest a 4.42% increase in production due to improved mineral fragmentation. Furthermore, reducing the mill’s rotational speed could enhance production while cutting energy consumption by 7.62% across various configurations. The application of ML tools in SAG shows potential for increasing process efficiency by optimizing production and reducing energy use.

Saldaña et al.’s (Contribution 25) manuscript, titled “Bioleaching Modeling—A Review”, introduces the theoretical foundations of bioleaching modeling, focusing primarily on mineral recovery rates. It reviews various models, including conventional leaching dynamics models based on the shrinking-core model, where oxidation is controlled by diffusion, chemical reactions, or film diffusion. The study also covers bioleaching models that use statistical analysis techniques, such as response surface methodology and machine-learning algorithms. While bioleaching modeling for industrial minerals is well developed, the application of bioleaching to rare earth elements presents significant growth potential. Bioleaching is generally considered a more sustainable and environmentally friendly mining method compared to traditional methods.

Pérez et al.’s (Contribution 26) manuscript is titled “Cobalt and Manganese Extraction from Ocean Nodules by Co-Processing with Steel Metallurgical Slag”. This investigation focused on extracting manganese (Mn) and cobalt (Co) from manganese nodules using acidic media and recycled steel slag. An ANOVA identified the optimal manganese nodule/Fe(res) ratio and dissolution time for effective extraction. The study evaluated the impact of temperature and performed a residue analysis. The best results were obtained at 60 °C with a 15 min processing time, achieving approximately 98% Mn and 55% Co extraction.

Castellón et al.’s (Contribution 27) manuscript, titled “Leaching of Copper Concentrates with Iodized Salts in a Saline Acid Medium: Part 2—Effect on Chloride Concentration and an Aerated System”, evaluated a new method for improving copper extraction from chalcopyrite concentrates using iodized solutions and diluted sulfuric acid in seawater, without the need for high pressures or temperatures. Leaching tests were performed under various conditions, adjusting chloride ion concentrations, H₂SO₄ levels, and oxygen supply through an aeration system. The results indicated that chloride ions enhanced the leaching process, achieving a 70% copper recovery after 96 h. However, excessive chloride ion levels negatively affected copper recovery. Additionally, the aerated system increased surface roughness significantly due to ongoing oxidation of the ore’s surface. Overall, the aerated system was identified as the most effective factor for leaching chalcopyrite concentrates.

Author Contributions

N.T.: writing–original draft and investigation; E.G.: writing–original draft and supervision; R.I.J.: investigation and Writing—review & editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Acknowledgments

As Topic Editors of this Topic titled “Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes”, we extend our sincere gratitude to all the contributing authors and reviewers for their outstanding contributions. We also deeply appreciate the the editorial staff for their invaluable support and active engagement throughout the publication process. Your efforts have been instrumental in the success of this issue, and we are truly grateful for your dedication and hard work.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflicts of interest.

List of Contributions

1. Gao, J.; Gu, W.; Zhang, F.; Geng, H.; Zhong, J.; Yao, L.; Zhao, Z.; Wang, J. Selective Etching of Sr-Modified and Directionally Solidified Industrial Al–Si Eutectic Alloys for Fabricating Fibrous Eutectic Si. Metals 2021, 11, 1974. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11121974.

2. Pinna, E.G.; Toro, N.; Gallegos, S.; Rodriguez, M.H. A Novel Recycling Route for Spent Li-Ion Batteries. Materials 2021, 15, 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010044.

3. Oye Auke, R.; Arrachart, G.; Tavernier, R.; David, G.; Pellet-Rostaing, S. Terephthalaldehyde–Phenolic Resins as a Solid-Phase Extraction System for the Recovery of Rare-Earth Elements. Polymers 2022, 14, 311. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020311.

4. Jeldres, M.; Toro, N.; Gallegos, S.; Robles, P.; Salazar, I.; Fawell, P.D.; Jeldres, R.I. Reducing Magnesium within Seawater Used in Mineral Processing to Improve Water Recovery and Rheological Properties When Dewatering Clay-Based Tailings. Polymers 2022, 14, 339. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020339.

5. Soto, C.; Toro, N.; Gallegos, S.; Gálvez, E.; Robledo-Cabrera, A.; Jeldres, R.I.; Jeldres, M.; Robles, P.; López-Valdivieso, A. Study of Molybdenite Floatability: Effect of Clays and Seawater. Materials 2022, 15, 1136. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031136.

6. Nieto, S.; Toro, N.; Robles, P.; Gálvez, E.; Gallegos, S.; Jeldres, R.I. Flocculation of Clay-Based Tailings: Differences of Kaolin and Sodium Montmorillonite in Salt Medium. Materials 2022, 15, 1156. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031156.

7. Yang, X.; Gao, L.; Wu, Y.; Chen, Y.; Tong, L. Extraction of Magnesium and Nickel from Nickel-Rich Serpentine with Sulfation Roasting and Water Leaching. Metals 2022, 12, 318. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12020318.

8. Dong, Z.; Zhang, J.; Yan, B. Hydrothermal Separation of Titanium Vanadium and Chromium from a Pregnant Oxalic Acid Leachate. Materials 2022, 15, 1538. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041538.

9. Saldaña, M.; Gálvez, E.; Robles, P.; Castillo, J.; Toro, N. Copper Mineral Leaching Mathematical Models—A Review. Materials 2022, 15, 1757. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051757.

10. An, J.; Xie, G.; Xia, W.; Yuan, X.; Liu, K.; An, H.; Wang, H. Study on Reduction of Partially Oxidized Cauliflower-like Copper Powder by Hydrogen. Metals 2022, 12, 413. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12030413.

11. Castro, K.; Balladares, E.; Jerez, O.; Pérez-Tello, M.; Aracena, Á. Behavior of As/AsxSy in Neutral and Oxidizing Atmospheres at High Temperatures—An Overview. Metals 2022, 12, 457. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12030457.

12. He, J.; Li, Y.; Tao, W.; Dong, G. Study on Reduction Stripping Kinetics of Ce4+ Using a Constant Interfacial Area Cell with Laminar Flow. Metals 2022, 12, 664. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12040664.

13. Sun, G.; Xiang, X. Study on Mass Transfer of Phosphorus Based on New Hot-Metal Dephosphorization Kinetic Model. Metals 2022, 12, 751. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12050751.

14. He, J.; Tao, W.; Dong, G. Study on Extraction Performance of Vanadium (V) from Aqueous Solution by Octyl-Imidazole Ionic Liquids Extractants. Metals 2022, 12, 854. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12050854.

15. Roa-Jofré, M.F.; Parra-Sánchez, V.R.; Reyes-Alcántara, G.A.; Araneda-Hernández, E.A.; Balladares-Varela, E.R.; Parra-Figueroa, R.A.; Mora-Vilches, C.V. Experimental Determination of the Conversion Rate of Molten White Metal by Supplying Individual Air Bubbles. Metals 2022, 12, 980. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12060980.

16. Xue, Y.; Hao, X.; Liu, X.; Zhang, N. Recovery of Zinc and Iron from Steel Mill Dust—An Overview of Available Technologies. Materials 2022, 15, 4127. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124127.

17. Zhang, S.; Hu, P.; Rao, J.; Wang, Z.; Zong, Y.; Zhang, J. Effect of Smelting Time on Vanadium and Titanium Distribution Behavior and Slag Viscosity in HIsmelt. Metals 2022, 12, 1019. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12061019.

18. Chen, J.; Xie, F.; Wang, W.; Fu, Y.; Wang, J. Leaching of Gold and Silver from a Complex Sulfide Concentrate in Copper-Tartrate-Thiosulfate Solutions. Metals 2022, 12, 1152. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12071152.

19. Zhang, B.; Feng, P.; Zhang, T. Desulfurization of Cu–Fe Alloy Obtained from Copper Slag and the Effect on Form of Copper in Alloy. Materials 2022, 15, 5110. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15155110.

20. Castellón, C.I.; Toro, N.; Gálvez, E.; Robles, P.; Leiva, W.H.; Jeldres, R.I. Froth Flotation of Chalcopyrite/Pyrite Ore: A Critical Review. Materials 2022, 15, 6536. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196536.

21. Salimi, M.; Mousavi Khoiee, S.M.; Keshavarz Alamdari, E.; Rezaei, M.; Karbasi, M. Nano Porous Zinc Synthesis on Soft Polyurethane Foam Using Conductive Ink and Electroplating Method. Metals 2022, 12, 1945. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12111945.

22. Castellón, C.I.; Taboada, M.E. Leaching of Copper Concentrate with Iodized Salts in a Saline Acid Medium: Part 1—Effect of Concentrations. Materials 2023, 16, 2312. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16062312.

23. He, B.; Wang, W.; Jiang, W.; Xu, B.; Yang, H. Removing of Fe, Pb and Hg from Crude Selenium by Fractional Crystallization. Metals 2023, 13, 739. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13040739.

24. Saldaña, M.; Gálvez, E.; Navarra, A.; Toro, N.; Cisternas, L.A. Optimization of the SAG Grinding Process Using Statistical Analysis and Machine Learning: A Case Study of the Chilean Copper Mining Industry. Materials 2023, 16, 3220. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16083220.

25. Saldaña, M.; Jeldres, M.; Galleguillos Madrid, F.M.; Gallegos, S.; Salazar, I.; Robles, P.; Toro, N. Bioleaching Modeling—A Review. Materials 2023, 16, 3812. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16103812.

26. Pérez, K.; Toro, N.; Robles, P.; Gallegos, S.; Gálvez, E.; González, F.J.; Marino, E.; Hernández, P.C. Cobalt and Manganese Extraction from Ocean Nodules by Co-Processing with Steel Metallurgical Slag. Metals 2023, 13, 1079. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13061079.

27. Castellón, C.I.; Taboada, M.E. Leaching of Copper Concentrates with Iodized Salts in a Saline Acid Medium: Part 2—Effect on Chloride Concentration and an Aerated System. Materials 2023, 16, 5940. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16175940.

Footnotes

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