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The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the global shift to online education at all levels, presenting dramatic changes and challenges. For foreign language teaching (FLT) in particular, the need to tackle difficulties and improve teaching requires a re-examination of teacher agency from an ecological perspective, especially the evolving and ever-changing roles undertaken by teachers at different stages of the teaching process. This study systematically reviews existing research on online FLT at the college level during the pandemic, aiming to develop a comprehensive model of teacher agency based on teachers’ roles and identities that proved effective during this period. After conducting a keyword search among Web of Science database in four categories (SSCI, SCI-Ex, A&HCI, and ESCI) and following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Protocol (PRISMA-P 2020) and the clustering techniques of VOSviewer, we selected 39 peer-reviewed publications for this study. Our findings suggest that effective online FLT requires teachers to integrate multiple roles at different stages: before, during, and after online teaching. Specifically, six critical roles were identified, including technician, designer, motivator, communicator, assessor and facilitator, which as a whole contribute to the ecology of teacher agency. This review provides a model for understanding teacher agency during the pandemic, offering key insights for future research on online FLT.
Introduction
Foreign language teaching (FLT) is considered unique compared to other academic subjects due to its intrinsic nature that “the medium is the message” (Hammadou & Bernhardt, 1987). In other words, the subject and the medium for teaching foreign languages are the same. In FLT, the teaching process is more dynamic and complex because it goes beyond imparting linguistic knowledge (e.g. grammar and vocabulary). FLT also involves the cultivation of basic skills under a wide range of communicational and cultural contexts, which are also part of the contents of teaching. Additionally, FLT requires teachers to engage in a heightened interaction with learners, as well as a more tolerant attitude towards errors made by the learners. This teaching process is further complicated by the fact that many foreign language teachers are non-native speakers, which can lead to challenges in language proficiency (Borg, 2006).
With the rise of the internet, mobile applications, and online teaching platforms, FLT has entered a new era. This era, referred to as online foreign language teaching (online FLT) encompasses various teaching practices with online assistance, such as fully online or virtual courses, blended or hybrid models, or Web-facilitated classes (Blake, 2011). With the advancement of internet technology, several alternative terms emerged such as online education, web-based education, E-learning, blended learning, and flipped classrooms, all of which have reshaped the landscape of FLT (Bax, 2003; Stockwell, 2010; Hampel & Stickler, 2005; Zhao, 2003). These innovative modes of instruction gradually penetrated FLT classrooms during the first two decades of the twenty-first century, but the outbreak of COVID-19 accelerated their widespread adoption. As lockdown and social distancing measures became the global norm, online teaching/learning transitioned from “an option” to “a panacea” (Dhawan, 2020; Dressier et al., 2023).
This sudden shift to online teaching, particularly in FLT, presented numerous challenges. Teachers faced technical, psychological, methodological, and pedagogical difficulties that required rapid adaptation. These challenges were especially prominent for foreign language teachers in higher education. Online FLT at the college level differs significantly from approaches in primary and secondary education in several key ways, particularly due to the use of advanced technologies, learner-centred pedagogies, a focus on self-regulated learning, and communication-oriented course design (Nguyen et al., 2014; Maican & Cocorada, 2021; Kayumova, 2023). In contrast, FLT in primary and secondary schools tends to be more teacher-centred, with structured curricula that focus on foundational language acquisition, such as vocabulary and grammar drills (Met & Rhodes, 1990; Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011). This distinction complicates the roles and responsibilities of foreign language teachers at the college level, where their responsibilities shift fluidly between designing, guiding, communicating, and providing feedback. As a result, researchers began to investigate key elements for successful online FLT at the college level. Scholars began exploring areas such as incorporation of online technology (Syno et al., 2022), adaptation of course design (Asık et al., 2020), facilitation of in-class interaction and engagement (Le et al., 2022), and effective strategies of assessment (Koris & Pal, 2021), etc. Despite the fact that more attention was paid to online FLT, much of the research focused on isolated aspects of the teaching process—before-class preparation, in-class interaction, or post-class assessment—without offering a holistic perspective.
Therefore, this study aims to analyse how foreign language teachers in higher education integrate their different roles and responsibilities across different phases of teaching. The concept of teacher agency is adopted to systematically review the online FLT in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic, with the hope such findings will shed light on post-pandemic FLT, when blended learning is increasingly inevitable (Hua & Wang, 2023).
Literature review
Teacher agency
In recent years, teachers have been increasingly recognised as significant agents in coping with education reform and innovation, and the concept of teacher agency has gained prominence in education, especially in the context of language teaching. Teacher agency is regarded as a significant factor in shaping the work, the condition, and the overall quality of education (Priestley et al., 2015). Broadly speaking, it refers to the ability or potential to act, but it can also be understood from different disciplinary perspectives, such as the social sciences, anthropology, and psychology, where the emphasis may range from agency to the “capacity for autonomous action” to the “power to transform” (Emirbayer & Mische, 1998; Pignatelli, 1993; Ahearn, 2001; Priestley et al., 2012; Priestley et al., 2015). Some scholars define teacher agency more narrowly as the capability to implement specific educational policies that directly impact the improvement of schools (Fullan, 2003), while others attach more emphasis to the proactive role of teachers in adapting and reforming curricula and pedagogical practices (Miller, 2016; Tao & Gao, 2021).
These definitions reflect various disciplinary lenses, but a more comprehensive conceptualisation of teacher agency is framed by Priestley et al. (2015), who proposes an ecological model that interprets agency as “an emergent phenomenon of the ecological conditions through which it is enacted.” In this model, teacher agency is not something fixed and static, but a dynamic configuration influenced by past experiences, present conditions, and future aspirations. According to this model, teacher agency involves three key dimensions: the iterational (influences from the past), the projective (orientations toward the future), and the practical-evaluative (engagement with the present) (Priestley et al., 2015).
An ecological approach
Bronfenbrenner (1979) describes an ecological approach of teacher agency, which emphasises the interdependence between individuals and their environment. Building on his theory, Priestley et al. (2012) propose that teacher agency emerges ecologically through teachers’ persistent professional practice and efforts, interplay with surrounding environments, as well as resources available to them. In this ecological model, teachers do not act in isolation—rather they are active agents who exploit and practice their professional qualities shaped by the environment, bearing in mind their experiences in the past, the conditions of the present and the vision of the future.
This ecological model is particularly helpful for our understanding of the agency of foreign language teachers (not limited to teachers of EFL, ESL or ESOL) in online FLT during the COVID-19 pandemic. This ecological model allows us to view teacher agency as something fluid and evolving when teachers were forced to adapt to different roles and responsibilities during the sudden shift to online teaching. In this study, we view teacher agency as the concrete and practical roles teachers assume within specific conditions at various stages of the teaching process. Our focus is on how teacher agency functions as “an emergent phenomenon of actor-situation transactions” (Priestley et al., 2015), achieved through “the interplay of individual efforts, available resources, and contextual and structural factors” (Biesta & Tedder, 2007). We also aim to understand how teachers integrate their past experiences, negotiate current practices, and orient themselves toward future improvements, providing insights into successful online FLT from the perspectives of teachers, institutions, and society. By breaking the process into three stages—before, during, and after teaching—we examine teacher agency in specific settings and unique situations. Through analysing the various roles teachers adopt in these contexts and with available resources, we explore ways to optimise teacher agency, which is crucial for effective and efficient online teaching in the future.
This model of teacher agency in online FLT during the COVID-19 pandemic highlights two key features: (1) the teacher engages with multiple roles and identities at different stages of teaching, and (2) the dynamic and fluid roles interact in an ecological way. The ultimate goal is to understand how teacher agency functions in online FLT and its implications for improving future practices. The findings are expected to contribute to a continuous cycle of better employment of teacher agencies and professional development.
An ecological model of teacher agency in online FLT
This model (Fig. 1) illustrates how teacher agency translates into specific roles in online FLT. Viewing the teaching process as a holistic and continuous cycle, we divide it into three key stages—before, during, and after online FLT—to highlight the crucial roles that foreign language teachers should prioritise at each stage to achieve ideal outcomes.
Fig. 1 [Images not available. See PDF.]
An ecological model of teacher agency in online FLT.
Before online FLT, teachers should act as well-prepared technicians equipped both technologically and psychologically with necessary digital literacy, proficiency in online teaching platforms, and the ability to select appropriate tools and resources. Teachers should also act as capable designers who can utilise various resources to customise teaching materials and apply proper pedagogical methodologies according to the requirements of the course and the needs of the students. During online FLT, it is essential that teachers function as effective motivators and communicators, considering the distinctive features of FLT. Their ability to create a sustainable and engaging learning environment to foster productive communication and interaction significantly impacts the teaching outcomes. After online FLT, teachers should transition into the roles of responsible assessors and facilitators, providing appropriate assessments, constructive feedback, and valuable comments to sustain the effectiveness of the instruction.
Based on Priestley’s model of teacher agency that focuses on the iterational, the projective, and the practical-evaluative dimensions, we contend that the three stages outlined above align with these dimensions. Before online FLT, teachers’ roles as technicians and designers are primarily shaped by existing resources, knowledge, and expertise. Their familiarity with available technology, teaching materials, and relevant methodologies determines the ways in which they manage in-class activities and design their after-class assessments. Once they have envisioned the teaching process, teachers also have to make timely and necessary adjustments during online FLT to fulfil their roles as motivators and communicators in response to specific contexts. By employing diverse strategies, tools, and activity formats, they strive to maximise teaching effectiveness. These adjustments not only enable reflection upon their roles as technicians and designers—helping them to be better equipped for future online FLT—but also affect the evolution of their assessment strategies. Thus, after-teaching assessment is constantly iterating, shaped by pre-class design and in-class adjustments. Meanwhile, when teachers act as assessors and facilitators, they consistently review the whole teaching cycle, including their readiness as technicians and designers, as well as their commitment to being effective motivators and communicators. Feedback from the assessments also offers valuable insights into the effectiveness of their teaching and performance during other stages, allowing them to revisit and refine their roles throughout the three stages of online FLT. From this perspective, our model of teacher agency presents a holistic and comprehensive framework, integrating iterational, the projective and the practical-evaluative dimensions. By embracing these interconnected roles, teachers can enhance their practice and achieve a more cohesive and effective approach to online FLT.
While these roles are highlighted as key responsibilities at each stage, we realise that successful foreign language teachers often take on additional roles beyond those outlined here. Moreover, these roles are dynamic and fluid throughout the teaching process.
Language teachers as technicians and designers in the pre-online FLT stage
Being technical ready was critical in organising successful online teaching. Among the challenges mentioned by researchers, the anxiety arising from teachers’ unreadiness for the application of technology was one of the most significant. Online FLT witnessed the adaptation and application of new approaches and technologies, such as ICT (Li, 2021), TAM (Wu & Yu, 2022), and TPACK (Zou, et al., 2021; Zou, et al., 2021). Consequently, digital literacy was redefined (Danova & Danov, 2022; Hockly, 2023), various teaching platforms were adopted (Syno et al., 2022), and new education models were proposed (Link, 2023; Yu, 2022; Yu et al., 2022). These developments required teachers to quickly adapt to their evolving roles as competent technicians and effective course designers. This led the researchers to pose the first question: what defines a successful technician and course designer in online FLT during the pandemic, and how will these roles continue to help teachers better prepare for online FLT after the pandemic?
Language teachers as communicators and motivators during the online FLT stage
The important function of communication and motivation was highlighted when the study focus switched to learners as the key factors in the teaching/learning process. Many scholars attached increasing importance to individual factors, such as motivation and learner discrepancy (Gardner & Lambert, 1972). They proposed that teachers should not only analyse the varying needs of learners, diverse learning styles, and characteristics but also cater to these needs via different teaching strategies (Altman & James, 1980). To achieve this, language teachers are expected to adopt effective methods to encourage students’ participation by creating a positive and learner-friendly atmosphere. Additionally, teachers should take part in communicative activities with students, acting as collaborators to clarify ideas and provide support when needed (Harmer, 1983).
These studies redistributed power between teachers and students in FLT, without diminishing the importance of teachers’ agency. Cohen (1998) claimed that teachers had to take on multiple roles as a learner trainer, a coach, a coordinator, a language learner and a researcher. This led the researchers to pose a second question: in what ways did the roles of communicators and motivators ensure effective online FLT during the pandemic and how should teachers better employ these roles in post-COVID-19 FLT?
Language teachers as assessors and facilitators in the post-online FLT stage
Teacher evaluation and feedback are essential for enhancing learning outcomes. As Harmer (1983) pointed out, to provide effective and efficient evaluation and feedback, a foreign language teacher should take the roles of both an investigator and an assessor. Relying on their professional competence and careful observation, teachers should identify students’ errors in the teaching/learning process or in assignments, and offer corrective feedback to better assess the students. Recent research also addressed the impact of high-quality evaluation and feedback in improving learning achievements through promoting competency development, adjusting learners’ awareness, cognition, and behaviours (Hsu, 2023; Maican & Cocorada, 2021), and supporting learners to self-regulate the learning process (Zhang & Wu, 2022), etc. In the context of an online environment, such evaluation and feedback became even more crucial because they helped compensate for the insufficiency or limitations of interaction and engagement in virtual learning (O’Donovan et al., 2021).
Facing the challenges brought about by COVID-19, foreign language teachers also needed to function as “facilitators” (Altman & James, 1980), providing not just academic guidance but also psychological support (Benson & Voller, 1997). They should also be more sensitive to students’ individual needs. While functioning as well-prepared, committed, open, encouraging, and non-judgmental assessors, teachers also need to exhibit their personal qualities as caring, patient, tolerant, supportive, and empathetic facilitators. These personal qualities interacted with external resources and third-party support, i.e. other “conditions” (Priestley et al., 2015) to shape the ecology of teacher agency. This led the researchers to pose a third question: in what ways did teachers act as effective assessors and facilitators during online FLT throughout the pandemic, and how can they continue to fulfil these roles to consolidate teaching/learning achievement after the pandemic?
Methodology
This research focuses on teacher agency in online FLT in higher education during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. To carry out this study, a logical and systematic method was adopted. The process started with identifying a set of criteria for the inclusion and exclusion of research for review, followed by a methodical and transparent comparison and analysis of relevant literature to explore the impact of teacher agency at different stages of online FLT.
The first step involved acquiring the relevant literature. The researchers searched extensively across online databases, including the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) (2008–2024), Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-Ex) (2008–2024), Arts & Humanities Citation Index (A&HCI) (2008–2024), and Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI) (2019–2024). After a thorough discussion, the researchers chose all fields as the scope and used the following keywords: “language*” AND “higher education*” AND “online” AND “teacher* agenc*” OR “teacher* role*” OR “teacher* identit*” AND “pandemic” OR “post-pandemic.” This search yielded 7460 results, including excessively unrelated articles published from 2008 to March 15, 2024.
To refine the results, several limits and exclusion criteria were adopted: (1) The study is limited to articles written in English without geographic restriction on the publication site; (2) The time frame was limited to publications from 2019 to 2024; (3) The scope was limited to areas that are closely related to this study, such as educational research, arts and humanities, science technology, computer science, social sciences, and communication; (4) Only certain types of documents were included—Article, Review Article, Book Review and Early Access, but Letter, Editorial Material, and Proceeding Paper were excluded due to their limited depth and scope. After applying these criteria, 782 unique publications remained.
In the next step, after outputting the results (N = 782) in the form of plain texts, the researchers employed mapping and clustering techniques in VOSviewer (1.6.20) for analysis. By selecting co-occurrence as the analysis type, using all keywords as the analysis unit, applying full counting as the counting method, and setting the minimum number of occurrences of a keyword at 5, the researchers obtained 3321 keywords, of which 176 met the threshold and were classified into 9 clusters (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 [Images not available. See PDF.]
Clustering keywords related to the teacher agency in online FLT.
Thirdly, based on the clustering results, the researchers obtained a list of keywords with co-occurrence and link strength. After being sorted by co-occurrence and link strength (Fig. 3), notable terms included not only essential keywords such as “Covid-19” (or “pandemic”), “higher education,” and “online,” but also closely related words with high occurrences and link strength, such as “technology” (N = 38, link strength = 162), “engagement” (N = 28, link strength = 136), “design” (N = 26, link strength = 107), “teacher identity” (N = 22, link strength = 80), “motivation” (N = 20, link strength = 106), “pedagogy” (N = 18, link strength = 64), “feedback” (N = 13, link strength = 58) and “communication” (N = 9, link strength = 36). The Ecological Model of Teacher Agency in online FLT will thus pivot on these keywords that were highly consistent with the roles identified by the researchers in Fig. 1. These keywords were highly consistent with the roles identified by the researchers in Fig. 1. The researchers also observed a lack of holistic and systematic studies on foreign language teacher agency and thus defined the research topics and keywords based on the aforementioned terms with high occurrences and links, as well as their corresponding roles taken by teachers in online FLT.
Fig. 3 [Images not available. See PDF.]
Selected keywords sorted by co-occurrence and link strength.
Lastly, the researchers examined the research themes and removed unrelated literature according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Protocol (PRISMA-P (2020)) (Fig. 4) (Page et al., 2021). Two researchers reviewed the literature with strong inter-rater reliability (calculated via SPSS 23) (k = 0.800), and a third reviewer was invited in cases of disagreement. After screening 1 previous review related to this research from outputted 782 results, researchers further refined the remaining 781 publications using automation tools. Of these, 508 studies were excluded for lacking relevant keywords or being identified as ineligible by the automation tools. In the following round of screening, 273 studies were excluded for the following reasons: (1) they were out of the educational scope, (2) irrelevant to the research questions and topics based on titles and abstracts, (3) not retrievable, (4) not high-quality qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-method research, (5) incomplete (e.g. missing abstracts or full-texts) or lacking clear statement about investigated topics or rationale for research, or (6) lacking adequate data, sample or effective design. The remaining 34 studies were included for meeting the following criteria: (1) they contained sufficient information for a review, (2) they presented well-designed research with convincing conclusions, and (3) were relevant to the exploration of teacher agency in online FLT during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Adding 1 study included in the previous version of the review and 4 new studies, the researchers finally included 39 peer-reviewed articles for the study. A detailed outline of the publications is included in Appendix 1.
Fig. 4 [Images not available. See PDF.]
A flow chart of the literature inclusion based on PRISMA-P (2020).
Research results
Teacher agency in the pre-online FLT stage
The role of a technician
Even though the pandemic caught many universities off guard, the majority of foreign language teachers were well-prepared to conduct online FLT. According to the research, except for schools in some developing countries (e.g. Bangladesh and Vietnam), most universities had pre-existing technical infrastructure and pedagogical frameworks for online teaching. Most teachers had access to basic Internet infrastructure and possessed certain foundational knowledge of technologies required for online teaching (Jiang, 2024; Maican & Cocorada, 2021). Despite initial concerns, teachers quickly adapted and became psychologically comfortable with online teaching because it provided more flexible working hours. In addition, they grew more confident as they became familiar with technological issues in the teaching processes, including how to make good use of certain teaching platforms and user interfaces (Jiang, 2024; Rafiq et al., 2022).
An important task for teachers as technicians was selecting the appropriate platforms to achieve optimal teaching effects. Since different platforms highlight different features, teachers need to leverage the advantages of various platforms for specific skills training in foreign language learning. For example, MOOC offer a customised learning approach with no time limit (Fisenko et al., 2022). Blackboard could increase students’ engagement by allowing students to attend class online and access additional materials (Aldaghri & Oraif, 2022). Zoom proved effective in online FLT because of its technical capabilities of organising online meetings, which created a psychologically comfortable atmosphere, and offered various toolkits for language skill development (Zaiarna, 2021). Teachers also needed to choose the most suitable platform for specific skills. For example, EDE was found to be particularly effective for writing skills but less advantageous for speaking skills (Karatas & Tuncer, 2020). Other platforms, such as Google Meet, Microsoft Teams, Moodle, Canvas and Google Classroom, also assisted pedagogy planning, ensured the smooth delivery of learning content, and equipped students with necessary tools and materials (Aktar et al., 2022). Thus, careful selection of platforms was essential to address specific instructional needs.
The role of a designer
While teachers were technologically ready for a new teaching mechanism, they still needed to adapt to the changing needs in online FLT using existing/available teaching resources and pedagogy due to the urgent shift to online education. From this perspective, teachers must function as designers while preparing for online FLT. To be specific, an effective teaching process for foreign language teachers requires a deep understanding of the real needs of students, an awareness of the shifting educational landscape, and the capability to utilise pedagogical practices to enrich the language classroom (Kohnke & Zou, 2021). Teachers should implement the pedagogical approaches to better suit the features of e-learning without changing the goals, principles, and learning outcomes (Dvorianchykova et al., 2021). Consequently, the format and contents of online FLT should stay approximate to the traditional classroom with exercises on various skills available both synchronously and asynchronously. However, to achieve better results, certain adaptations were still needed, including tailored teaching materials, teaching format, useful tools, as well as personalised assignments and feedback (Maican & Cocorada, 2021).
From a post-humanistic approach, Ida & Matsuoka (2023) conceptualised the relationship among students, textbooks, and classroom space (both online and offline) as “a community”. They believed that by sharing the same content remotely, teachers and learners foster a sense of community within the online teaching/learning environment. This view highlighted the importance of teaching materials. As designers, teachers must carefully consider what types of teaching materials could be catered to online FLT, especially those for specific skill training. Kolyada et al. (2021) pointed out that the lack of corresponding electronic textbooks in FLT led to insufficient speech training in Russia. Myravyova et al. (2021) suggested compiling a corpus of student texts to better serve effective communication. What’s more, various forms of materials such as tasks, tests, and videos that could cater to online, offline, and blended scenarios should also be prepared to facilitate online FLT. However, sourcing these suitable materials often requires extensive online research. Therefore, to some degree, teachers had to get accustomed to their identity as course designers. On the one hand, they had to tailor the original teaching materials and make the best use of online resources; for instance, using authentic texts and listening materials of natural-sounding speeches in English could enhance learners’ listening skills (Wang, 2022). Furthermore, teachers should design proper activities in different teaching formats to achieve learning objectives; strategies such as group discussion, flipped classrooms (Rahmani & Zitouni, 2022), task-based learning and other flexible forms could be helpful in FLT.
Teacher agency during online FLT
The role of a motivator
The learning atmosphere significantly affects the outcomes of online FLT. Therefore, it is the teacher’s responsibility to create a sustainable, friendly, and engaging atmosphere that enhances students’ academic self-concept and reduces academic procrastination (Hua & Wang, 2023; Maican & Cocorada, 2021). A key aspect of cultivating a productive learning atmosphere was to foster self-control among students in foreign language learning. A positive learning environment that encourages students to become independent and autonomous language learners proved effective (Zhang & Wu, 2022). During the challenging pandemic, a pleasant and engaging learning atmosphere led to less stress, which guaranteed long-term learning achievements and sustainable educational development (Mihai et al., 2022).
To offer a promising learning atmosphere, teachers were expected to provide emotional support that conveyed their devotion and enthusiasm for teaching (Luan et al., 2022). Certain tools and materials were adapted to help establish a caring relationship between teachers and students, such as using social media to encourage students and designing in-class activities and assessments to cultivate such feelings (Villegas-Torres, 2023). Additionally, innovative meeting spaces, appropriate communication channels, and activities proved to be conducive to fostering such an atmosphere. Overall, teachers should act as motivators, striving to create a promising learning atmosphere that would reduce stress and anxiety while enhancing learning motivation.
The role of a communicator
In addition to creating a productive learning atmosphere, teachers in online FLT should also be devoted to enhancing interaction among learners, between learners and contents, and between the teacher and learners. Effective interaction requires teachers to function as successful communicators. Specific measures could facilitate teacher-learner interaction. For instance, teachers should be readily available to answer questions and provide individual feedback, which could increase student engagement (Maican & Cocorada, 2021). Teachers could also leverage specific technologies to foster engagement because those with strong technological knowledge and skills showed higher competency in interaction (Klimova et al., 2021; Le et al., 2022). More specifically, teachers should select the most appropriate tools to achieve their ideal interaction (Hazaymeh, 2021). Blackboard Collaborate Ultra, with its features of responses, suggestions, corrections, questions, and explanations, was helpful to engage students with learning content (Saeed et al., 2021). Teachers could also ask students to share their screens, offer peer reviews, submit audio, video, or textual messages in class, and assign project-based tasks, and other projects that encourage critical thinking skills (Zhang & Wu, 2022). Innovative and flexible classrooms were also conducive to enhancing student interaction (Rahmani & Zitouni, 2022). Emotional or social interactions should not be neglected. Beyond academic interactions, psychological interactions helped with students’ learning outcomes by alleviating anxiety and stress and creating a sense of belonging (Fan & Tian, 2022).
Teacher agency during the post-online FLT stage
The role of an assessor
During the pandemic, teachers’ roles as assessors became increasingly important due to limited physical interactions, as immediate and regular feedback helped maintain the effectiveness of teaching (Zhang & Wu, 2022). Consequently, the format of the assessment was adapted to align with the features of online FLT. A keyword that appeared frequently in most studies regarding assessment was “innovative” (Fan & Tian, 2022). Innovative assessments could be skill-based or content-based, suitable for specific teaching objectives (Zhang & Wu, 2022). Some researchers also mentioned the necessity to involve learners in the process of assessment, which was called “formative assessment.” This approach encouraged students to take ownership of their learning, which in turn enhanced self-reflection, self-assessment, and learner autonomy. It also promoted the collaboration between teachers and students and that among students when innovative and collaborative assessments such as e-portfolios, online learning journals, blogs, online presentations, creative writing, and open-book exams were adopted (Koris & Pal, 2021).
The role of a facilitator
The pandemic has greatly affected the physical and psychological well-being of both teachers and learners. Prolonged online learning could result in foreign language learning boredom (FLLB) and teachers should be mindful of how an enjoyable atmosphere and inappropriate interactions might contribute to such FLLB (Chen et al., 2022). Research also indicated that different pedagogical approaches might affect the effectiveness of technological integration in online FLT, necessitating timely adjustment by teachers (Gruber et al., 2023). It is essential to address individual differences and regional disparities, as students from less-developed areas might face greater challenges transitioning to online learning. Thus, teachers should show more patience and tolerance towards failure (Karatas & Tuncer, 2020; Diaz, 2020; Aristovnik et al., 2020), which was also a unique feature of foreign language teachers (Borg, 2006). Most research pointed out the importance of social support and rapport building among teachers and learners during online FLT, facilitated by well-chosen technologies, or through personal interactions (Gruber et al., 2023; Le & Nguyen, 2021; Luan et al., 2022; Morales et al., 2022; Wen & Zhang, 2020).
Challenges
Although foreign language teachers were well aware of their roles during specific stages of online FLT, they still encountered certain challenges stemming from both internal limitations and external barriers, such as technological issues, increased workload, under-preparedness for online teaching, and lack of technical and social support (Gruber et al., 2023).
Technical problems in the pre-online FLT stage
Despite efforts by institutions and government departments to provide sufficient infrastructure for online teaching, educational resources were still unbalanced among various regions, especially in developing countries (Aktar et al., 2022) and underdeveloped areas within certain countries (Kolyada et al., 2021). In some institutions, technological infrastructure was not fully developed, leaving teachers without the necessary resources and support to familiarise themselves with all the tools that they need. Access to teaching platforms was another issue (Saeed et al., 2021). Due to technical problems, some platforms were only available in certain counties or offered a limited number of tools to assist FLT. Therefore, the demand for educational services, especially access to suitable tools for online FLT was increasing (Kolyada et al., 2021).
In the aforementioned research, most teachers responded that they were ready to switch to online FLT, but some of them struggled to adjust to their new roles. Technological expertise did not guarantee successful online teaching. Teachers not only had to understand how to operate different online platforms, tools, and software, but they also had to smoothly incorporate these into their teaching routines. For example, some teachers struggled to upload and download materials on certain platforms (Sarnou & Sarnou, 2021), while some students also reported having difficulty accessing the platform designated by the teacher (Li et al., 2021). There were also cases in which teachers and students had divergent familiarity and preferences over multiple platforms due to cultural differences (which were more prevalent among international students). In addition, over-reliance on technology also posed challenges because live, in-person contact for FLT was still considered the most effective approach (Kolyada et al., 2021). Aside from technological competence, teachers also needed support and guidance in terms of the pedagogical theory of online teaching and proper training on how to effectively handle online teaching—areas that were often neglected (Zou, et al., 2021). Additionally, the increased workload from prolonged online teaching brought significant challenges to the physical conditions of teachers, health issues could be the hindrance for teachers to successfully fulfil their roles (Aktar et al., 2022; Diaz, 2020).
Anxiety and low engagement during online FLT
Even for teachers who had access to the necessary resources for online teaching materials, the virtual FLT environment presented psychological challenges for both teachers and students. Anxiety was a recurring issue highlighted in many studies. Students’ dissatisfaction was not solely caused by the incompetency of their teachers or the inadequate technological support but stemmed from the unfamiliar environment of the online education process (Pikhart et al., 2022). Factors such as the lack of face-to-face interaction, pandemic-induced stress, low self-esteem, and demotivation, all contributed to anxiety, which required teachers to take proactive measures before, during, and after classes (Matvienko et al., 2021).
Teachers themselves also suffered from anxiety during online FLT, often caused by the increased workload (such as the revised curricula, new teaching materials and updated types of assessment). Other contributing factors included student absenteeism, and the extended hours spent working on the computer (Diaz, 2020).
In terms of in-class interactions, teachers were aware of their importance and had spared no effort to facilitate them; yet low engagement was reported as one of the most common problems during online FLT. Students faced challenges such as a distracting learning environment, lack of self-discipline, and poor time management skills (Zou, et al., 2021). Failure to incorporate possible technologies into the e-learning mode also led to low attendance and engagement (Morales et al., 2022). Research also demonstrated that face-to-face interaction was generally more effective than asynchronous teaching, but due to various limitations, such an interaction was not always available (Maican & Cocorada, 2021).
Discussions
This study has focused on the multiple identities of foreign language teachers during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Three main stages of the teaching process are explored: before, during, and after online FLT. In the reviewed literature, several strategies and mechanisms were highlighted to better activate teachers’ multiple identities. Since most teachers had to transition to online teaching in an emergency during the pandemic, it is essential to be mentally and technically prepared for this sudden transformation. Foreign language teachers should also re-design course materials and teaching methodology accordingly. Key elements of traditional FLT, such as students’ learning motivation and in-class interaction, remain critical in online FLT. As a result, research in these areas has gained prominence, especially in understanding their impact on online FLT. Studies showed that teachers should take into account students’ psychological needs, intrinsic motivation, satisfaction, loyalty, and willingness, all of which significantly impact the effectiveness of online FLT (Hsu, 2023). Among all the measures for stimulating interaction, it is crucial that teachers function as effective communicators, enhancing in-class and after-class communications. Our review also underscores the importance of post-class evaluation in online FLT. Apart from traditional assessment forms which have proven effective, foreign language teachers are expected to leverage online platforms, evaluation tools, and resources. A multi-dimensional and comprehensive evaluation system is critical for assessing learners’ overall language knowledge, competence and skills.
Our findings can contribute to further studies by providing valuable insights from the experience gained from online FLT, which could inform future teaching practices after the pandemic. With the advent of the “new normal,” hybrid teaching has become an inevitable trend, where online teaching is not merely a contingency but an integral part of the entire teaching scheme (Rubio & Thoms, 2014). Several moves can smooth such a transition and reinforce the multiple roles played by teachers at different stages (Gulliksen et al., 2022; Dressier et al., 2023). These moves include rethinking class organisation (Setiadi, 2012), creating innovative learning environments (ILEs) (Byers et al., 2018; Olsen-Reeder, 2022), designing new forms of in-class activities for skill training (Le & Nguyen, 2021), and adopting an alternative approach of Teacher-Student Collaborative Assessment (TSCA) (Sun & Wen, 2018). Additionally, teachers may have to re-adjust their roles throughout different stages, potentially moving away from familiar practices to better prepare for the new teaching model (Jin & Liu, 2023). These initiatives, which have proven effective during the pandemic, will allow teachers to optimise their agency in future online FLT, leading to more productive outcomes.
From an ecological perspective, another recommendation drawn from the reviewed studies is that the individual efforts of foreign language teachers alone are far from enough to ensure effective FLT. While the majority of teachers adapted well to online teaching, some still encountered physical and psychological challenges in navigating the virtual environment. On an individual level, it is significant for foreign language teachers to employ emotion regulation (ER) strategies to constantly and flexibly regulate their emotions to achieve their goals (Su & Lee, 2023). However, meso-level support and collective efforts, along with macro-level interventions and guidance, are indispensable to successful online FLT. Improving technical infrastructure and access to teaching resources (Diaz, 2020; Kohnke & Zou, 2021; Wen & Zhang, 2020), providing teacher training, offering professional and emotional support, and helping teachers build capable teaching teams are all necessary steps (Diaz, 2020; Chen et al., 2022). Collaboration with parents to enhance their ability to assist in learning (Nordstrom & Zhang, 2023), implementing effective teaching strategies, developing high-quality teaching materials (Chen et al., 2022), and updating policies to accommodate hybrid teaching (Koris & Pál, 2021) are equally important.
Last, but not least, it is important to emphasise that teachers engage with different identities throughout the entire online FLT process, and each stage is an integral part of the broader ecology of teacher agency. While most of the studies focused on one specific identity during one specific stage, this study offers an ecological model of teacher agency based on their roles proven effective during the COVID-19 pandemic. This model encourages teachers to recognise and optimise their prioritised roles before, during, and after the online FLT process. In this process, the fulfilment of various roles is influenced by personal or professional experience from the past, shaped by current practices, and orientated towards future application.
Challenges should also be addressed to sustain FLT in the post-COVID-19 era. Different aspects are emphasised at different phases, but these roles are fluid. For example, technological readiness does not guarantee flawless execution during classes, and teachers might learn new technical skills from students in class and instantly apply them in the process of teaching. Teaching materials for online FLT also have to be continuously revised based on the teaching effectiveness and student feedback. From this perspective, teachers have to evaluate and reflect upon their teaching constantly, especially during the preparation stage. These evaluations and feedback will further facilitate the in-class stage, where the teacher can improve the learning atmosphere, in-class interactions, and coordination of various tools and platforms. Existing theoretical and pragmatic studies also help with ecological awareness from a larger social perspective. Along with individual efforts from teachers who acknowledge their dynamic roles, collective assistance, institutional support, and government policies are necessary to help teachers better fulfil their roles and enhance online FLT in the post-pandemic era.
Limitations and implications for future research
Limitations
There are several limitations to this study. The scope of this study was constrained by its strict inclusion criteria, which limited the number of publications reviewed. A broader scope could have offered a more comprehensive study. Second, this study adopts a generalised perspective. While this research focuses on online FLT in higher education, future research could explore primary and secondary levels, where teacher agency may differ due to the unique characteristics of young learners, such as their learning contents and styles, levels of self-regulation, and their physical and mental readiness for online education. In addition, this study does not delve into significant social, political, and economic factors that influence education to various degrees. Even though 22 out of the 39 papers examined in this study focus on the Global South, there are likely geographical divergences between and within countries that were not explored. An examination of these differences would have contributed to the discussion of teacher agency in specific regional contexts. Finally, the demographic characteristics of teachers—such as age, years of service, gender and race—are factors that could impact their roles. However, these aspects were rarely emphasised in the selected studies, with only 2 out of 39 (Aktar et al., 2022; Wen & Zhang, 2020) addressing them. Future research could benefit from a closer examination of these demographic dimensions to better understand their influence on teacher agency.
Implications for future research
Regardless of these limitations, this study lays the groundwork for further research in several key areas. One potential area of exploration is how teacher agency can facilitate both students and foreign language teachers to acquire, enhance, and improve digital literacy. The rapid advancement of digital technologies, platforms, resources, and products has dramatically impacted online FLT. In the post-COVID-19 era, the integration of digital tools and facilities in education is expected to increase (Iskandar et al., 2022). With updated digital literacy, foreign language teachers could not only help students quickly adapt to the digital environment, but also improve teaching outcomes by integrating advanced technologies and applications, which also aligns with the broader goal of fostering new liberal arts construction.
Another important area for future research is the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in FLT. Currently, AI-assisted teaching and learning, which leverage algorithms and big data to meet specific teaching and learning needs (Liu et al., 2022) have been gradually adopted by foreign language teachers and learners. Tools such as Chatbots, especially ChatGPT (now in its 4.0 version), have also demonstrated effectiveness in supporting language learners (Farrokhnia et al., 2023; Hockly, 2023). Researchers, therefore, should focus on the learning outcomes impacted by AI, keep pace with its latest developments, and carry out systematic studies. Furthermore, foreign language teachers need to enhance their AI knowledge and the digital literacy of students, while also being aware of the possible ethical dilemmas brought by AI-assisted education (Perkins, 2023).
Beyond the integration of advanced technology, future research should also explore how foreign language teachers can use their agency to develop updated theoretical methodologies, new pedagogical approaches, and effective teaching strategies for online FLT in the post-pandemic era. Reflective practices, which encourage teachers to identify challenges, seek solutions, and conduct experimental practices, could be a valuable tool in promoting teacher agency and improving FLT outcomes (Kramer, 2018).
Lastly, future studies should consider a macroscopic approach to understanding teacher agency in online FLT, which moves beyond individual analysis and case studies. As this study has demonstrated, there are systemic barriers and difficulties that extend beyond the control of individual teachers. These include the unbalanced distribution of resources across the world, regional disparities in technical support, insufficient educational services, the lack of tailor-made teacher training programs, and the scarcity of online education guidance. Addressing these issues will require further studies and macroscopic intervention from the local government or even the state (Aristovnik et al., 2020). At the institutional level, teachers’ professional development and agency can be strengthened by creating a supportive and teacher-friendly environment, in which teachers should be encouraged to collaborate with each other across subject areas to address challenges, share resources, refine their practices with innovation, and explore new strategies with access to appropriate tools and platforms (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017). Institutions must prioritise regular training programs, opportunities, and incentive schemes that align institutional goals with teachers’ professional engagement and growth. Through these initiatives, teachers can acquire updated knowledge and technological skills, develop essential competencies (Toom et al., 2021), and experience a sense of belonging, and motivation to experiment with and adapt innovative pedagogies, thereby strengthening their agency in teaching practices.
Acknowledgements
This research project is supported by the Fundemental Research Funds for the Central Universities of Shanghai University of Finance (2023110125) and the Science Foundation of Beijing Language and Culture University (supported by “the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities”) (18YJ020007).
Author contributions
These authors contributed equally to this work. The corresponding author is Xianmin Shen. Correspondence to: [email protected].
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.
Informed consent
This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.
Supplementary information
The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-04244-2.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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