1. Introduction
The increased production of rapeseed worldwide (a total of 87.440 million tons) [1] has led to higher global rapeseed cake, oil, and meal production (forecasts of 33.8 million tons and 48.5 million tons, respectively) [2]. As a result, large amounts of rapeseed meal and cake are produced as byproducts of oil extraction [3,4]. After soybean meal, rapeseed meal is the second-most important plant protein source for feeding farm animals [5].
Rapeseed is a high-quality plant-derived protein source with a relatively high protein content (35–45%) and a balanced amino acid profile [6]; however, the quality of rapeseed primarily depends on the variety, origin, and processing method [7,8]. These factors are strongly related to the presence of various antinutritional factors such as glucosinolates, erucic acid, tannins, phytic acid, and some fiber components, which may limit the use of rapeseed meal or cake [9]. The biologically inactive glucosinolates and erucic acid, as well as glucosinolate metabolites containing thiocyanate ions and 5-vinyl-1,3-oxazolidin-2-thione, are goitrogenic [10], hepatotoxic, or nephrotoxic [11,12,13]. Fiber components are poorly utilized by poultry, affecting the metabolizable energy and reverse protein content of canola meal [14].
New varieties of rapeseed (also known as canola) with increased protein content and reduced fiber content have recently been developed, and the processed canola meal obtained from these products exhibited higher true metabolizable energy corrected for nitrogen (TMEn) and digestible amino acid concentrations (p < 0.05) when compared to canola meal from traditional varieties [15]. In addition to breeding [16], several physical, chemical [17], and biological treatments [18], as well as their combinations, can improve the nutrient content and digestibility of rapeseed for poultry [19]. The heat treatment of canola not only reduces the glucosinolate content, but can also inactivate the enzyme myrosinase, which is responsible for the production of toxic metabolites containing isothiocyanates (ITCs), nitriles, or epithionitriles (EPTs) through the hydrolysis of glucosinolates [20,21]. However, the levels of amino acids (such as lysine and threonine), which play key roles in biological processes, may decrease during heat production [22].
In addition to eliminating antinutritive compounds and improving the structure and taste of the feed, fermentation, as a rapeseed treatment technology, results in high-quality protein [23]. During the enzymatic hydrolysis of rapeseed protein, peptides are produced that can be used as natural ingredients in animal feed due to their high absorption capacity in the small intestine [24]. The treatment of canola with Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bacillus subtilis, and Aspergillus Niger increased the liver weight as a percent of body weight and reduced the amount of abdominal fat [25]. A similar result has been achieved when using a high proportion (24–26.67%) of rapeseed meal with extra amino acid supplementation [26].
A correlation study of minerals and antinutritional phytic acid concentration [27] revealed that the presence of a large amount of phytic acid inhibits the availability of Ca, Mg, and Fe. Two-thirds of the phosphorus in canola is bound to phytate [28]. Phytic acid can form a chelate with cations (e.g., iron, sodium, sulfur, calcium, zinc, copper, and nitrogen) and amino acids, which inhibit several functional digestive enzymes (e.g., pepsin, trypsin, etc.) [29]. The phenolic compounds in rapeseed can also inhibit the absorption of iron, as their presence results in the formation of insoluble iron–phenol complexes in the gastrointestinal tract [30].
Research on the effectiveness of different chemical and other treatments of rapeseed cake or meal is limited. Thus, this study aimed to examine the effectiveness of a mineral supplement (“Peelko”) to determine whether it is suitable for reducing the remaining antinutritional substances in cold-pressed rapeseed cake.
2. Materials and Methods
The experimental protocol complied with the European Union regulations concerning the protection of animals used for experimental and other scientific purposes (EU Directive 2010/63/EU).
2.1. Animals and Diet
The experiment was carried out with 600 Ross-308 broiler roosters from October to November 2021 on the trial farm of the Albert Kázmér Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Széchenyi István University (Vár square 2, Mosonmagyaróvár, 9200, Hungary). At 1 day of age, the birds were placed in deep litter pens at a 12.5 bird/m2 density (25 birds per pen, 8 pens per dietary treatment). The broilers had free access to feed and water. The temperature was controlled and gradually reduced from 32 °C during the first five days of life to 21 °C by day 43. A 23 h–1 h light–dark cycle was maintained throughout the study.
In the experiment, three feeding phases were used: the chickens received the starter feed from the age of 1 to 21 days, the grower feed from the age of 22 to 32 days, and the finishing feed from the age of 33 to 43 days. The birds were measured individually before changing feeding phases using the BAT 1 scale (Veit Electronics, Moravany, Czech Republic).
The broilers were fed a corn–wheat–soybean meal basal diet. In the starter phase, the feed was the same for each group. Then, in the further phases (grower and finisher), the extracted soybean meal was partially replaced with cold-pressed rapeseed cake (10% and 15%, respectively) in the R treatment or cold-pressed rapeseed cake with an added mineral supplement (9.62% and 14.62% + 0.38% “Peelko”, respectively) in the R+ treatment. The control diet did not contain rapeseed cake or additional minerals. The experimental diets are summarized in Table 1 and Table 2.
The nutrient contents of the mineral supplement used in this study (“Peelko” (ROP Ltd., Érd, Hungary) are presented in Table 3. The trademark identification number is M1101164, and the registration number is HU 16100063 for the mineral product.
The rapeseed cake used in the experimental diets was domestically grown Brassica napus L., which was processed in Hungary (V+V Coop Corporation, Héreg, Hungary). The byproduct was prepared via cold pressing using a screw press with a horizontal axis, in one pass, without the use of steam. Glucosinolate analysis of the rapeseed cake (18.5 µmol/g) was carried out using the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method (HS, EN ISO 9167-1: 2000, Hungarian Feed Codex, 2004) at the Bonafarm Bábolna Feed Laboratory (Nagyigmánd, Hungary).
The formulas of the diet were optimized for the same energy and ileal digestible amino acids using the Best mix® software (Adifo, Industrielaan 11B, 9990 Maldegem, Belgium). AOAC (2005) methods [31] were used to determine the composition of feed components and diets. The dry matter content (DM, AOAC; 930.15) and crude protein were determined using the Kjeldahl method (CP, AOAC; 984.13); crude ash (CA, AOAC; 942.05) and ether extract were determined using the Soxhlet method (EE, AOAC; 920.39A); and crude fiber was determined using a Foss Fibertec 1020 instrument (CF, AOAC; 978.10).
2.2. Examination of Thyroid Glands
Blood samples were taken from the wing vein (vena cutanea ulnaris) of the broilers before slaughter to determine the levels of plasma thyroid hormones (T4, T3). The concentrations of the hormones were measured using the I-RIA method produced for human purposes but modified and validated for different bird species (T4: I-T4 RIA kit; T3: I-T3 RIA kit, Institute of Isotopes Co. Ltd., Budapest, Hungary). The standard deviation (CV) within the same assay (intra-assay) and between the assays (inter-assay) was determined by measuring 3–5 parallel low- and high-concentration control plasmas in each test series (T4: 12.44 and 94.38 nmol/L, T3: 0.61 and 2.33 nmol/L). After slaughter, the thyroid glands (glandula thyreoidea) were removed and weighed. The histological examination of the thyroid glands was performed by Autopsy Path Kft (Budapest, Hungary). Thyroid organ samples from 10 chickens per treatment were used for analysis. Organ samples were placed in 10% neutral formalin (Histosec®, Merck Millipore, Burlington, NJ, USA). A microtome and hematoxylin staining procedure was used on 5 µm thick sections, with 2 cross-sections per sample (20 cross-sections for each treatment), and 5 measurements were performed per cross-section (100 measurements per treatment).
2.3. Meat Quality Examinations
The chemical composition (dry matter, protein, and fat content) of the valuable parts of broiler meat (thighs and breasts) was determined according to the HS 6920-4:1987 standard based on data from 10 thigh and breast samples from the experiment.
The fatty acid profiles of the thigh and breast samples of the broilers were determined using an HP Agilent Technologies 6890N gas chromatograph (Agilent Technologies Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA), in accordance with HS ISO 5508:1992. The separation column was Supelco SPTM 2560 (Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany), measuring 100 m × 0.25 mm × 0.2 µm.
For assessing the oxidation stability of the broiler meat (thighs and breasts), thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) values were determined [32]. Pink fluorescence spectrophotometry (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Waltham, MA, USA) was used to analyze malondialdehyde (MDA), in which the MDA–thiobarbituric acid (MDA-TBA) complex produced after reaction with 2-thiobarbituric acid was determined [33]. An oxidation stability analysis was conducted within 1 h after slaughter (fresh sample) and after storage in a deep freezer at −16 °C for one (MDA 1) and two months (MDA 2). Meat samples were removed from the freezer, placed on trays, and thawed in a commercial refrigerator at 3 to 4 °C for 24 h for MDA 1 and 2 determinations [34]. A butyl-hydroxytoluene/hexane solution (Sigma-Aldrich, Massachusetts, USA) was added directly after the thawed sample was measured in order to protect the meat samples from oxidation. The TBA value (expressed as µg MDA/kg sample) was calculated according to the calibration curve (Y = −4.11 × 10−3 + 6.68 × 10−3 X) of Botsglou et al. (1994) [35], where the Y peak height was 521.5 nm and X is the concentration (in µg MDA/mL). The method was applied under low-light conditions. The examination was performed using a Spekol 10 (Carl Zeiss, Jena, Germany) device.
The color of valuable broiler meat parts (thighs and breasts) was examined with a MiniScan XE Plus (HunterLab, Reston, VA, USA) colorimeter equipped with the EasyMatch control software. The measurement was performed using CIE D65 xenon lamp illumination with a 45/0° standard measuring geometry. CIE color coordinates (L*, a*, and b*) were defined according to various standards, and the reflectance spectrum of the tested samples was plotted from every measured data point at 10 nm in the 400–700 nm range.
The sensory profile of the broiler meat was assessed by Campden BRI Hungary (Budapest, Hungary) using the HS ISO 6685:2007 5.4.3 method in a registered (NAT-1-1152/2007) laboratory. Five expert assessors ranked the examined properties in two repetitions on coded samples individually. The ranking was based on the Williams Latin Square intensity scale, ranging from 0 to 9.
2.4. Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis was conducted using the Windows SPSS 23.0 program (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). A univariate general linear model with Tukey’s test was performed to investigate significant differences in parametric datasets. A Kruskal–Wallis test with Bonferroni-adjusted pairwise comparison was performed to investigate any significant differences in non-parametric datasets. p < 0.05 indicated a significant difference.
3. Results
3.1. Performance
The production performance of the birds is summarized in Table 4. The different feeding treatments had a verifiable effect on the weights of the birds measured at 43 days of age. The rapeseed cake treatments in the feeds used in the trial (R, R+) reduced the body weight of the broilers slightly (R: 2805.10 g; R+: 2834.0 g) compared to the control (C: 2914.5 g) (p < 0.05).
In the grower and finisher feeding phases of the experiment, the R+ trial treatment improved the FCR (R+ 1.21 g/g; 2.17 g/g) compared to the R (1.56 g/g, 2.63 g/g) and C (1.45 g/g; 2.83 g/g) groups (p < 0.05). The R+ group also had the lowest mortality rate (1.00%) among the groups (R: 6.00%; C: 4.00%).
3.2. Thyroid Function
3.2.1. Weight of Thyroid Glands
In Table 5, the weight of the thyroid glands is summarized according to the measured (absolute) values and relative to the body weight. Differences were observed between the different treatments and the absolute weight of the thyroid glands (p < 0.05). The largest thyroid gland weight was observed in the R group (556.00 mg), while the R+ treatment resulted in measurably smaller thyroid glands (491.00 mg) compared to R. The smallest organ weights were associated with the C feed (180.00 mg).
3.2.2. Thyroid Hormones
The feeding of rapeseed cake had a detectable effect on the broilers’ serum triiodothyronine and thyroxin levels (p < 0.05) (Table 6). Both rapeseed groups in our study (R and R+) presented increased serum T3 and T4 levels in the birds; however, the mineral-supplemented treatment (R+) increased these levels to a lesser extent when compared to the control group than the R group (p < 0.05).
From the weight of thyroid glands and the serum hormone levels, it can be concluded that the mineral treatment (R+) was able to counteract the thyrostatic effect of rapeseed cake (p < 0.05).
3.2.3. Histological Examination
In the sections marked as control, the acinus was lined by a single layer of squamous and/or cuboidal epithelium. The colloid exhibited homogenous staining, and no recognizable vacuolization was observed (Figure 1a). In comparison, the acinus in the R-marked sections was covered by a single layer of cuboidal and/or columnar epithelium. In some places, the columnar epithelium was visible in two rows. In the colloid, vacuoles could be detected near the acinar epithelial cells (Figure 1b). In the R+ sections, the acini were lined by a single layer of squamous and/or cuboidal epithelium and filled with the colloid, exhibiting homogenous acidophilic staining (Figure 1c).
The acinus diameters of thyroid glands in the chickens are presented in Table 7. Acinus diameters were significantly larger in chickens fed with the R diet, with the highest mean value (119.6 µm). The mineral-supplemented R+ group did not present a change in diameter when compared to the control: the mean acinus diameter was 105.9 µm, which was close to the value determined in the control chickens (100.6 µm).
3.3. Meat Quality
3.3.1. Chemical Composition
In our study, the R and R+ treatments had no effect on the dry matter (DM) content of the meat (thigh and breast), but changes in protein and fat contents (% of DM) were observed (p < 0.05) compared to the control. The R treatment decreased the protein content in the breast sample (R: 85.94%) and increased the fat content in the thigh sample (R: 53.47%) compared to the control group (protein in breast: 89.73%; fat in thigh: 33.9%) and the R+ treatment (protein in breast: 89.15%; fat in thigh: 40.61%) (p < 0.05). Changes in the protein and fat content were less significant in meat samples under the R+ treatment than in the R treatment (p < 0.05; see Table 8).
3.3.2. Fatty Acid Composition
Similarities were discovered in the modification of the fatty acid profile of the R and R+ meat samples (thigh and breast) when compared to the results obtained for the control samples (in Table 9 and Table 10). Treatments using rapeseed cake (R and R+) reduced the palmitic acid (C16:0) content among the saturated fatty acids (SFAs) compared to the control samples (p < 0.05). In addition, the combination with the mineral supplement reduced the content of myristic acid (C14:0) in the broiler meat samples (thigh and breast) in comparison to the control. There was no difference in the amount of total monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) in the thighs and breasts between the control and treatment groups (Rand R+). In contrast, rapeseed cake reduced myristoleic acid (C14:1) and palmitoleic acid (C16:1) (p < 0.05), while oleic acid (C18:1) increased in the thigh samples, which can be attributed to the remaining oil content in rapeseed cake. In the R and R+ samples, an increased polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content was observed, such as a higher presence of linoleic acid (C18:2n-6) compared to the control samples (p < 0.05). While the n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid contents increased with the rapeseed cake treatments (R and R+), the relative ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids narrowed in the R and R+ samples compared to the control (p < 0.05).
3.3.3. MDA Value
The results of the MDA examination are summarized in Table 11. The highest MDA 1 value was observed in the fresh meat samples (R thigh: 0.32 mg/kg; R breast: 0.26 mg/kg), which was associated with the R feed (p < 0.05). After one month of storage (MDA 2), the values in the C and R+ meat samples (C thigh: 0.19 mg/kg; C breast: 0.27 mg/kg; R+ thigh: 0.19 mg/kg; R+ breast: 0.33 mg/kg) differed from those in the R samples (R thigh: 0.37 mg/kg; R breast: 0.36 mg/kg; p < 0.05, p < 0.01). When examining MDA 3 (after two months of storage), the tendency of differences in values among the treatments was similar to those for MDA 2 (MDA 3: C thigh: 0.22 mg/kg; C breast: 0.20 mg/kg; R thigh: 0.33 mg/kg; R breast: 0.28 mg/kg; R+ thigh: 0.24 mg/kg; R+ breast: 0.21 mg/kg; p < 0.05, p < 0.01).
3.3.4. Color
From Table 12, it can be observed that the rapeseed cake (R treatment) influenced the color parameters of the breast samples. The lightness index (R: 59.90) and the green–red color index (R: 8.71) differed in the breast samples compared to the control (L*: 57.99; a*: 10.58) and R+ treatment (L*: 57.67; a*: 9.49), as did the b* color index among groups (C: 24.53, R: 24.21, R+: 22.69; p < 0.05).
3.3.5. Organoleptic Profile
The color evenness of the thighs was improved under the R (7.80) and R+ (7.80) treatments compared to the control (C: 5.30). Meanwhile, the control (6.50) and R+ (6.10) treatments caused greater intensity in the characteristic taste of fried breast compared to the R samples (8.20) (p < 0.001) in our study, as shown in Table 13. In terms of some sensory properties (fatty aftertaste and fibrousness), a worse evaluation was observed due to the effect of the R treatment (fatty aftertaste in thighs: R: 3.90 < R+: 2.80 < C: 2.70; p = 0.0086; fatty aftertaste in breasts: R: 1.00 < R+: 0.60 < C: 0.20; p = 0.0245; fibrousness in thighs: R: 2.90 < R+: 2.10 < C: 1.60; p < 0.0001; fibrousness in breasts: R: 4.60 < R+: 3.60 < C: 3.30; p = 0.0006).
4. Discussion
Minimizing the occurrence of glucosinolates in feed is necessary, as their health-damaging metabolites can have goitrogenic, mutagenic, hepatotoxic, and nephrotoxic effects in animals [10]. In addition, phytic acid combines with proteins and several minerals (Zn, Ca, and Fe) to form insoluble complexes in rapeseed. This interaction can alter the structure and solubility of proteins, thus inhibiting their absorption in the animal’s gut [36]. At a pH above the isoelectric point—when the phytic acid and protein are negatively charged—complexation is carried out by cations such as Ca2+ or Mg2+ [37,38]). The S-glycosidic bond of glucosinolate is hydrolyzed, and D-glucose, sulfate, and unstable aglycones are released. The instability of these aglycones depends on the nature of glucosinolate, pH, and the presence of epitiospecific proteins and Fe+2 ions [39,40,41]. Compounds that are poorly absorbed by the digestive system of farm animals—which have an otherwise antinutritive effect—can be produced by heating cold-pressed rapeseed cake with the reactive anion of Al, Ca, or Mg elements and the mixed salt with polymers at an ambient temperature (ideally 15–30 °C). The feed supplement prepared in this way (Peelko) can establish chemical bonds not only with glucosinolates but also with compounds containing phenolic groups. On one hand, this prevents glucosinolate absorption in the digestive tract while, on the other hand, it reduces the volume of water-insoluble polymers (e.g., fibers) [42,43].
Thacker et al. [44] confirmed that canola cakes constituting 15% of the broiler chicken diet did not significantly affect BWG or FI during days 0–21 of the feeding period. In accordance with our production results, Smulikowska et al. [45] revealed that the use of rapeseed cake in broiler chicken diets resulted in slightly reduced FI and BWG over 42 days of feeding. Gao et al. [46] found that adding raw or fermented rapeseed cake (FRC) to the broiler diet (15%) is a valuable alternative to soybean meal in broiler chicken nutrition. The FCR did not show any unfavorable effects on growth performance or nutrient utilization in their study. Zaworska-Zakrzewska et al. [47] concluded that replacing raw rapeseed cakes with fermented products improved body weight gain in the grower phase, lowered feed intake in the finisher phase, and lowered the feed conversion ratio in all the periods of broilers.
The triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxin (T4) hormones of thyroid glands are primarily involved in energy production by increasing the metabolic rate. The importance of these iodine-containing hormones to the growth and development of organisms is most visible in deficient animals that exhibit stunted growth and lower productivity. Since the production of broilers in the poultry industry lasts only 42 days, one would expect that thyroid hormones should play a vital role during this process [48]. Increasing the proportion of expeller-extracted canola in the feed (0 to 40%) linearly increased the serum tetraiodothyronine (T4) concentration in broiler chickens (p = 0.0019) in the study published by Woyengo et al. (2011) [49], while the weight of the thyroid glands relative to live weight and serum T3 were not affected. On the other hand, in other studies, the extracted rapeseed meal (at 20% of the diet) reduced (p < 0.05) the plasma T4 level of broilers and increased (p < 0.05) the relative weight of the thyroid glands [50,51]. These results may be due to the decomposition products of glucosinolates impairing iodine uptake, which is necessary for T4 synthesis, thereby reducing T4 production. As a result of inadequate hormone synthesis, the pituitary gland produces thyroid-stimulating hormone, which increases the size of the thyroid glands [52].
Various treatment methods have been tested in order to remove, reduce, and minimize glucosinolate content in previous studies, as glucosinolate leads to adverse effects in the context of animal health and production. Most of these methods involve the hydrolysis or breaking down of glucosinolate before feeding. Chemical treatment and/or supplementation have also been attempted to combat glucosinolate-related toxicity in animals [10]. The inclusion of copper sulfate-treated RSM in the diet (80 or 160 g kg−1) of broilers and pigs improved growth, thyroid function, iodine status, serum Zn content, and alkaline phosphatase activity [53]. Schöne et al. (1993) investigated myrosinase-treated rapeseed meal (RSM) plus iodine (I) or other RSM diets regardless of I administration [54] and did not find a decrease in broiler growth. RSM diets without I markedly increased thyroid weight, with no differences between RSM variants. T4 was detected in the sera of chickens fed untreated RSM or RSM treated with Cu, suggesting that in I-deficient conditions, differences in serum T4 concentrations between RSM groups indicate differing antithyroid activity. With I supplementation, RSM had a significant effect on thyroid weight. The largest thyroids (5-fold heavier) were observed in chickens fed myrosinase-treated RSM [55].
The initial tissue signs of struma parenchymatosa in the R group were assessed through an increase in the diameter of the acini, the transformation of the glandular epithelium into the cuboidal and/or columnar epithelium, and changes in the homogeneity of the colloid (Figure 1b). Mineral supplementation (0.38% “Peelko”) prevented the negative effects of cold-pressed rapeseed cake on the thyroid gland, with no difference found between the acinus diameter of the control and R+ groups. In studies conducted with extracted rapeseed, increasing the proportion of the byproduct in the feed from 5 to 20% led to an increase in the number of epithelial cells in the thyroid tissue of broilers (p < 0.001), the acinus diameter (p < 0.01), and the height of tissue samples (p < 0.01) [56]. Artukovic et al. (2015) [57] reported similar histological changes in the thyroid glands as a result of feeding rapeseed cake. Rapeseed cake treatments (5–10%) used in the feed of broiler chickens caused the pathological secretory activity of the thyroid gland. The largest vacuolization was observed in the samples of broilers fed 15% rapeseed cake. The samples from control animals were characterized by acini of uniform size. Moderate-to-large follicular growth in the thyroid glands of animals fed with canola byproducts, as well as partial proliferation in the samples, indicates a goitrogenic effect of rapeseed cake [57]. The specificity of the morphological changes is influenced by the amount of glucosinolate hydrolysis products, duration of exposure, and poultry species [58,59,60]. In the current study, dietary mineral supplementation was found to suppress the negative effect of the R treatment on the acinus diameter of the thyroid gland. The Ca, Mg, and Fe contents in the mineral supplement had beneficial effects by forming stable complexes with glucosinolates in the cold-pressed rapeseed cake, thus limiting the absorption of goitrogenic factors. Another explanation could be that metal salts affect the hydrolyzation of glucosinolates.
In a feeding experiment with rapeseed cake at 15–20% [61], an increase in yield was reported without an increase in fat content when compared to the control containing soybean meal. Some authors [62,63] have shown that the total tissue fat content decreases with increased levels of dietary PUFAs (polyunsaturated fatty acids). The observed fat deposition is likely due to increased lipid catabolism and fatty acid synthesis [64].
Our results on the fatty acid profile in animal products are in agreement with those of Gao et al. (2020) [46]. Several studies have also shown that the use of oils rich in C18:3n-6 and C18:3n-3 fatty acids in feed increases the n-3 and n-6 PUFA levels in the muscles of poultry meat, thereby affecting the concentrations of EPA and DHA in a particularly beneficial way [65,66,67]. The provision of adequate amounts of PUFAs [68], including n-3 fatty acids [69], in products of animal origin through feeding can benefit the human body [64,70] and help in meeting nutritional requirements [71], as well as aiding in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases [72].
Broilers have a rudimentary lymphatic system. Thus, chylomicrons are absorbed directly into the portal blood for transport to the liver for further synthesis and subsequent tissue deposition, allowing for the direct exposure of the liver to dietary fat [73]. An increase in PUFA content in poultry diets can enhance the degree of fat unsaturation in broilers and likely leads to an increase in the rate of tissue lipid peroxidation. The high TBARS value means a higher amount of the end products (e.g., malondialdehyde) of lipid peroxidation [70]. In an experiment considering the addition of oilseed meal to broiler feed, the oxidative stability was reduced in the meat samples (p < 0.001) [74]. The thigh and pectoral muscle samples from the treatments containing oil seeds had the highest TBA values (p < 0.001), excluding the pectoral muscle sample measured the day after slaughter. The formation of TBARS is mainly enhanced through the peroxidation of fatty acids containing more than two double bonds. Therefore, the TBARS values in thigh meat were higher than in breast meat, presumably due to a higher concentration of unsaturated fatty acids and lipid content [75,76]. In addition, the lower concentration of heme pigment in the pectoral muscle could have led to lower TBARS values in the breast compared to the thigh muscle, as the oxidation of the heme pigment likely catalyzes lipid oxidation [76]. Contrary to our results, the partial replacement of the extracted soybean meal with an increasing proportion of the extracted rapeseed meal (10–40%) did not modify the L*, a*, or b* values in the chicken breast samples [77]. According to the results of a study by Gopinger et al. [78], up to 40% of the extracted rapeseed meal can be included in the feed of broilers without affecting the sensory properties of the meat.
5. Conclusions
The findings of this study demonstrated that the use of rapeseed cake in broiler chicken feed significantly reduced body weight and affected thyroid function, serum T3 and T4 hormone levels, and meat quality parameters. While both rapeseed treatments (R and R+) led to increased thyroid gland weight and serum T3 and T4 levels, the addition of minerals (Ca, Mg, and Fe) in the R+ treatment moderated these effects when compared to the R group. The R treatment caused a reduction in the acinus diameter and altered colloid homogeneity, indicating potential negative impacts on thyroid health. The rapeseed cake altered the protein and fat composition in the breast and thigh meat, as well as modifying the fatty acid profile through increasing polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), reducing saturated fatty acids (SFAs), and beneficially adjusting the n-6 to n-3 PUFA ratio. Furthermore, the R+ treatment showed milder adverse effects on the protein and fat contents in the breast and thigh meat, respectively, and improved oxidative stability in the stored meat samples. Although rapeseed cake negatively impacted certain meat quality traits, the mineral supplement (R+ treatment) effectively mitigated these unfavorable effects. Given the observed goitrogenic effects, future studies should explore the optimal level of rapeseed cake inclusion in broiler diets in order to balance its nutritional benefits with potential effects on thyroid function. The obtained results suggest that mineral supplementation in feeds containing rapeseed cake can help alleviate its thyrostatic effects, making it a promising additive for improving broiler chicken production.
Conceptualization, H.F., R.É.H. and T.T.; Methodology, H.F., O.D. and T.T.; Software, R.É.H.; Validation, H.F. and T.T.; Formal analysis, H.F., R.É.H. and T.T.; Investigation, H.F., R.É.H., O.D., M.K. and T.T.; Resources, T.T.; Data curation, R.É.H. and O.D.; Writing—original draft preparation, R.É.H. and T.T.; Writing—review and editing, H.F., R.É.H., O.D., M.K. and T.T.; Visualization, R.É.H. and T.T.; Supervision, H.F. and T.T.; Project administration, T.T.; Funding acquisition, T.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The experimental protocol complied with the European Union regulations concerning the protection of animals used for experimental and other scientific purposes (EU Directive 2010/63/EU).
The data presented in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Footnotes
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Enlarge this image.Figure 1. Histological sections of control (a), R (b), and R+ (c) thyroid samples (n = 10).
Composition of broiler diets (%).
| Feed Composition | Starter Diet | Grower Diet | Finisher Diet | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ingredients | U 1 | C 2 | R 3 | R+ 4 | C 2 | R 3 | R+ 4 |
| Corn | 49.45 | 43.45 | 40.40 | 40.40 | 38.85 | 33.70 | 33.70 |
| Soybean meal 5 | 28.30 | 27.80 | 20.70 | 20.70 | 23.20 | 13.20 | 13.20 |
| Wheat | 10.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 | 25.00 | 25.00 | 25.00 |
| Corn gluten | 5.00 | 3.75 | 3.75 | 3.75 | 2.50 | 2.50 | 2.50 |
| CP Rapeseed cake 3 | - | - | 10.00 | - | - | 15.00 | 0.00 |
| CP Rapeseed cake + Peelko 4 | - | - | - | 9.62 + 0.38 | - | - | 14.62 + 0.38 |
| Sunflower oil | 0.50 | 2.00 | 2.00 | 2.00 | 2.10 | 2.10 | 2.10 |
| L-lysine 5 | 0.75 | 0.00 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.35 | 0.50 | 0.50 |
| Energoacid-40 6 | 2.00 | 4.50 | 4.50 | 4.50 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
| Premix 1 7 | 4.00 | 3.50 | 3.50 | 3.50 | - | - | - |
| Premix 2 8 | - | - | - | - | 3.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 |
| Total | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 |
1 uniform; 2 control; 3 cold-pressed rapeseed cake; 4 cold-pressed rapeseed cake + 0.38% “Peelko” (ingredients of “Peelko” supplement: wheat meal, Ca, Fe, and Mg); 5 extracted soybean meal; 5 lysine HCl 79%; 6 ingredients: vegetable oils, wheat bran, and corn flakes; nutritional parameters: dry matter (88%), ME poultry (21.50 MJ/kg as in feed), crude protein (6.75%), crude fat (40%), crude fiber (4%), and crude ash (8.5%); 7 ingredients: wheat, wheat meal, CaCO3, MCP, NaCl, lysine (45.08 g), methionine (40.06 g), threonine (0.51 g), tryptophan (0.22 g), valine (0.74 g), microelements (Fe: 1143 mg, Zn: 2859.5 mg, and Mn: 3427.8 mg), vitamins (A: 287,250 NE, D3: 128,750 NE, and E: 1430 mg), and phytase enzyme (14,300 FTU/kg); 8 ingredients: wheat, wheat meal, CaCO3, MCP, NaCl, lysine (64.98 g), methionine (80.08 g), threonine (0.17 g), tryptophan (0.07 g), valine (0.25 g), microelements (Fe: 1332 mg, Zn: 3335.5 mg, Mn: 4.002 mg), vitamins (A: 333,300 NE, D3: 116,750 NE, and E: 1000 mg), and phytase enzyme (16,700 FT/kg); 7,8 produced by Bonafarm Bábolna Feed (Nagyigmánd, Hungary).
Nutrient content of broiler diets (calculated values).
| Nutrient Content | Unit | Starter Diet | Grower Diet | Finisher Diet | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U 1 | C 2 | R 3 | R+ 4 | C 2 | R 3 | R+ 4 | ||
| Dry matter | % | 88.86 | 88.79 | 88.93 | 88.93 | 88.76 | 88.98 | 88.98 |
| Crude protein | % | 21.43 | 19.95 | 19.95 | 19.95 | 18.38 | 18.38 | 18.38 |
| Crude fiber | % | 2.74 | 3.40 | 4.10 | 4.10 | 3.25 | 4.30 | 4.30 |
| Crude ash | % | 5.66 | 5.12 | 5.24 | 5.51 | 4.77 | 4.98 | 5.25 |
| Starch | % | 39.32 | 37.01 | 36.89 | 36.89 | 39.60 | 39.45 | 39.45 |
| Ca | % | 0.83 | 0.80 | 0.80 | 0.90 | 0.75 | 0.75 | 0.85 |
| P | % | 0.64 | 0.60 | 0.60 | 0.60 | 0.55 | 0.55 | 0.55 |
| Na | % | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.15 |
| Mg | % | 2.10 | 2.10 | 2.10 | 2.11 | 1.96 | 1.96 | 1.97 |
| Fe | mg/kg | 45.70 | 40.00 | 40.00 | 43.04 | 39.96 | 39.96 | 43.00 |
| SID 5 lysine | % | 1.20 | 1.10 | 1.10 | 1.10 | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
| SID 5 M+C | % | 0.82 | 0.78 | 0.79 | 0.79 | 0.67 | 0.67 | 0.67 |
| SID 5 threonine | % | 0.68 | 0.67 | 0.68 | 0.68 | 0.59 | 0.60 | 0.60 |
| SID 5 tryptophan | % | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.17 |
| SID 5 valine | % | 0.81 | 0.81 | 0.82 | 0.82 | 0.72 | 0.72 | 0.72 |
| AME 6 | MJ/kg | 12.42 | 13.20 | 13.20 | 13.20 | 13.40 | 13.40 | 13.40 |
1 uniform; 2 control; 3 cold-pressed rapeseed cake treatment; 4 cold-pressed rapeseed cake + 0.38% “Peelko” treatment; 5 SID = standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids; 6 AME = apparent metabolizable energy.
Nutrient content of “Peelko” mineral supplement.
| Parameters | g/kg as Fed Basis |
|---|---|
| Dry matter | 950.0 |
| Crude protein | 60.0 |
| Ether extract | 20.0 |
| Crude fiber | 15.0 |
| Crude ash | 721.5 |
| Ca | 270.0 |
| Mg | 35.0 |
| Fe | 0.8 |
Production performance of broiler chickens.
| Parameters | Fattening Period | C 1 | R 2 | R+ 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| BW 4 (g) | D 1 | 48.41 ± 2.51 | 48.37 ± 2.42 | 48.35 ± 2.45 |
| D 21 | 966.20 ± 28.20 | 952.00 ± 31.10 | 989.10 ± 29.52 | |
| D 33 | 2038.6 ± 33.30 | 2067.1 ± 27.30 | 2044.0 ± 28.50 | |
| D 43 | 2914.5 ± 42.10 a | 2805.1 ± 33.80 b | 2834.0 ± 44.50 b | |
| BWG 5 (g) | D 1–21 | 917.59 | 903.63 | 940.75 |
| D 22–33 | 1072.6 | 1115.1 | 1054.9 | |
| D 34–43 | 875.9 | 738.00 | 790.00 | |
| D 1–43 | 2866.1 | 2756.7 | 2785.6 | |
| FI 6 (g/bird) | D 1–21 | 2000.0 | 2060.0 | 2050.0 |
| D 22–33 | 1700.0 | 1760.0 | 1680.0 | |
| D 34–43 | 1260.0 | 1300.0 | 1210.0 | |
| D 1–43 | 5080.0 | 5240.0 | 4980.0 | |
| FCR 7 (g/g) | D 1–21 | 2.06 ± 0.01 | 1.93 ± 0.01 | 2.07 ± 0.02 |
| D 22–33 | 1.45 ± 0.03 ab | 1.56 ± 0.04 a | 1.21 ± 0.02 b | |
| D 34–43 | 2.83 ± 0.02 a | 2.63 ± 0.05 ab | 2.17 ± 0.04 b | |
| D 1–43 | 1.38 ± 0.02 | 1.38 ± 0.03 | 1.27 ± 0.03 | |
| MR 8 (%) | D 1–43 | 4.00 | 6.00 | 1.00 |
1 control; 2 cold-pressed rapeseed cake treatment; 3 cold-pressed rapeseed cake + 0.38% “Peelko” treatment; 4 body weight; 5 body weight gain; 6 feed intake; 7 feed conversion ratio; 8 mortality rate. a,b means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (p < 0.05) (n = 200; 25 birds per pen, 8 pens per dietary treatment).
Final body weight of broilers and absolute and relative weights of thyroid glands.
| Parameters | Unit | C 1 | R 2 | R+ 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Body weight at day 43 4 | g | 2914.5 ± 42.10 a | 2805.1 ± 33.80 b | 2834.0 ± 44.50 b |
| Weight of thyroid glands 5 | mg | 180.00 ± 34.00 c | 556.00 ± 207.00 a | 491.00 ± 161.00 b |
| Weight of thyroid glands 6 | % | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.20 ± 0.06 | 0.17 ± 0.05 |
1 control; 2 cold-pressed rapeseed cake treatment; 3 cold-pressed rapeseed cake + 0.38% “Peelko” treatment; 4 body weight of the birds at the day 43, before slaughter; 5 absolute weight of thyroid glands; 6 relative weight of thyroid glands. a,b,c means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (p < 0.05) (n = 10).
Serum T3 and T4 hormone levels.
| Analyzed Parameters | Unit | C 1 | R 2 | R+ 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| T3 4 | nmol/L | 2.95 ± 0.45 c | 4.68 ± 0.81 a | 3.92 ± 0.55 b |
| T4 5 | nmol/L | 50.13 ± 4.60 b | 61.22 ± 7.69 a | 50.99 ± 7.19 b |
1 control; 2 old-pressed rapeseed cake treatment; 3 cold-pressed rapeseed cake + 0.38% “Peelko” treatment; 4 triiodothyronine hormone; 5 tetraiodthyronine–thyroxine hormone. a,b,c means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (p < 0.05) (n = 10).
Effect of treatments on acinus diameter of thyroid gland at 43 d of age in broilers.
| C 1 | R 2 | R+ 3 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diameter, µm | 100.6 ± 37.5 a | 119.6 ± 45.3 b | 105.9 ± 38.0 a |
1 control; 2 cold-pressed rapeseed cake treatment; 3 cold-pressed rapeseed cake + 0.38% “Peelko” treatment. a,b means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (p < 0.05) (n = 100).
The main components of the chemical composition of broiler meat.
| Parameters | Sample | C 1 | R 2 | R+ 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry matter (%) | Thigh | 25.47 ± 3.29 | 25.18 ± 2.06 | 26.44 ± 1.01 |
| Breast | 25.85 ± 0.67 | 25.09 ± 0.79 | 25.61 ± 0.99 | |
| Protein (% of DM) | Thigh | 73.03 ± 5.32 | 68.78 ± 3.39 | 69.60 ± 2.39 |
| Breast | 89.73 ± 2.69 a | 85.94 ± 3.34 b | 89.15 ± 1.89 a | |
| Fat (% of DM) | Thigh | 33.90 ± 5.66 b | 53.47 ± 5.46 a | 40.61 ± 9.88 b |
| Breast | 5.47 ± 2.11 | 7.13 ± 1.54 | 6.85 ± 0.84 |
1 control; 2 cold-pressed rapeseed cake treatment; 3 cold-pressed rapeseed cake + 0.38% “Peelko” treatment. a,b means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (p < 0.05) (n = 10).
Fatty acid composition (g/100 g of total fatty acids) of broiler thigh samples.
| Fatty Acid | Notation | C 1 | R 2 | R+ 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Myristic acid | C14:0 | 0.05 ± 0.05 a | 0.41 ± 0.03 b | 0.40 ± 0.03 b |
| Palmitic acid | C16:0 | 21.21 ± 1.00 a | 17.62 ± 0.83 b | 17.73 ± 0.92 b |
| Stearic acid | C18:0 | 5.91 ± 0.34 | 5.63 ± 0.48 | 5.79 ± 0.26 |
| Saturated fatty acids | SFAs | 28.03 ± 0.98 a | 24.13 ± 0.60 b | 24.36 ± 0.93 b |
| Myristoleic acid | C14:1 | 0.12 ± 0.03 a | 0.06 ± 0.02 b | 0.06 ± 0.02 b |
| Palmitoleic acid | C16:1 | 5.00 ± 0.73 a | 3.27 ± 0.65 b | 3.07 ± 0.44 b |
| Oleic acid | C18:1 | 36.82 ± 1.41 b | 38.33 ± 0.98 a | 38.18 ± 0.50 a |
| Vaccenic acid | c-C18:1 | 1.19 ± 0.12 | 1.24 ± 0.09 | 1.20 ± 0.09 |
| Monounsaturated fatty acids | MUFAs | 43.65 ± 1.83 | 43.50 ± 1.46 | 43.09 ± 0.88 |
| Linoleic acid | C18:2 n-6 | 24.86 ± 1.83 b | 28.21 ± 1.30 a | 28.55 ± 1.45 a |
| Linolenic acid | C18:3 n-3 | 0.94 ± 0.07 b | 1.60 ± 0.08 a | 1.64 ± 0.14 a |
| Arachidonic acid | C20:4 n-6 | 0.82 ± 0.20 | 0.86 ± 0.30 | 0.80 ± 0.17 |
| Docosapentaenoic acid | C22:5 n-3 | 0.08 ± 0.02 b | 0.11 ± 0.03 a | 0.10 ± 0.02 ab |
| Docosahexaenoic acid | C22:6 n-3 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.06 ± 0.03 | 0.05 ± 0.02 |
| Polyunsaturated fatty acids | PUFAs | 27.86 ± 2.19 b | 31.92 ± 1.60 a | 32.11 ± 1.62 a |
| n-6 | 26.41 ± 1.54 b | 29.71 ± 1.37 a | 29.93 ± 1.44 a | |
| n-3 | 1.10 ± 0.18 b | 1.81 ± 0.13 a | 1.83 ± 0.15 a | |
| n-6/n-3 | 24.01 ± 0.83 a | 16.41 ± 0.51 b | 16.36 ± 0.45 b | |
1 control; 2 cold-pressed rapeseed cake treatment; 3 cold-pressed rapeseed cake + 0.38% “Peelko” treatment. a,b means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (p < 0.05) (n = 10).
Fatty acid composition (g/100 g of total fatty acids) of broiler breast samples.
| Fatty Acid | Notation | C 1 | R 2 | R+ 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Myristic acid | C14:0 | 0.50 ± 0.07 a | 0.29 ± 0.04 b | 0.40 ± 0.04 b |
| Palmitic acid | C16:0 | 21.24 ± 0.95 a | 17.65 ± 0.70 b | 17.45 ± 1.12 b |
| Stearic acid | C18:0 | 6.37 ± 0.48 | 5.96 ± 0.35 | 6.10 ± 0.38 |
| Saturated fatty acids | SFAs | 28.73 ± 1.22 a | 24.60 ± 0.70 b | 24.53 ± 1.32 b |
| Myristoleic acid | C14:1 | 0.11 ± 0.03 a | 0.05 ± 0.01 b | 0.05 ± 0.01 b |
| Palmitoleic acid | C16:1 | 4.27 ± 0.80 a | 2.72 ± 0.43 b | 2.38 ± 0.55 b |
| Oleic acid | C18:1 | 34.88 ± 2.27 | 36.83 ± 1.00 | 35.87 ± 1.18 |
| Vaccenic acid | c-C18:1 | 1.27 ± 0.14 | 1.36 ± 0.08 | 1.29 ± 0.07 |
| Monounsaturated fatty acids | MUFAs | 40.82 ± 2.70 | 41.54 ± 1.23 | 40.15 ± 1.54 |
| Linoleic acid | C18:2 n-6 | 24.55 ± 2.00 b | 28.04 ± 1.30 a | 28.76 ± 2.10 a |
| Linolenic acid | C18:3 n-3 | 0.90 ± 0.07 b | 1.57 ± 0.08 a | 1.63 ± 0.17 a |
| Arachidonic acid | C20:4 n-6 | 1.63 ± 0.72 | 1.48 ± 0.40 | 1.70 ± 0.57 |
| Docosapentaenoic acid | C22:5 n-3 | 0.16 ± 0.08 | 0.22 ± 0.06 | 0.24 ± 0.09 |
| Docosahexaenoic acid | C22:6 n-3 | 0.10 ± 0.06 | 0.11 ± 0.04 | 0.14 ± 0.06 |
| Polyunsaturated fatty acids | PUFAs | 28.98 ± 2.16 b | 32.88 ± 1.33 a | 34.00 ± 2.04 a |
| n-6 | 27.31 ± 1.62 b | 30.45 ± 1.56 a | 31.46 ± 1.58 a | |
| n-3 | 1.23 ± 0.14 b | 1.96 ± 0.11 a | 2.08 ± 0.12 a | |
| n-6/n-3 | 22.20 ± 0.89 a | 15.54 ± 0.46 b | 15.13 ± 0.43 b | |
1 control; 2 cold-pressed rapeseed cake treatment; 3 cold-pressed rapeseed cake + 0.38% “Peelko” treatment. a,b means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (p < 0.05) (n = 10).
Shelf-life analysis of broiler meat samples.
| MDA (mg/kg) | Sample | C 1 | R 2 | R+ 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| MDA 1. 4 | Thigh | 0.22 ± 0.03 B | 0.32 ± 0.04 A | 0.18 ± 0.04 B |
| Breast | 0.21 ± 0.05 AB | 0.26 ± 0.05 A | 0.17 ± 0.04 B | |
| MDA 2. 5 | Thigh | 0.19 ± 0.06 B | 0.37 ± 0.05 A | 0.20 ± 0.07 B |
| Breast | 0.27 ± 0.04 b | 0.36 ± 0.06 a | 0.33 ± 0.07 ab | |
| MDA 3. 6 | Thigh | 0.22 ± 0.02 b | 0.33 ± 0.08 a | 0.24 ± 0.10 ab |
| Breast | 0.20 ± 0.04 b | 0.28 ± 0.06 a | 0.21 ± 0.02 b |
1 control; 2 cold-pressed rapeseed cake treatment; 3 cold-pressed rapeseed cake + 0.38% “Peelko” treatment; 4 fresh sample, 5 one month of storage; 6 two months of storage. A,B means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (p < 0.001). a,b means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (p < 0.05) (n = 10).
Colorimetry results for broiler meat samples.
| Color Parameters | Sample | C 1 | R 2 | R+ 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| L* 4 | Thigh | 56.76 ± 1.38 | 56.38 ± 1.44 | 55.83 ± 1.19 |
| Breast | 57.99 ± 1.26 b | 59.90 ± 1.13 a | 57.67 ± 0.93 b | |
| a* 5 | Thigh | 11.53 ± 0.90 | 10.67 ± 0.51 | 11.09 ± 0.65 |
| Breast | 10.58 ± 0.72 a | 8.71 ± 0.55 b | 9.49 ± 0.74 ab | |
| b* 6 | Thigh | 19.75 ± 1.40 | 19.84 ± 0.89 | 18.61 ± 1.12 |
| Breast | 24.53 ± 1.68 a | 24.21 ± 0.91 ab | 22.69 ± 1.08 b |
1 control; 2 cold-pressed rapeseed cake treatment; 3 cold-pressed rapeseed cake + 0.38% “Peelko” treatment; 4 brightness index, 5 green–red color index; 6 yellow–blue color index. a,b means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (p < 0.05) (n = 10).
Organoleptic analysis of broiler meat samples.
| Sensory Property | Sample | C 1 | R 2 | R+ 3 | p-Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hue | Thigh | 4.50 | 4.90 | 4.30 | 0.5887 |
| Breast | 3.40 | 2.60 | 3.20 | 0.2845 | |
| Color evenness | Thigh | 5.30 B | 7.80 A | 7.80 A | <0.0001 |
| Breast | 7.40 | 7.50 | 6.80 | 0.3911 | |
| Characteristic taste | Thigh | 6.90 | 7.20 | 6.30 | 0.0566 |
| Breast | 6.50 B | 8.20 A | 6.10 B | <0.0001 | |
| Characteristic smell | Thigh | 7.30 | 7.70 | 7.30 | 0.5141 |
| Breast | 7.10 | 7.80 | 7.10 | 0.1644 | |
| Fatty aftertaste | Thigh | 2.70 b | 3.90 a | 2.80 b | 0.0086 |
| Breast | 0.20 b | 1.00 a | 0.60 ab | 0.0245 | |
| Fibrousness | Thigh | 1.60 C | 2.90 A | 2.10 B | <0.0001 |
| Breast | 3.30 B | 4.60 A | 3.60 B | 0.0006 |
1 control; 2 cold-pressed rapeseed cake treatment; 3 cold-pressed rapeseed cake + 0.38% “Peelko” treatment. a,b means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (p < 0.05). A,B,C means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (p < 0.001) (n = 10).
References
1. USDA. World Agricultural Production, Rapeseed Explorer. Available online: https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/cropexplorer/cropview/commodityView.aspx?cropid=2226000 (accessed on 24 October 2024).
2. Bukowski, M.; Swearingen, B. Oil Crops Outlook: March 2024. Report No. OCS-24c. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Available online: https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/outlooks/108755/ocs-24c.pdf?v=5654.6 (accessed on 24 October 2024).
3. Carré, P.; Pouzet, A. Rapeseed market, worldwide and in Europe. OCL; 2014; 21, D102. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1051/ocl/2013054]
4. Campbell, L.; Rempel, C.B.; Wanasundara, J.P.D. Canola/Rapeseed protein: Future opportunities and directions. Workshop Proceedings of IRC 2015. Plants; 2016; 5, 17. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants5020017]
5. Recoules, E.; Lessire, M.; Labas, V.; Duclos, M.J.; Combes-Soia, L.; Lardic, L.; Peyronnet, C.; Quinsac, A.; Narcy, A.; Réhault-Godbert, S. Digestion dynamics in broilers fed rapeseed meal. Sci. Rep.; 2019; 9, 3052. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-38725-1] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30816158]
6. Tang, D.; Hao, S.; Ru, Y.; Nian, F. Study on available energy variability from different rapeseed meal and feeding effects of enzyme supplementation. China Feed.; 2014; 1, pp. 30-36.
7. Oliveira, M.S.F.; Wiltafsky-Martin, M.K.; Stein, H.H. Excessive heating of 00-rapeseed meal reduces not only amino acid digestibility but also metabolizable energy when fed to growing pigs. J. Anim. Sci.; 2020; 98, skaa219. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jas/skaa219] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32658269]
8. Jiang, W.; Wang, H.; Zhang, L.; Mi, H.; Deng, J. High replacement of soybean meal by different types of rapeseed meal is detrimental to rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss) growth, antioxidant capacity, non-specific immunity and Aeromonas hydrophila tolerance. Front. Nutr.; 2024; 11, 1363411.
9. Zhu, L.P.; Wang, J.P.; Ding, X.M.; Bai, S.P.; Zeng, Q.F.; Su, Z.W.; Xuan, Y.; Zhang, K.Y. The deposition and elimination of glucosinolate metabolites derived from rapeseed meal in eggs of laying hens. J. Agric. Food Chem.; 2018; 66, pp. 1560-1568. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.7b05782] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29345135]
10. Tripathi, M.K.; Mishra, A.S. Glucosinolates in animal nutrition: A review. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol.; 2007; 132, pp. 1-27. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2006.03.003]
11. McNeill, L.; Bernard, K.; MacLeod, M.G. Food intake, growth rate, food conversion and food choice in broilers fed on diets high in rapeseed meal and pea meal, with observation on sensory evaluation of the resulting poultry meat. Br. Poult. Sci.; 2004; 45, pp. 519-523. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00071660412331286235] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15484727]
12. Kermanshahi, H.; Abbasi Pour, A.R. Replacement value of soybean meal with rapeseed meal supplemented with or without a dietary NSP-degrading enzyme on performance, carcass traits and thyroid hormones of broiler chickens. Int. J. Poult. Sci.; 2006; 5, pp. 932-937.
13. Choi, E.J.; Zhang, P.; Kwon, H. Determination of goitrogenic metabolites in the serum of male wistar rat fed structurally different glucosinolates. Toxicol. Res.; 2014; 30, pp. 109-116. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.5487/TR.2014.30.2.109] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25071920]
14. Slominski, B.A. Developments in the breeding of low fibre rapeseed/canola. J. Anim. Feed. Sci.; 1997; 6, pp. 303-318. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.22358/jafs/69527/1997]
15. Chen, X.; Parr, C.; Utterback, P.; Parsons, C.M. Nutritional evaluation of canola meals produced from new varieties of canola seeds for poultry. Poult. Sci.; 2015; 94, pp. 984-991. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3382/ps/pev043] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25784764]
16. Liersch, A.; Bocianowski, J.; Nowosad, K.; Mikolajczyk, K.; Spasibionek, S.; Wielebski, F.; Matuszczak, M.; Szala, L.; Cegielska-Taras, T.; Sosnowska, K. et al. Effect of genotype x environment interaction for seed traits in winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). Agriculture; 2020; 10, 607. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10120607]
17. Ivanova, P.; Kalaydzhiev, H.; Rustad, T.; Silva, C.L.M.; Chalova, V.I. Comparative biochemical profile of protein-rich products obtained from industrial rapeseed meal. Emir. J. Food Agric.; 2017; 29, pp. 170-178. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.9755/ejfa.2016-11-1760]
18. Dolatifard, A.; Jafari, M.A. Processed canola meal effects on the traits of egg, fertility, cecal microbial population and carcass of broiler breeder hens. Braz. J. Poult. Sci.; 2020; 22, pp. 1-6. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1806-9061-2020-1306]
19. Dänicke, S.; Kracht, W.; Jeroch, H.; Zachmann, R.; Heidenreich, E.; Löwe, R. Effect of different technical treatments of rapeseed on the feed value for broilers and laying hens. Arch. Anim. Nutr.; 1998; 51, pp. 53-62. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17450399809381905] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9638305]
20. Huang, S.; Liang, M.; Lardy, G.; Huff, H.E.; Kerley, M.S.; Hsieh, F. Extrusion processing of rapeseed meal for reducing glucosinolates. Anim. Feed. Sci. Techn.; 1995; 56, pp. 1-9. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0377-8401(95)00826-9]
21. Hanschen, F.S.; Schreiner, M. Isothiocyanates, nitriles, and epithionitriles from glucosinolates are affected by genotype and developmental stage in Brassica oleracea varieties. Front. Plant Sci.; 2017; 8, 1095. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.01095]
22. Liu, J.B.; Yan, H.L.; Cao, S.C.; Liu, J.; Li, Z.X.; Zhang, H.F. The response of performance in grower and finisher pigs to diets formulated to different tryptophan to lysine ratios. Livest. Sci.; 2019; 222, pp. 25-30. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2019.01.016]
23. Khalil, A.A. Nutritional improvement of an Egyptian breed of mung bean by probiotic lactobacilli. Afr. J. Biotech.; 2006; 5, pp. 206-212.
24. Singh, B.P.; Vij, S.; Hati, S. Functional significance of bioactive peptides derived from soybean: A Review. Peptides; 2014; 54, pp. 171-179. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2014.01.022] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24508378]
25. Ashayerizadeh, A.; Dastar, B.; Shargh, M.S.; Mahoonak, A.R.S.; Zerehdaran, S. Effects of feeding fermented rapeseed meal on growth performance, gastrointestinal microflora population, blood metabolites, meat quality and lipid metabolism in broiler chickens. Livest. Sci.; 2018; 216, pp. 183-190. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2018.08.012]
26. Toghyani, M.; Girish, C.K.; Wu, S.B.; Iji, P.A.; Swick, R.A. Effect of elevated dietary amino acid levels in high canola meal diets on productive traits and cecal microbiota population of broiler chickens in a pair-feeding study. Poult. Sci.; 2017; 96, pp. 1268-1279. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3382/ps/pew388]
27. Golam Masum Akond, A.S.M.; Crawford, H.; Berthold, J.; Talukder, Z.I.; Hossain, K. Minerals (Zn, Fe, Ca and Mg) and antinutrient (phytic acid) constituents in common bean. Am. J. Food. Technol.; 2011; 6, pp. 235-243. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3923/ajft.2011.235.243]
28. Bell, J.M. Factors affecting the nutritional value of canola meal: A review. Can. J. Anim. Sci.; 1993; 73, pp. 679-697. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4141/cjas93-075]
29. Cowieson, A.J.; Ruckebusch, J.-P.; Sorbara, J.O.B.; Wilson, J.W.; Guggenbuhl, P.; Roos, F.F. A systematic view on the effect of phytase on ileal amino acid digestibility in broilers. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol.; 2017; 225, pp. 182-194. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2017.01.008]
30. Brune, M.; Rossander, L.; Hallberg, L. Iron absorption and phenolic compounds: Importance of different phenolic structures. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr.; 1989; 43, pp. 547-558. [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2598894]
31. AOAC. Official Methods of Analysis; 17th ed. Association of Official Analytical Chemists: Arlington, VA, USA, 2005.
32. Ramanathan, L.; Das, N.P. Studies on the control of lipid oxidation in ground fish by some polyphenolic natural product. J. Agric. Food Chem.; 1992; 40, pp. 17-21. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf00013a004]
33. Janero, D.R. Malondialdehyde and thiobarbituric acid-reactivity as diagnostic indices of lipid peroxidation and peroxidative tissue injury. Free Radic. Biol. Med.; 1990; 9, pp. 515-540. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0891-5849(90)90131-2] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2079232]
34. Buckiuniene, V.; Gruzauskas, R.; Klisteviciute, V.; Raceviciute-Stupeliene, A.; Svirmickas, G.; Bliznikas, S.; Miezeliene, A.; Alencikiene, G.; Grashorn, M.A. Effect of organic and inorganic iron content, fatty acid profile, content of malondialdehyde, texture and sensory properties of broiler meat. Eur. Poult. Sci.; 2016; 80, pp. 1-14. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1399/eps.2016.141]
35. Botsglou, N.A.; Fletouris, D.J.; Papapgeorgiou, G.E.; Vassilopoulos, V.N.; Mantis, A.J.; Trakatellis, A.G. Rapid, sensitive and specific thiobarbituric acid method for measuring lipid peroxidation in animal tissue, food, and feedstuff samples. J. Agric Feed Chem.; 1994; 42, pp. 1931-1937. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf00045a019]
36. Nissar, J.; Ahad, T.; Naik, H.R.; Hussain, S.Z. A review of phytic acid as antinutrient or nutraceutical. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem.; 2017; 6, pp. 1554-1560.
37. Rotkiewicz, D.; Konopka, I. Phosphorus compounds in the rape seeds and oil. Oilseed Crops; 1998; 19, pp. 61-70.
38. Golebiewska, K.; Fras, A.; Golebiewski, D. Rapeseed meal as a feed component in monogastric animal nutrition—A review. Ann. Anim. Sci.; 2022; 4, pp. 1163-1183. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.2478/aoas-2022-0020]
39. Williams, D.J.; Critchley, C.; Pun, S.; Chaliha, M.; O’Hare, T.J. Differing mechanism of simple nitrile formation on glucosinolate degradation in Lepidium sativum and Nasturtium officinale seeds. Phytochemistry; 2009; 70, pp. 1401-1409. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2009.07.035]
40. Barba, F.J.; Nikmaram, N.; Roohinejad, S.; Khelfa, A.; Zhu, Z.; Koubaa, M. Bioavailability of glucosinolates and their breakdown products: Impact of processing. Review. Front. Nutr.; 2016; 3, 24. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2016.00024]
41. Ishida, M.; Hara, M.; Fukino, N.; Kakizaki, T.; Morimitsu, Y. Glucosinolate metabolism, functionality and breeding for the improvement of Brassicaceae vegetables. Breed. Sci.; 2014; 64, pp. 48-59. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1270/jsbbs.64.48]
42. Cheng, H.; Liu, X.; Xiao, Q.; Zhang, F.; Liu, N.; Tang, L.; Wang, J.; Ma, X.; Tan, B.; Chen, J. et al. Rapeseed meal and its application in pig diet: A review. Agriculture; 2022; 12, 849. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12060849]
43. Lee, J.W.; Kim, I.H.; Woyengo, T.A. Toxicity of canola-derived glucosinolate degradation products in pigs—A review. Animals; 2020; 10, 2337. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani10122337]
44. Thacker, P.A.; Petri, D. Nutrient digestibility and performance of broiler chickens fed regular or green canola biodiesel press cakes produced using a micro-scale process. J. Sci. Food Agric.; 2009; 89, pp. 1307-1313. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.3587]
45. Smulikowska, S.; Mieczkowska, A.; Czerwinski, J.; Weremko, D.; Nguyen, C.V. Effects of exogenous phytase in chickens fed diets with differently processed rapeseed expeller cakes. J. Anim. Feed Sci.; 2006; 15, 237. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.22358/jafs/66896/2006]
46. Gao, M.; Cieslak, A.; Kieronczyk, B.; Huang, H.; Yanza, Y.R.; Zaworska-Zakrzewska, A.; Józefiak, D.; Szumacher-Strabel, M. Effects of raw and fermented rapeseed cake on growth performance, methane production, and breast meat fatty acid composition in broiler chickens. Animals; 2020; 10, 2250. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani10122250] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33266150]
47. Zaworska-Zakrzewska, A.; Kasprowicz-Potocka, M.; Kieronczyk, B.; Józefiak, D. The effect of solid-state fermentation on the nutritive value of rapeseed cakes and performance of broiler chickens. Fermentation; 2023; 9, 435. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9050435]
48. Stojevic, Z.; Milinkovic-Tur, S.; Curcija, K. Changes in thyroid hormones concentrations in chicken blood plasma during fattening. Vet. Arhiv.; 2000; 70, pp. 31-37.
49. Woyengo, T.A.; Kiarie, E.; Nyachoti, C.M. Growth performance, organ weights, and blood parameters of broilers fed diets containing expeller-extracted canola meal. Poult. Sci.; 2011; 90, pp. 2520-2527. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3382/ps.2011-01436]
50. Rabie, M.H.M.; Abo El-Maaty, H.; El-Gogary, M.R.; Abdo, M.S.S. Nutritional and physiological effects of different levels of canola meal in broiler chick diets. Asian J. Anim. Vet. Adv.; 2015; 10, pp. 161-172. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3923/ajava.2015.161.172]
51. Payvastegan, S.; Farhoomand, P.; Delfani, N. Growth performance, organ weights and, blood parameters of broilers fed diets containing graded levels of dietary canola meal and supplemental copper. J. Poult. Sci; 2013; 50, pp. 354-363. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.2141/jpsa.0130006]
52. Schöne, F.; Rudolph, B.; Kirchheim, U.; Knapp, G. Counteracting the negative effects of rapeseed and rapeseed press cake in pig diets. Br. J. Nutr.; 1997; 78, pp. 947-962. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1079/BJN19970211] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9497445]
53. Schöne, F.; Winnefeld, K.; Kirchner, E.; Grun, M.; Lüdke, H.; Hennig, A. Copper and iodine in pig diets with high glucosinolate rapeseed meal. Part 3. Treatment of rapeseed meal with copper and, and the effect of iodine supplementation on trace element status and some related blood (serum) parameters. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol.; 1990; 30, pp. 143-154. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0377-8401(90)90058-G]
54. Schöne, F.; Jahreis, G.; Richter, G. Evaluation of rapeseed meal in broiler chickens: Effect of iodine supply and glucosinolate degradation by myrosinage or copper. J. Sci. Food Agric.; 1993; 61, pp. 245-252. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740610218]
55. Zeb, A. Possibilities and limitations of feeding rapeseed meal to broiler chicks. Ph.D. Thesis; Agricultural Sciences Georg-August University: Götteningen, Germany, 1998; pp. 110-112.
56. Abidmoradi, M.; Pedram, G. Effects of level of canola meal on morphology of thyroid gland in broiler chicks. Proceedings of the 16th European Symposium on Poultry Nutrition; Strasburg, France, 26–30 August 2007; pp. 29-31. Available online: https://www.cabi.org/Uploads/animal-science/worlds-poultry-science-association/WPSA-france-2007/102.pdf (accessed on 24 October 2024).
57. Artukovic, B.; Bedekovic, D.; Pintar, J.; Tisljar, M.; Kos, I.; Siric, I.; Severin, K.; Janjecic, Z. Pathological changes in the liver and thyroid in broiler chickens fed by rapeseed cake. Vet. Arhiv.; 2015; 85, pp. 657-676.
58. Koreleski, J.; Swiatkiewicz, S.; Arczewska-Wlosek, A. Rapeseed cake, glycerin and distillers dried grains with solubles used simultaneously as a source of nutrients for hens in their second laying season. Ann. Anim. Sci.; 2011; 11, pp. 125-133.
59. Mikulski, D.; Jankowski, J.; Zdunczyk, Z.; Juskiewicz, J.; Slominski, B.A. The effect of dietary levels of rapeseed meal on growth performance, carcass traits, and meat quality in turkeys. Poult. Sci.; 2012; 91, pp. 215-223. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3382/ps.2011-01587] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22184447]
60. Wickramasuriya, S.S.; Yi, Y.-J.; Yoo, J.; Kang, N.K.; Heo, J.M. A review of canola meal as alternative feed ingredient for ducks. J. Anim. Sci. Technol.; 2015; 57, 29. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40781-015-0062-4] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26473064]
61. Banaszkiewicz, T. The effect of addition high rape cake and phytase on nutritive value of diets for broiler chickens. Acta Vet.; 2013; 63, pp. 311-324. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.2298/AVB1303311B]
62. Cortinas, L.; Barroeta, A.; Villaverde, C.; Galobart, J.; Guardiola, F.; Baucells, M.D. Influence of the dietary polyunsaturation level on chicken meat quality: Lipid oxidation. Poult. Sci.; 2005; 84, pp. 48-55. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ps/84.1.48] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15685941]
63. Shen, Y.; Feng, D.; Fan, M.Z.; Chavez, E.R. Performance, carcass cut-up and fatty acids deposition in broilers fed different levels of pellet-processed flaxseed. J. Sci. Food Agric.; 2005; 85, pp. 2005-2014. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2155]
64. Mandal, G.P.; Ghosh, T.K.; Patra, A.K. Effect of different dietary n-6 to n-3 fatty acid ratios on the performance and fatty acid composition in muscles of broiler chickens. Asian Australas. J. Anim. Sci.; 2014; 27, pp. 1608-1614. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.5713/ajas.2014.14013] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25358321]
65. López-Ferrer, S.; Baucells, M.D.; Barroeta, A.C.; Galobart, J.; Grashorn, M.A. n-3 enrichment of chicken meat. 2. Use of precursors of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: Linseed oil. Poult. Sci.; 2001; 80, pp. 753-761. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ps/80.6.753] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11441842]
66. Newman, R.E.; Bryden, W.L.; Fleck, E.; Ashes, J.R.; Buttemer, W.A.; Storlien, L.H.; Downing, J.A. Dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids alter avian metabolism: Metabolism and abdominal fat deposition. Br. J. Nutr.; 2002; 88, pp. 11-18. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1079/BJN2002580] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12117423]
67. Kitessa, S.M.; Young, P. Echium oil is better than rapeseed oil in enriching poultry meat with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, including eicosapentaenoic acid and docosapentaenoic acid. Br. J. Nutr.; 2009; 101, pp. 709-715. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0007114508030742]
68. Halle, I.; Schöne, F. Influence of rapeseed cake, linseed cake and hemp seed cake on laying performance of hens and fatty acid composition of egg yolk. J. Verb. Lebensm.; 2013; 8, pp. 185-193. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00003-013-0822-3]
69. Fébel, H.; Mézes, M.; Pálfy, T.; Hermán, A.; Gundel, J.; Lugasi, A.; Balogh, K.; Kocsis, I.; Blázovics, A. Effect of dietary fatty acid pattern on growth, body fat composition and antioxidant parameters in broilers. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr.; 2008; 92, pp. 369-376. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0396.2008.00803.x]
70. Agah, M.J.; Nassiri-Mo, H.; Tahmasbi, A.M.; Lotfollahi, H. Performance and fatty acid compositions of yolk lipid from laying hens fed with locally produced canola seed (Brassica napus L.). Res. J. Biol. Sci.; 2010; 5, pp. 228-232. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3923/rjbsci.2010.228.232]
71. Simopoulos, A.P. The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomed. Pharma; 2002; 56, pp. 365-379. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0753-3322(02)00253-6] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12442909]
72. Gebauer, S.K.; Psota, T.L.; Harris, W.S.; Kris-Etherton, P.M. n-3 fatty acid dietary recommendations and food sources to achieve essentiality and cardiovascular benefits. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.; 2006; 83, pp. 1526S-1535S. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/83.6.1526S]
73. Noyan, A.; Lossow, W.J.; Brot, N.; Chaikoff, I.L. Pathway and form of absorption of palmitic acid in the chicken. J. Lipid Res.; 1964; 5, pp. 538-541. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-2275(20)40181-6] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14221097]
74. Rahimi, S.; Kamran Azad, S.; Karimi Torshizi, M.A. Omega-3 enrichment of broiler meat by using two oil seeds. J. Agric. Sci. Technol.; 2011; 13, pp. 353-365.
75. Ruiz, J.A.; Perez-Venderell, A.M.; Esteve-Garcia, E. Effect of beta-carotene and vitamin E on oxidative stability in leg meat of broilers fed different supplemental fats. J. Agric. Food Chem.; 1999; 47, pp. 448-454. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf980825g]
76. Zanini, S.F.; Colnago, G.L.; Bastos, M.R.; Pesotti, B.M.S.; Casagrande, F.P.; Lima, V.R. Oxidative stability and total lipids on thing and breast meat of broiler fed diets with two fat sources and supplemented with conjugated linoleic acid. LWT; 2006; 39, pp. 717-723. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2005.05.005]
77. Akamittath, G.; Brekke, C.J.; Schanus, E.G. Lipid oxidation and color stability in restructured meat systems during frozen storage. J. Food Sci.; 1990; 55, pp. 1513-1517. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1990.tb03557.x]
78. Gopinger, E.; Xavier, E.G.; Lemes, J.S.; Moraes, P.O.; Elias, M.C.; Roll, V.F.B. Carcass yield and meat quality in broilers fed with canola meal. Br. Poult. Sci.; 2014; 55, pp. 817-823. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00071668.2014.980394]
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.
Details
; Dóka, Ottó 3 ; Kovács, Mihály 2 ; Fébel, Hedvig 4
1 Agricultural and Food Research Centre, Széchenyi István University, 9026 Győr, Hungary;
2 Albert Kázmér Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Széchenyi István University, 9200 Mosonmagyaróvár, Hungary;
3 Department of Physics and Chemistry, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Széchenyi István University, 9026 Győr, Hungary;
4 Department of Obstetrics and Farm Animal Medicine Clinic, University of Veterinary Medicine Budapest, 1078 Budapest, Hungary;