1. Introduction
The representation of the female body has a long and complex history in art, often serving as a canvas upon which societal norms, gender dynamics, and power structures are visually negotiated (Nochlin 1971). Feminist art has critically re-examined this representation, transforming the female body from a passive object of the male gaze into a powerful symbol of resistance, agency, and identity. While feminist artists globally have challenged traditional representations, the work of contemporary Iranian female artists offers a unique and compelling perspective, deeply rooted in their specific cultural context, yet resonating on a global scale.
The 1979 Iranian Revolution dramatically altered the socio-political landscape, particularly regarding women’s bodies and their representation. The imposition of mandatory hijab (Najmabadi 2005) and restrictive behavioral expectations transformed the female body into a site of intense political control and cultural contestation. As Azar Tabari (1980) highlights in her discussion of veiled Iranian women, the hijab has been both misinterpreted and weaponized within Western feminist and colonial discourses. This misunderstanding perpetuates an incomplete narrative that often disregards the agency of Iranian women, reducing them to symbols of oppression. More recently, the socio-political landscape has been further influenced by the 2022 protests following the death of Mahsa Amini, which have brought renewed attention to the role of women in Iranian society and the oppressive nature of these restrictions. Iranian feminist activism, both within and outside the country, has been reinvigorated, and the work of artists like Shirin Neshat, Parastou Forouhar, and Shadi Ghadirian has gained additional relevance in this context. Mahnaz Afkhami, a prominent Iranian feminist and human rights advocate, argues that the revolution’s gender policies created a paradox where women were politically mobilized but simultaneously restricted within the private sphere (Afkhami 1995). This tension is central to the work of Shirin Neshat, Parastou Forouhar, and Shadi Ghadirian, whose art can be seen as both a response to, and a critique of, these socio-political dynamics. Furthermore, Ziba Mir-Hosseini, a scholar of Islamic feminism, emphasizes the importance of understanding how Islamic law has been used both as a tool of oppression and as a site of resistance for women in Iran. These frameworks are crucial in understanding how these artists navigate the complex intersection of Islamic laws, patriarchal traditions, and feminist resistance. Their art emerges not merely as artistic expression but as acts of resistance and complex negotiations of identity (Keshmirshekan 2013). Gender dynamics in Iran are heavily influenced by Islamic laws and cultural traditions that prioritize patriarchal authority. Women’s rights to education, employment, and public participation have been both expanded and constrained, creating a complex environment for female artists. Artistic expression, particularly in contemporary art, is monitored and often censored, limiting the themes and materials that artists can explore. Despite these restrictions, Iranian female artists have found innovative ways to express their identities, resist oppression, and challenge societal norms through their art. These artists work within a framework where the female body is simultaneously a symbol of national identity and a battleground for ideological control. Their art critiques the regulation and representation of women’s bodies within Iran and in the global imagination. By drawing on both feminist and postcolonial critiques, artists like Neshat, Forouhar, and Ghadirian challenge not only local patriarchal structures but also Western colonialist frameworks that have historically objectified and exoticized Iranian women. As Mohanty (1984) and Tabari (1980) suggest, these artists offer a counter narrative to the reductive portrayals of non-Western women in both global feminist discourse and colonial representations, reclaiming the female body as a site of complex identities, agency, and resistance. They explore themes of identity, gender, cultural memory, and the veiled female body as a site of both constraint and potential power. This study addresses a gap in the existing scholarship by focusing on these artists and analyzing how they challenge traditional norms and offer new narratives surrounding the female body within a specific socio-political context. This research investigates how Neshat, Forouhar, and Ghadirian use their art to challenge traditional representations of the female body in Iranian society and how their work contributes to the global discourse on feminist art. By examining specific works, such as Neshat’s “Women of Allah” series and “Rapture,” Forouhar’s “Written Room” and “Eslimi” series, and Ghadirian’s “Qajar” and “Like Every Day” series, this paper explores the ways in which these artists navigate the intersection of gender, culture, and politics in post-revolutionary Iran. Their work reveals a complex interplay between personal experience, cultural constraints, and political resistance, challenging both Iranian and global audiences to reconsider the boundaries of gender, identity, and power.
2. Methodology
This study employs a qualitative, descriptive–analytical approach grounded in post-structuralist feminist theory. This framework was chosen because it aligns with the study’s core concepts—the fluidity and multiplicity of meanings, the deconstruction of the autonomous subject, and the importance of socio-political context in shaping identity. Ziba Mir-Hosseini’s work on Islamic feminism provides an additional framework for understanding how Iranian female artists critique the gendered nature of Islamic laws (Mir-Hosseini 1999). Her analysis of how religious discourse has been both a site of oppression and a space for feminist reinterpretation is crucial in contextualizing the works of Neshat, Forouhar, and Ghadirian, who navigate religious symbolism and gender politics in their art. Our analysis draws on existing scholarship in feminist art history, focusing on the theoretical contributions of both Western and Iranian scholars. The primary source material includes selected artworks by Neshat, Forouhar, and Ghadirian, supplemented by artist statements and interviews where available. This methodology allows for a nuanced exploration of how these artists represent the female body and contribute to a broader understanding of feminist art within a specific cultural context. By acknowledging the limitations of a predominantly Western feminist discourse, this study aims to center the voices and experiences of Iranian female artists.
2.1. Investigating Esthetic Principles of Feminism
In the women’s liberation movement that began in the 1960s, few engaged with art criticism seriously. By 1972, a growing number of female artists identified as feminist, aligning their artistic practice with the broader socio-political goals of the women’s movement (Vogel 1974, p. 6). Feminist esthetics emerged as a distinct field of inquiry in the late 1960s, challenging the male-dominated art world and its inherent power imbalances. (Lewis and Pollock 1986). Feminist scholars critiqued the language of Western philosophy as inherently sexist, arguing that it perpetuated gender discrimination and marginalized women’s contributions to art and esthetics. This critique extended to the historical devaluation of women’s artistic practices, particularly those relegated to the category of “craft”. Mahnaz Afkhami provides a crucial perspective on the feminist movement in Iran, emphasizing the deep-rooted cultural and political challenges that Iranian women face in asserting their agency. Afkhami’s advocacy for women’s rights, both within and outside the framework of Islamic law, offers a lens through which to view the artistic production of Iranian female artists, who often navigate these dual pressures. Feminist esthetics, therefore, seeks to disrupt these established hierarchies and reclaim women’s agency within artistic discourse. Griselda Pollock’s work (Pollock 1988) has been crucial in highlighting the systemic exclusion of women from art history and advocating for a feminist re-reading of art historical narratives. Central to this discourse is Laura Mulvey’s concept of the “male gaze”, which analyzes the ways in which visual culture, particularly cinema, objectifies women and reinforces patriarchal power structures. Judith Butler’s theory of gender performativity (Butler 1990) provides another key framework, emphasizing the constructed nature of gender identity through repeated acts and performances.
In the context of Iranian contemporary art, these feminist theories are particularly potent. The works of Shirin Neshat, Parastou Forouhar, and Shadi Ghadirian engage with, and expand upon, these concepts by incorporating the specific cultural, religious, and political realities of post-revolutionary Iran. This section will explore how these artists utilize feminist esthetics to challenge traditional representations of the female body, reclaiming it as a site of resistance and empowerment. The theoretical foundations of feminist esthetics were laid by influential figures such as Simone de Beauvoir, Judy Chicago, and Laura Mulvey, who critiqued the patriarchal structures embedded within art and culture. However, as Mohanty (1984) stresses, these Western feminist frameworks often fail to account for the complexities of non-Western women’s experiences. Iranian women artists like Neshat and Forouhar challenge this by weaving feminist esthetics together with a critique of colonialism, presenting the female body as a site of both cultural resistance and personal agency.
Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex (de Beauvoir 1949) is a foundational text in feminist thought. Beauvoir argued that women are defined in relation to men, positioned as the “Other” against the male norm. This concept of “Otherness” has been profoundly influential in feminist art, inspiring artists to challenge the objectification of the female body and assert women’s subjectivity. This is particularly relevant in the context of Iranian society, where women’s bodies have become highly politicized.
Judy Chicago’s “The Dinner Party” (Chicago 1979) is a monumental installation celebrating women’s historical and cultural contributions. By reclaiming women’s narratives often erased from mainstream history, Chicago’s work embodies the feminist project of rewriting history from a female perspective. This resonates with the work of Iranian female artists who similarly seek to reclaim their narratives within a patriarchal society.
Laura Mulvey’s essay “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema” (Mulvey 1975) introduced the concept of the “male gaze”, arguing that cinematic conventions position women as objects of male desire. This theory has been highly influential in feminist film studies and visual culture analysis, prompting artists to deconstruct and subvert the male gaze in their work. Iranian women artists, working within a context where women’s bodies are subject to strict social and religious codes, often engage directly with the male gaze, challenging its power dynamics.
2.2. Key Principles of Feminist Aesthetics
Feminist esthetics is guided by several key principles. First, it rejects the objectifying “male gaze”, seeking to portray women as active subjects with agency. Second, it emphasizes the interconnectedness of personal experience and political structures, recognizing that individual experiences of gender are deeply intertwined with societal power dynamics (Hanisch 1969). Third, it embraces intersectionality (Crenshaw 1989), acknowledging that gender intersects with other aspects of identity like race, class, sexuality, and religion. This is particularly crucial in understanding the work of Iranian women artists, whose experiences are shaped by the confluence of gender with cultural, religious, and political factors. Finally, feminist esthetics is committed to reclaiming women’s histories and experiences, which have often been marginalized or erased from dominant narratives.
2.3. Feminist Esthetics in the Work of Iranian Female Artists
The principles of feminist esthetics manifest in unique and powerful ways in the work of contemporary Iranian female artists. Shirin Neshat, Parastou Forouhar, and Shadi Ghadirian, while operating within a specific cultural and political context, engage with, and contribute to, these broader feminist esthetic discourses. Ziba Mir-Hosseini’s work on the intersection of Islamic law and gender provides insights into how these artists navigate religious imagery and cultural norms. For instance, Mir-Hosseini’s argument that Islamic feminism can be a form of resistance is reflected in Neshat’s use of the veil as both a symbol of modesty and empowerment. Similarly, Forouhar’s critique of state-sanctioned narratives can be understood within the broader framework of Islamic feminism’s challenge to patriarchal interpretations of religious texts.
2.4. Laura Mulvey’s Male Gaze
Shirin Neshat’s “Women of Allah” series (Singulart 2024) critically engages with Laura Mulvey’s concept of the male gaze by subverting traditional representations of women as passive objects. In Mulvey’s theory, the male gaze positions women as subjects of visual pleasure for a presumed heterosexual male viewer, effectively objectifying them and stripping them of agency (Mulvey 1975). Neshat challenges this dynamic by portraying women who confront the viewer directly, asserting their presence and autonomy. This subversion of the male gaze is further enriched when viewed through the lens of colonial discourse. As Tabari (1980) argues in “The Enigma of Veiled Iranian Women”, Western representations of veiled women often reduce them to symbols of backwardness and submission, reinforcing stereotypes about the “oppression” of Muslim women. Neshat’s work disrupts this narrative by presenting veiled women as complex, multifaceted subjects, whose identities cannot be flattened into the simplistic binaries of victimhood and resistance.
In the photograph “Rebellious Silence” (1994), Neshat presents a woman gazing directly at the viewer, her face partially obscured by the barrel of a rifle that bisects the image. The woman’s direct eye contact disrupts the passive role typically assigned to female subjects, engaging the viewer in a way that demands recognition of her agency. The Persian calligraphy inscribed on her face and hands adds layers of meaning, incorporating poetry by feminist Iranian writers that speaks to themes of identity, oppression, and resistance.
By merging these visual and textual elements, Neshat transforms the woman’s body into a site of narrative power. The rifle, a symbol of violence and resistance, combined with the woman’s steady gaze, confronts the viewer with the complexities of female identity in post-revolutionary Iran. This direct engagement forces the viewer to move beyond passive observation, encouraging active contemplation of the societal and political issues embodied in the image. The use of Persian calligraphy on the women’s bodies, combined with the powerful symbols of guns and veils, subverts traditional Western depictions of Muslim women as oppressed and voiceless. Neshat’s work invites the viewer to engage with the layered identities of these women, who are at once religious, political, and personal figures.
By transforming the female body into a canvas of resistance, Neshat effectively subverts the male gaze, presenting women as empowered narrators of their own stories. This approach aligns with Judith Butler’s theory of gender performativity, wherein gender is seen as an ongoing performance influenced by societal structures. Neshat’s women perform their identities in ways that resist and redefine the oppressive narratives imposed upon them, thereby reshaping the viewer’s perception of femininity and strength in a post-revolutionary Iranian context.
While Mulvey’s theory originates from Western cinematic contexts, Neshat adapts it for the Iranian cultural setting. In Iran, the veil carries deep religious and cultural significance, symbolizing modesty, faith, and sometimes political resistance. Neshat utilizes the veil not merely as a symbol of oppression but as a means of empowerment. Her subjects wield weapons and words, merging traditional symbols with subversive intent. This nuanced approach reflects the complexities of Iranian women’s experiences, acknowledging that the dynamics of the gaze and objectification operate differently within this context.
2.5. Gender Performativity and Societal Impositions
Parastou Forouhar’s “Written Room” (Forouhar 2002) exemplifies Judith Butler’s theory of gender performativity by creating an immersive environment that reflects the constructed nature of identity. Butler posits that gender is not an innate quality but rather an identity continually performed through repetitive acts influenced by societal norms (Butler 1990). Forouhar’s installation visualizes this concept by enveloping the viewer in a space saturated with dense Persian calligraphy.
The calligraphy covers every surface—walls, floor, and ceiling—creating an overwhelming atmosphere. The text, composed of jumbled letters that form nonsensical words, symbolizes the meaningless yet oppressive societal scripts imposed on individuals, particularly women. The illegibility of the text, even to Persian readers, underscores the alienation and confusion experienced when one’s identity is dictated by incomprehensible or arbitrary norms. By immersing visitors in this disorientating space, Forouhar enacts the experience of being engulfed by societal expectations that are difficult to decipher yet impossible to ignore. The physical act of navigating the room becomes a metaphor for the performative nature of gender—individuals constantly moving within and responding to the constraints imposed upon them.
Butler’s theory gains additional layers of meaning when applied to the Iranian context. In Iran, strict regulations govern many aspects of personal behavior, appearance, and expression, particularly for women. Forouhar’s use of Persian script connects directly to the cultural and linguistic tools used to enforce conformity. The overwhelming presence of the calligraphy represents the pervasive reach of governmental and cultural controls. Furthermore, the deliberate illegibility of the text critiques the opacity of authoritarian systems that enforce compliance without providing clarity or justification. Forouhar’s work highlights the tensions between individual identity and oppressive social structures, emphasizing how gender performance in Iran is both compelled and constrained by powerful external forces.
2.6. Intersectionality (Kimberlé Crenshaw)
Ghadirian’s ‘Qajar’ series embodies Crenshaw’s concept of intersectionality by juxtaposing traditional Qajar-era attire with contemporary objects. This juxtaposition not only highlights the intersection of gender and modernity but also engages with the colonial gaze that has historically exoticized and objectified Iranian women. As Mohanty (1984) notes, the portrayal of Muslim women in Western feminist discourse often strips them of their agency, viewing them solely through the lens of oppression. Ghadirian’s work resists this narrative by showing how Iranian women negotiate multiple, overlapping identities in a rapidly changing world. This fusion illustrates the layered identities of Iranian women, who navigate the intersecting dimensions of gender, cultural heritage, and modern influences. The presence of modern items like Pepsi cans or bicycles alongside traditional dress highlights the complexities and contradictions faced by women seeking to reconcile these overlapping identities.
2.7. Reclaiming Women’s Histories and Experiences
All three artists—Neshat, Forouhar, and Ghadirian—engage in the feminist esthetic practice of reclaiming women’s histories and experiences. By incorporating elements of Iranian culture, history, and politics into their work, they offer a nuanced and multifaceted representation of Iranian women. Their art challenges the erasure of women’s experiences from both Iranian and global narratives, asserting that women’s stories are integral in understanding the complexities of contemporary society.
The esthetic principles of feminism—the rejection of the male gaze, the personal as political, intersectionality, and the reclamation of women’s histories—are deeply embedded in the work of contemporary Iranian female artists. Neshat, Forouhar, and Ghadirian not only engage with these principles but also expand and adapt them to reflect the unique cultural and political realities of Iran. Their contributions to feminist art are invaluable, offering new perspectives that challenge dominant narratives and enrich the global discourse on gender, identity, and power.
2.8. Body and Gender in Contemporary Iranian Art
Iranian contemporary artists such as Shirin Neshat, Parastou Forouhar, and Shadi Ghadirian have significantly contributed to the discourse on the female body, challenging traditional and patriarchal views both within Iranian society and on the global art scene. Mahnaz Afkhami’s advocacy for gender equality in Iran highlights the importance of reclaiming the female body as a site of resistance. Similarly, Ziba Mir-Hosseini’s work on Islamic law and gender demonstrates how Iranian female artists use their bodies as symbols of both oppression and empowerment. The intersection of these feminist theories with the visual strategies employed by these artists offers a rich understanding of how Iranian women are redefining their identities in the face of both internal and external pressures. These artists use their work to explore complex themes of identity, gender, and socio-political issues, often in the context of the restrictive environment that they navigate in Iran (Figure 1).
Shirin Neshat, one of the most internationally recognized Iranian artists, uses photography and video installations to explore the intersections of gender, politics, and religion. Her work often portrays the Iranian woman’s body as a site of both repression and resistance.
2.8.1. “Women of Allah” Series (1993–1997)
Shirin Neshat’s “Women of Allah” series is a powerful exploration of the complexities surrounding the representation of Muslim women in post-revolutionary Iran. The series, consisting of black-and-white photographs, features women in traditional chadors, their faces and hands often covered with intricate Persian calligraphy. In one of the most iconic images from this series, a woman’s face is partially obscured by a gun barrel, which runs vertically along the center of the composition (Figure 2).
In “Rebellious Silence”, Neshat presents a woman gazing directly at the viewer, her face partially obscured by the barrel of a rifle. This direct gaze immediately challenges the traditional objectification of women in art, demanding recognition for the subject’s agency. The stark black-and-white palette emphasizes the contrast between the woman’s skin and the chador, as well as the imposing presence of the rifle. The Persian calligraphy inscribed on her face and hands adds another layer of meaning, transforming her body into a site of inscription and resistance.
The Persian calligraphy, written across the woman’s face, is a key element of Neshat’s visual language. The text, which often includes poetry by Iranian female poets, serves as both a veil and a voice—a way for the women in the photographs to assert their identity and agency within a culture that often silences them. The calligraphy blurs the boundary between the personal and the political, turning the woman’s body into a canvas that communicates both cultural heritage and personal resistance (Figure 3).
Through these visual choices, Neshat challenges the viewer’s preconceived notions about Muslim women. The juxtaposition of the gun and the delicate script creates a powerful tension, suggesting the complex interplay between vulnerability and strength, silence and expression. This tension is further complicated when viewed through the lens of colonial discourse, as Chandra Talpade Mohanty (1984) argues in Under Western Eyes. Mohanty critiques the tendency of Western feminist scholarship to homogenize the experiences of women in the Global South, portraying them as passive victims of patriarchal oppression. Neshat’s work, with its layered symbolism, resists this reductive gaze by foregrounding the active agency of Iranian women. Neshat’s use of calligraphy as a visual veil also speaks to the broader feminist esthetic principle of reclaiming the female body from the male gaze, transforming it into a site of empowerment rather than objectification.
2.8.2. “Rapture” (1999)
Neshat’s video installation “Rapture” (1999) further explores the complexities of gender and identity within a divided society. This work presents a stark visual dichotomy: men, dressed in white, occupy a fortress, while women, clad in black, traverse an open landscape, a beach. This visual segregation underscores the gendered divisions prevalent in Iranian society, while simultaneously highlighting the resilience and agency of women as they navigate and negotiate these imposed boundaries [Rapture—Figure 5]. The open landscape can be interpreted as a space of potential freedom and transgression, where women seek agency outside the confines of patriarchal structures. The contrasting imagery and symbolic use of space invite viewers to contemplate the limitations imposed on women and their ongoing struggle for autonomy (Figure 4).
On the screen depicting the men, they are shown confined within the stone walls of an ancient fortress. The camera captures them from various angles, often in tight, close-up shots that emphasize their enclosed, almost claustrophobic environment. The fortress, with its high, imposing walls and narrow passageways, symbolizes the rigid structures of power and authority that the men inhabit. The use of high-contrast black-and-white cinematography accentuates the harshness of the stone and the rigidity of the men’s movements, reflecting the restrictive norms and expectations placed upon them within a patriarchal society.
In sharp contrast, the screen featuring the women presents them in a vast, barren landscape, where they move freely across the open space. The camera often captures them from a distance, emphasizing the scale of the landscape in relation to their bodies. The women are clothed in black chadors, which billow in the wind as they move, creating a striking visual contrast against the desolate, bright white landscape. The open space surrounding the women suggests both isolation and the potential for escape, symbolizing the complex interplay between freedom and confinement that defines their existence.
The visual juxtaposition of the enclosed, fortress-bound men and the woman in the open seascape creates a dynamic tension between the two screens. The men, though positioned within a structure of power, appear trapped and isolated, while the women, despite their apparent vulnerability in the open landscape, embody a sense of resilience and determination. The wind that sweeps across the landscape, lifting the women’s chadors, adds a sense of movement and vitality to their screen, contrasting with the static, rigid environment of the men (Figure 5).
Neshat’s use of space and movement in “Rapture” not only reflects the societal divisions between men and women but also challenges the viewer’s assumptions about power and freedom. The men’s confinement within the fortress, despite its associations with strength and authority, suggests a form of entrapment within the very structures that they are meant to control. Meanwhile, the women’s movement across the open landscape, though fraught with challenges, hints at a potential for liberation that is absent in the men’s world.
The visual composition of “Rapture” reinforces the feminist esthetic principle of reclaiming agency through the body. The women, though veiled and seemingly vulnerable, are portrayed as active agents in their quest for freedom. Their journey across the landscape can be interpreted as a metaphor for both physical and spiritual escape from the confines of a patriarchal society. Neshat’s choice to place the women in an open, dynamic space, contrasted with the men’s enclosed, static environment, subverts traditional power dynamics, suggesting that true power may lie not in control and confinement, but in movement, openness, and the potential for change.
In “Rapture”, Neshat continues to explore the themes of silence and voice and oppression and resistance, which characterize much of her work. The dual-channel format of the installation invites the viewer to constantly shift their gaze between the two screens, creating a dialog between the men’s and women’s experiences. This dynamic interplay reflects the broader societal tensions between gender roles in Iran and challenges the viewer to reconsider the nature of power and freedom within these contexts (Figure 6).
The approach of integrating visual analysis into the discussion of Shirin Neshat’s work not only deepens the understanding of the formal elements of the work but also highlights how these elements contribute to the overarching themes of gender, power, and resistance. Visual analysis helps to demonstrate how Neshat’s artistic choices—such as composition, space, and movement—serve to reinforce and complicate the narrative of the female body as both a site of oppression and a symbol of potential liberation.
2.9. Parastou Forouhar’s “Written Room” and “Eslimi” Series
Parastou Forouhar (born 1962), whose artistic practice is deeply informed by personal experience and political activism, confronts themes of trauma, memory, and political violence in her work. In her poignant series “Written Room” (Forouhar 2002), Forouhar grapples with the trauma of her parents’ murder by the Iranian government. The series features meticulously detailed drawings of her parents’ belongings, imbued with a sense of absence and loss. Through this intimate portrayal of personal objects, Forouhar transforms the private sphere into a space of political resistance, challenging the silencing of dissent and demanding accountability for state-sanctioned violence.
2.9.1. “Written Room” (2000)
In “Written Room”, Forouhar envelops the entire gallery space with dense Persian calligraphy, covering every surface—walls, floor, and ceiling. This immersive installation forces viewers to navigate an ocean of text, symbolizing the inescapable and overwhelming nature of cultural and political narratives that dictate societal norms. The calligraphy, intentionally illegible to many viewers, represents the complex and often oppressive forces that shape women’s identities, particularly in a patriarchal society. However, Forouhar’s work also speaks to the broader colonial gaze that seeks to render non-Western identities inscrutable and alien. As Tabari (1980) argues, the Western fascination with the veil often transforms it into a symbol of mystery and oppression, obscuring the real lives and stories of the women who wear it. Forouhar’s use of calligraphy challenges this exoticizing gaze, forcing the viewer to confront their own assumptions about legibility, representation, and power (Figure 7).
The visual impact of “Written Room” lies in its ability to create a sense of entrapment and immersion. The continuous flow of script leaves no visual respite, mirroring the relentless pressure that women face to conform to societal expectations. For those who understand Persian, the text reveals nuanced layers of meaning, while its randomness to non-Persian speakers underscores the alienation and confusion experienced by individuals caught within these constraining narratives.
By rendering the space incomprehensible, Forouhar illustrates how authoritarian regimes utilize cultural narratives to control and suppress dissent. The installation becomes a site of resistance, where the act of walking through the room symbolizes a journey through the complexities of identity formation under oppressive structures. This aligns with Butler’s assertion that gender is an active performance influenced by societal forces, highlighting the struggle for autonomy and self-definition within restrictive cultural contexts (Figure 8).
Forouhar’s “Written Room” visually and conceptually explores the intersection of language, power, and space. The dense, unreadable calligraphy that envelops the viewer serves as a metaphor for the ways in which language—particularly in authoritarian contexts—can be used to impose control and silence dissent. The calligraphy, while beautiful and intricately crafted, becomes a tool of oppression as it dominates the space, leaving no room for alternative narratives or personal expression.
This installation also engages with the feminist esthetic principle of reclaiming space and identity. By filling the room with Persian script, Forouhar reclaims the visual language of her cultural heritage, even as she critiques its role in perpetuating systems of power. The overwhelming nature of the installation forces the viewer to confront the ways in which cultural and political narratives are inscribed upon individuals, particularly women, in ways that can be both oppressive and inescapable.
Moreover, the immersive quality of “Written Room” reflects the feminist concept of the personal as political. The viewer’s physical immersion in the text mirrors the way individuals are embedded within the cultural narratives and power structures that shape their identities and experiences. Forouhar’s work suggests that these narratives are not just abstract concepts but lived realities that affect the everyday lives of those who are subject to them.
Forouhar’s immersive installations act as silent protests against the authoritarian control over women’s bodies and identities in Iran. By transforming spaces into overwhelming environments filled with script and patterns that allude to violence, she exposes the pervasive nature of state-imposed narratives. Her art becomes a medium through which she legislates for autonomy and challenges policies that seek to suppress individual expression.
2.9.2. “Eslimi” Series (1998–2010)
Parastou Forouhar’s “Eslimi” series, created between 1998 and 2010, presents a striking exploration of the tension between beauty and violence and between tradition and subversion. The series is named after Eslimi, a traditional Persian ornamental pattern characterized by its intricate, flowing lines and arabesque motifs. In Forouhar’s hands, however, this decorative form is transformed into a vehicle for critical commentary on the darker aspects of cultural and political power (Figure 9).
The “Eslimi” series further explores the theme of hidden violence within cultural and political systems by appropriating traditional Persian ornamental patterns. Named after the Eslimi pattern, characterized by intricate, flowing lines and arabesque motifs, Forouhar transforms these designs into a medium for revealing underlying aggression and oppression. At first glance, the “Eslimi” pieces appear as delicate examples of Islamic decorative art, evoking a sense of beauty and spiritual harmony. However, a closer examination uncovers disturbing elements—images of torture devices, bound bodies, and instruments of violence subtly integrated into the patterns. This juxtaposition of esthetic beauty with grotesque imagery creates a profound visual tension, forcing viewers to reconcile the facade of cultural elegance with the reality of systemic brutality.
The monochromatic palette of black and white enhances the stark contrast between the ornamental beauty and the hidden violence, making the violent elements more jarring upon discovery. This deliberate concealment within traditional forms critiques how cultural heritage can be complicit in perpetuating oppressive power structures. By embedding symbols of violence in decorative patterns, Forouhar challenges the viewer to question the narratives that glorify tradition while silencing dissent and perpetuating gendered oppression. Moreover, the “Eslimi” series serves as a feminist critique of how women’s suffering is often obscured within patriarchal societies. The hidden images of bound bodies within the ornamental designs symbolize the invisibility and silencing of women’s experiences and struggles. This aligns with feminist esthetics that seek to reclaim and represent women’s histories and identities, drawing attention to the unseen and often unspoken violences that women endure.
Forouhar’s “Eslimi” series engages deeply with the feminist esthetic principle of subverting traditional forms to reveal hidden truths. By embedding images of violence within the traditionally serene and decorative Eslimi patterns, Forouhar critiques the ways in which cultural and political power can be masked by beauty and tradition. The ornamental patterns, often associated with cultural identity and heritage, are revealed to be complicit in the perpetuation of violence and oppression.
This visual subversion serves as a metaphor for the ways in which authoritarian regimes, including those in Iran, often use cultural heritage and tradition as tools to legitimize and conceal their abuses of power. The series suggests that beneath the surface of cultural and political order lies a hidden violence that must be acknowledged and confronted. Forouhar’s work challenges the viewer to look beyond the superficial beauty of cultural forms and to question the narratives they support.
Moreover, the series reflects the feminist critique of the objectification and commodification of women’s bodies within cultural traditions. The hidden images of bound bodies within the “Eslimi” patterns can be seen as a commentary on how women’s suffering is often obscured or ignored within patriarchal societies. By integrating these disturbing elements into the decorative patterns, Forouhar forces the viewer to confront the uncomfortable realities that are often hidden behind the façade of cultural beauty.
Through the “Eslimi” series, Parastou Forouhar powerfully subverts traditional Persian ornamentation to reveal the hidden violence embedded within cultural and political systems. The series’ visual complexity and the tension between beauty and horror invite viewers to engage in a deeper examination of the ways in which power works under the guise of tradition. This integrated visual analysis highlights how Forouhar’s manipulation of form and content serves not only as a critique of authoritarian regimes but also as a broader commentary on the intersections of culture, power, and identity in contemporary society.
2.10. Shadi Ghadirian: The Clash Between Tradition and Modernity
Shadi Ghadirian’s (Figure 10) “Qajar” series (OneArt. n.d.) and “Like Every Day” series (2001) offer incisive critiques of the intersection between tradition and modernity, shedding light on the evolving identities of Iranian women within a rapidly changing society. These works engage with Laura Mulvey’s male gaze and Judith Butler’s gender performativity by highlighting the tensions and contradictions in how women navigate their cultural and societal roles.
2.10.1. “Qajar” Series (1998)
Shadi Ghadirian’s “Qajar” series, created in 1998, is a profound exploration of the intersection between tradition and modernity and between identity and cultural memory. The series features portraits of women dressed in traditional Qajar-era clothing, juxtaposed with contemporary objects. This visual and thematic tension places Ghadirian’s work at the forefront of contemporary discussions about the role of women in Iranian society, history, and culture (Figure 11).
The “Qajar” series is composed of sepia-toned photographs that evoke the esthetic of 19th-century Persian portraiture, specifically from the Qajar dynasty (1789–1925). The women in the photographs are dressed in richly detailed, traditional garments that were characteristic of that era, complete with elaborate headpieces and intricate fabrics. The sepia tone, combined with the traditional attire, gives the images an air of antiquity, as if they were historical documents rather than contemporary creations.
However, Ghadirian disrupts this illusion of historical authenticity by incorporating anachronistic elements into each portrait—modern objects such as a Pepsi can, a boom box, or sunglasses. These incongruous items are carefully placed within the compositions, often held in the women’s hands or positioned prominently within the frame. The juxtaposition of these modern objects with the traditional setting creates a striking visual and conceptual tension. The viewer is at once drawn to the contrast between the timelessness suggested by the sepia tone and traditional clothing and the jarring presence of contemporary consumer goods.
The composition of the photographs is also significant. The women are posed in a manner reminiscent of formal portraiture, often seated and gazing directly at the camera. Their expressions are calm, composed, and slightly detached, echoing the dignified poses found in historical Qajar portraits. This deliberate composure contrasts sharply with the playful and sometimes subversive nature of the modern objects that they hold, creating a sense of irony and ambiguity. The result is a series of images that are both visually compelling and intellectually provocative.
Ghadirian’s “Qajar” series uses visual contrast to explore the complexities of identity, particularly for women in contemporary Iran. The anachronistic pairing of traditional clothing with modern objects serves as a metaphor for the dual pressures faced by Iranian women, who must navigate both the expectations of their cultural heritage and the demands of modern life. This tension reflects broader societal conflicts between tradition and modernity, as well as the challenge of bringing together these often-opposing forces to form a cohesive identity.
The modern objects in Ghadirian’s photographs are not merely decorative but are symbols of global consumer culture and the encroachment of Western influence onto Iranian society. By placing these objects in the hands of women dressed in traditional attire, Ghadirian highlights the ways in which modernity and tradition coexist, clash, and sometimes create new, hybrid forms of identity. The presence of these objects also invites the viewer to question the nature of authenticity and the extent to which cultural identity is constructed, performed, and mediated by external influences.
Furthermore, this series engages with feminist esthetics by challenging the historical representation of women. The traditional Qajar portraits on which Ghadirian’s series is based often depicted women in static, passive roles, confined by the conventions of their time. By introducing modern elements into these portraits, Ghadirian reclaims agency for her subjects, suggesting that women are not merely bearers of tradition but active participants in shaping their own identities. The juxtaposition of past and present in these images underscores the ongoing negotiation between history and contemporary life, particularly in the context of gender roles and expectations.
Shadi Ghadirian’s “Qajar” series is a masterful exploration of the intersections between tradition and modernity, identity, and cultural memory. Through her use of visual contrast—combining traditional Qajar-era esthetics with contemporary objects—Ghadirian creates a powerful commentary on the complexities of life for women in Iran. The series challenges the viewer to consider the ways in which cultural identities are constructed and the roles that both history and modernity play in shaping the present. This integrated visual analysis highlights how Ghadirian’s work not only engages with, but also subverts, traditional forms, making a significant contribution to contemporary feminist discourse.
2.10.2. “Like Every Day” Series (2001)
Shadi Ghadirian’s “Like Every Day” series, created in 2001, offers a powerful critique of the objectification and reduction of women’s identities to their domestic roles. Through a series of striking photographs, Ghadirian explores the tensions between the visibility and invisibility of women in society, particularly within the context of domestic life in contemporary Iran. The series reflects on how women’s identities are often defined by the everyday objects associated with their roles as homemakers (Figure 12).
Shadi Ghadirian’s “Like Every Day” series (2001) offers a poignant exploration of objectification by literally replacing women’s faces with household items, directly engaging with Laura Mulvey’s concept of the male gaze. Mulvey argues that the male gaze in visual media objectifies women, reducing them to passive subjects for male pleasure (Mulvey 1975). Ghadirian extends this critique by demonstrating how societal expectations confine women to domestic roles, effectively turning them into objects.
In the series, each photograph depicts a woman dressed in a chador, her face obscured by objects like irons, brooms, or teapots. This visual replacement symbolizes how women are often viewed primarily through the lens of their utility in the household, negating their individuality and humanity. The anonymity of the figures emphasizes the loss of personal identity, as the domestic objects become the focal point. By making the women’s identities indistinct and interchangeable, Ghadirian highlights the dehumanizing effects of objectification not just in media representation but in societal perceptions. Her work critiques cultural norms in Iran, where traditional expectations often relegate women to domestic spheres. This literal objectification serves as a powerful visual metaphor for the ways in which women’s roles are prescribed and limited (Figure 13).
This series uses visual symbolism to critique the reduction of women’s identities to their domestic roles. By replacing the women’s faces with household items, Ghadirian literalizes the concept of women being “objectified”—turned into objects—by society. The women in the photographs are not depicted as individuals with their own identities and desires but are instead represented by the tools of their labor, emphasizing how their societal roles have consumed their identities.
The choice of objects is particularly significant. Each item is a common, everyday tool associated with household chores—cooking, cleaning, and caretaking. These objects are symbols of the repetitive, often invisible labor that women are expected to perform daily. By replacing the women’s faces with these objects, Ghadirian highlights how their identities are often reduced to these roles, making them invisible as individuals. The series thus critiques the societal expectations that confine women to the domestic sphere and the ways in which their contributions are both essential and undervalued.
Moreover, the series engages with the feminist esthetics principle of challenging traditional representations of women. The women in “Like Every Day” are not depicted as passive or idealized figures; instead, they are presented as faceless, nameless entities defined solely by their utility. This stark representation challenges the viewer to consider the consequences of such objectification and to reflect on the broader societal structures that perpetuate it.
The use of the chador in the series also adds a layer of cultural commentary. While the chador is traditionally seen as a symbol of modesty and protection, in Ghadirian’s photographs, it becomes a symbol of erasure. The chador, combined with the household objects, suggests that the very garments meant to protect and respect women’s identities can also contribute to their invisibility and reduction to mere functions within the household.
Through the “Like Every Day” series, Shadi Ghadirian provides a powerful visual critique of the objectification of women and the reduction of their identities to their domestic roles. The series’ stark, minimalist style, combined with the provocative use of everyday objects, forces the viewer to confront the ways in which societal expectations confine and define women. This integrated visual analysis highlights how Ghadirian’s work not only challenges traditional representations of women but also calls attention to the everyday realities of domestic life and the often-overlooked labor performed by women. The series is a poignant reminder of the need to recognize and value women’s identities beyond their roles as caretakers and homemakers.
Applying Mulvey’s theory in the Iranian context underscores different facets of objectification. While Western media outlets often sexualize women, Ghadirian’s work points to a form of objectification rooted in domesticity and utility. In Iran, cultural and religious norms emphasize modesty and specific gender roles, which can contribute to women being valued primarily for their contributions to home and family. Ghadirian’s critique is thus tailored to address the unique societal pressures faced by Iranian women, expanding the conversation around the male gaze to include non-sexual forms of objectification.
3. Recontextualizing the Female Body in Iranian Art
Shirin Neshat’s work offers a profound recontextualization of the female body, particularly in her “Women of Allah” series, where the female form becomes a site of both cultural and political resistance. Drawing on Judith Butler’s theory of gender performativity, Neshat’s photographs depict veiled women whose bodies are inscribed with Persian calligraphy—texts often drawn from feminist poetry. This visual strategy reclaims the female body from traditional objectification, transforming it into a canvas that expresses complex identities shaped by both religious and political forces. The juxtaposition of the veil, a symbol of modesty and control, with the weaponry and text suggests a layered identity wherein the female body resists simple classification.
The poetry inscribed within Shirin Neshat’s “Women of Allah” series plays a crucial role in conveying feminist themes of resistance and identity. The Persian calligraphy often incorporates verses from Iranian female poets who address issues such as oppression, autonomy, and the struggle for self-identity. For instance, the poem embedded in “Rebellious Silence” speaks of the resilience of women in the face of cultural and political domination. This lyrical content transforms the women’s bodies into dynamic texts that narrate their internal rebellions and affirm their existence beyond societal constraints. By integrating feminist poetry into her work, Neshat not only enriches the visual narrative but also aligns her work with the broader feminist discourse that values women’s voices and experiences. The combination of visual imagery and textual elements creates a multifaceted representation of Iranian women, emphasizing their agency and capacity for self-expression despite external oppression.
Neshat’s work can be contrasted with the earlier Qajar-era portraits where women were often depicted as passive subjects within the confines of the male gaze. In these historical images, the female body was visually confined, reflecting broader societal constraints. In contrast, Neshat’s women, though veiled, assert their presence and agency, challenging the viewer’s preconceptions about Muslim women. This shift from passive object to active subject is a critical element in the recontextualization of the female body in contemporary Iranian art.
Furthermore, the work of Shadi Ghadirian, particularly her “Like Every Day” series, provocatively recontextualizes the female body by replacing women’s faces with household objects. This visual strategy serves as a critique of the ways in which women’s identities are often reduced to their domestic roles, a point that resonates with Laura Mulvey’s concept of the male gaze. However, Ghadirian’s use of everyday objects like an iron or a broom not only critiques the objectification of women but also disrupts the viewer’s expectations of what constitutes a “feminine” identity. The chador, traditionally a symbol of modesty and cultural identity, is here transformed into a backdrop for dehumanization, raising questions about how cultural symbols can both protect and confine. Ghadirian’s work, while deeply rooted in the specific cultural and political context of Iran, also engages with broader feminist discourses. The series can be seen as part of a global conversation on the invisibility of women’s labor, particularly within the domestic sphere. Yet, this recontextualization is not without its risks; some might argue that the stark reduction of women to their domestic roles could inadvertently reinforce the very stereotypes that Ghadirian looks to critique. The tension between critique and reinforcement is a crucial element to consider, as it reflects the complexity of representing women’s experiences in a way that is both critical and nuanced. Moreover, the international reception of Ghadirian’s work highlights the universal relevance of her critique. Exhibited in galleries around the world, her photographs resonate with audiences far beyond Iran, suggesting that the issues she addresses—such as the reduction of women’s identities to their domestic roles and the tension between tradition and modernity—are not confined to a single cultural context. However, this global resonance also raises questions about the potential for exoticism in how Iranian women’s experiences are represented and consumed in the global art market. By situating Ghadirian’s work within both Iranian and global feminist discourses, we can better understand the complexities and implications of recontextualizing the female body in contemporary art.
Parastou Forouhar’s “Written Room” (Forouhar 2002) transforms the gallery space into a suffocating environment where the female body is simultaneously present and erased. The dense Persian script that covers every surface of the room serves as a visual metaphor for the overwhelming cultural and political narratives that inscribe themselves onto women’s bodies in Iran. Drawing on Elizabeth Grosz’s theories of embodiment, Forouhar’s installation can be seen as a critique of how women’s identities are shaped and constrained by these external forces. The illegibility of the script for non-Persian speakers further emphasizes the alienation experienced by women whose voices are often obscured or silenced within patriarchal structures. In her “Eslimi” series (1998–2010), Forouhar appropriates traditional Islamic ornamental patterns to reveal the hidden violence within cultural narratives. Eslimi patterns, typically associated with beauty and spirituality, are here intertwined with images of torture and violence, subverting their traditional meanings. This deconstruction of cultural symbols aligns with postcolonial feminist critiques that challenge the romanticization of the past and expose the ways in which cultural heritage can be used to justify oppression. Forouhar’s work thus reclaims these visual languages, turning them into tools for feminist resistance. Forouhar’s art is not just a critique of Iranian society but also a form of global feminist activism. Her work resonates with contemporary women’s rights movements in Iran, such as the protests against compulsory hijab laws, highlighting the ongoing struggle for bodily autonomy. However, the international reception of her work raises important questions about the potential for exoticism. While her installations and digital works are celebrated for their powerful critique, there is a risk that Western audiences may interpret them through a lens of orientalism, reinforcing stereotypes about Muslim women as passive victims. To fully appreciate Forouhar’s contribution to recontextualizing the female body, it is essential that we consider both the cultural specificity of her work and its broader implications within global feminist discourse.
The reception of these works, both within Iran and internationally, highlights the ongoing relevance of recontextualizing the female body in Iranian art. In the context of global movements like #MeToo and the fight for women’s rights in Iran, these artists’ works resonate with broader struggles for gender equality and cultural autonomy. The intersectional approach of these artists—who navigate the complexities of gender, culture, and politics—proves that the recontextualization of the female body is not just an artistic endeavor but a form of cultural resistance with profound social implications.
4. Conclusions
Iranian contemporary female artists such as Shirin Neshat, Parastou Forouhar, and Shadi Ghadirian have played a crucial role in redefining the representation of the female body within the context of Iranian society and beyond. Through their iconic works—Neshat’s “Women of Allah” and “Rapture”, Forouhar’s “Written Room” and “Eslimi” series, and Ghadirian’s “Qajar” and “Like Every Day” series—these artists challenge traditional patriarchal norms, using the body as a medium to explore the complexities of gender, identity, and socio-political issues.
By reclaiming the female body from the objectifying male gaze, these artists have transformed it into a symbol of resistance and empowerment. Their works transcend the boundaries of Iranian society, engaging with global feminist discourses and offering new perspectives on the role of women in art and society. Each artist, in her unique way, brings forward the voices and experiences of Iranian women, challenging both local and global audiences to reconsider the narratives surrounding the female body.
The broader implications of their work extend beyond the art world, prompting a re-evaluation of how we understand and represent women in societies marked by cultural and political complexities. Their art invites us to question and dismantle the simplistic, often stereotypical representations of Muslim women, offering instead a multifaceted view that acknowledges their strength, agency, and resilience.
Future research could further explore the contributions of other contemporary Iranian female artists, as well as artists from other regions who address similar themes. Such studies could deepen our understanding of how art functions as a tool for social and political critique, especially in contexts where women’s bodies are sites of contention and control.
In conclusion, the work of Neshat, Forouhar, and Ghadirian reminds us of the transformative power of art. They prove that the female body, far from being a passive object, can be a powerful medium of expression and resistance. As we continue to engage with, and support, diverse voices within the global feminist movement, we must recognize the vital role that art plays in challenging norms, shaping identities, and fostering change. The legacy of these artists lies not only in their significant contributions to contemporary art but also in their ability to inspire new ways of thinking about gender, identity, and power in our world today.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor during my Ph.D. research, Jeremy Morgan, for his invaluable guidance and support.
The author declares no conflicts of interest.
Footnotes
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Enlarge this image.Figure 3. Shirin Neshat, “I’m its secret”, part of “Women of Allah”, 1993 (Courtesy Gladstone Gallery, New York and Brussels).
Enlarge this image.Figure 9. Forouhar, “Series of 52 digital pattern designs”, sublimation print on fabric, all 594 × 420 cm.
Enlarge this image.Figure 10. Shadi Ghadirian’s photography often reflects the tension between tradition and modernity that defines the experience of many Iranian women.
Enlarge this image.Figure 11. Shadi Ghadirian, “Qajar #3”, 1998, C-print, 60 × 90 cm and 30 × 40 cm.
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