Content area
Parents greatly affect youth's vocational and educational development. The objective of the study was to investigate how parental support in career development affects adolescents' learning engagement and the mediating effects of four career adaptability aspects and life meaning. The participants were 516 high school students from Guangdong, China. The study found that: (1) Career-related parental support had a positive impact on learning engagement; (2) career confidence and life meaning acted as mediators connecting career-related parental support with learning engagement; and (3) there was a chain mediation path among career-related parental support, career concern, control, and confidence, life meaning, and learning engagement. Our findings add to the prevailing literature by confirming and extending self-determination theory as well as career development and systems theory. Based on these findings, we hope that schools and parents may implement some interventions to promote the academic engagement of students.
Abstract
Parents greatly affect youth's vocational and educational development. The objective of the study was to investigate how parental support in career development affects adolescents' learning engagement and the mediating effects of four career adaptability aspects and life meaning. The participants were 516 high school students from Guangdong, China. The study found that: (1) Career-related parental support had a positive impact on learning engagement; (2) career confidence and life meaning acted as mediators connecting career-related parental support with learning engagement; and (3) there was a chain mediation path among career-related parental support, career concern, control, and confidence, life meaning, and learning engagement. Our findings add to the prevailing literature by confirming and extending self-determination theory as well as career development and systems theory. Based on these findings, we hope that schools and parents may implement some interventions to promote the academic engagement of students.
KEYWORDS career adaptability, career-related parental support, learning engagement, life meaning
Learning engagement is a pleasant, rewarding, work-related mind state marked by vigor, dedication, and absorption (Schaufeli, Salanova et al., 2002). Students' participation in school activities can influence their academic success and future achievements, whereas their non-participation has been linked to behavioral problems (Finn, 1989). Meanwhile, learning engagement can be an indicator of learning outcomes. For example, learning engagement can positively and significantly influence adolescents' self-esteem (Bang et al., 2020), academic achievements (Xiong et al., 2021), and learning aspirations (Zava et al., 2022). Notably, high school is an important period of students' development (Larose et al., 2005). High school performance can predict their future achievements (Allensworth & Clark, 2020; Fong & Kremer, 2020), whereas low school performance has been linked to negative consequences, including poor future achievement (Svensen, 2023). Therefore, it is crucial to formulate strategies to enhance high school students' learning engagement and alleviate the challenges they face when choosing an ideal college major. Parent-child relationships affect adolescents' educational involvement and achievements (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; Skinner et al., 2022). Career-related parental support is one type of parental support for people's education and vocation (Turner et al., 2003). Career development and systems theory posits that the interconnected individual, social, and environmental-societal systems affect students' vocational development (Patton & McMahon, 1999), which is strongly associated with educational development (Basler & Kriesi, 2019; Heckhausen & Buchmann, 2019). Career-related parental support is a component of environmentalsocietal systems and influences children's education. Students who feel supported by their families tend to link themselves with the future and participate in educational and vocational activities (Kenny et al., 2003; Skinner et al., 2022; Zeng et al., 2023). Therefore, career-related parental support is likely to be positively linked to learning engagement in adolescents. Nevertheless, there is a dearth of research investigating the impact of parental support in career development on the academic engagement of adolescents, as well as the potential mechanisms within this association during their high school years.
The self-determination theory states that intrinsic motivation can positively influence an individual's learning and creativity (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017). However, some behaviors that are consistent with social values are derived from extrinsic motivation. Environments that satisfy people's autonomy, competence, and relationship needs promote the internalization of values and behaviors that are salient in those environments. People who act through internalized motivations are more inclined to persist and participate in activities. Notably, career-related parental support may satisfy the individuals' basic psychological needs and enable them to internalize values, resulting in positive outcomes, including career adaptability and life meaning (Guan et al., 2018; Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017; Stillman & Lambert, 2013). Moreover, people are more inclined to participate in educational and career behaviors. Based on this theory, the objective of this study was to explore if career adaptability and life meaning mediated the impact of career-related parental support on learning engagement.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Career adaptability is a psychological construct that reflects one's preparation and resources to deal with present and upcoming career development demands, occupational changes, and individual traumas (Savickas, 2005, 2013). It comprises four aspects, including career concern (concerned about the future as workers), control (control over the vocational future), curiosity (curiosity in exploring possible selves and future scenarios), and confidence (confidence to pursue aspirations) (Savickas, 2005, 2013). Using the self-determination theory, career-related parental support may encourage adolescents to evaluate career-related information and explore various opportunities effectively, satisfying their competence needs and hence contributing to their career adaptability (Guan et al., 2018; Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017; Soresi et al., 2014). People with more career adaptability resources tend to participate in more activities (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017). Previous studies have indicated that parental support can predict students' career adaptability (Parola & Marcionetti, 2022), which is related to learning engagement in students (Oliveira et al., 2023). Given that the four career adaptability components are different resources used to cope with social changes and progress at varying rates during adolescents' career exploration period, it is important to investigate their influence on adolescents' career development (Savickas, 2005, 2013). Previous studies have demonstrated that parental support can positively influence each of the four career adaptability components (Liang et al., 2020; Zeng et al., 2023), which can positively influence engagement in the vocational field (Nilforooshan & Salimi, 2016). Therefore, the four career adaptability components may act as mediators connecting career-related parental support with learning engagement.
Life meaning refers to the degree to which individuals grasp, make sense of, or recognize the importance of life, as well as the extent to which they believe themselves to have an objective, mission, or overall goal in their lives (Steger, 2009). Based on the self-determination theory, parental support may satisfy people's relationship needs, provide them with a feeling of belonging, and hence improve their life meaning (Lambert et al., 2013; Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017; Stillman & Lambert, 2013; Zhang et al., 2018). Moreover, life meaning refers to people's devotion to their lives (Steger, 2009) and can influence engagement orientation (Steger et al., 2009). In addition, good parent-child relationships appear to predict high school students' life meaning (Shek et al., 2021; Zeng, Peng, et al., 2022), which positively influences learning engagement (Liu, Di, et al., 2023). Collectively, these findings imply that life meaning is likely to mediate the impact of career-related parental support on learning engagement.
Self-determination theory argues that autonomy, competence, and relationship requirements are correlated and each contributes to healthy relationships and well-being within them (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Therefore, people who have a feeling of competence believe they can satisfy their autonomy and relationship needs. Combined with previous theoretical derivations, parental support may offer children a feeling of competence and hence enhance their career adaptability (Guan et al., 2018; Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017; Soresi et al., 2014). With a feeling of competence, they tend to experience a feeling of belonging, which contributes to life meaning (Hartung & Taber, 2008; Stillman & Lambert, 2013). Consequently, increased life meaning may increase their engagement in many activities (Steger, 2009; Steger et al., 2009). Meanwhile, prior studies have reported the same mechanism: Parental support in career development exerts a positive effect on career adaptability in adolescents (Liang et al., 2020), which improves their sense of meaningfulness (Buyukgoze-Kavas et al., 2015); Moreover, life meaning has a strong influence on learning engagement (Liu, Di, et al., 2023). Therefore, career adaptability and life meaning may sequentially mediate the influence of career-related parental support on learning engagement.
The present study
The objective of this research was to investigate the influence of career-related parental support on learning engagement in adolescents and to explore the roles that the four career adaptability components and life meaning play in this relationship. This study explored the impact of career-related parental support on learning engagement, and the mediating effects of four career adaptability components (career concern, control, curiosity, and confidence) and life meaning. The hypothesized model is shown in Figure 1. Specifically, we hypothesized that career-related parental support can significantly influence adolescents' learning engagement. In addition, we speculated that each career adaptability dimension acts as a mediator in this connection. Meanwhile, in this relation, we hypothesized that the mediating effect of life meaning is significant. Moreover, we postulated that each career adaptability aspect and life learning sequentially mediate the impact of career-related parental support on learning engagement.
METHODS
Participants and procedures
We carried out the survey using the popular Chinese professional online data collection platform, Wenjuanxing (https://www.wjx.cn/), from July 2022 to September 2022. Participants were high school students from Guangdong Province in China, and they completed the survey through the WeChat platform. We determined the validity of questionnaires based on criteria, such as excessively short response times, consistent selection of the same answers across all questions, or incorrect responses to polygraph questions (e.g., "For this question, please select 'strongest agree'"). After data screening, we included 516 participants with a 75.33% valid response rate in the final analysis. This sample did not have missing data. The ages of participants were from 15 to 19 years old (M = 16.28; SD = 0.64), and 30.4% were males. In terms of maternal education, 71.5% had educational attainment below a high school degree, 18.2% had a high school or equivalent qualification, 9.9% had a college degree or its equivalent, and 0.4% possessed educational attainment above an undergraduate degree. In terms of fathers' education, 63.6% had educational attainment below a high school degree, 24.6% had a high school degree or equivalent, 11.0% had a college degree or equivalent, and 0.8% had more than an undergraduate degree.
Measures
Career-related parental support
Dietrich and Kracke (2009) developed the Parental Career-Related Behaviors Scale, and Guan et al. (2015) transformed this scale into the Chinese version. This scale includes career-related parental support, interference, and lack of engagement dimensions. This study employed the career-related parental support subscale, which consists of five items scoring from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree) (e.g., "My parents encourage me to seek information about vocations I am interested in"). We calculated the total scores for this subscale, with higher scores indicating a greater perception of career-related parental support. Prior studies have demonstrated that this scale is highly reliable (Guan et al., 2015). In this study, the measurement model fitted well (RMSEA = 0.078, CEI = 0.990, TEI = 0.981, SRMR = 0.016). Cronbach's alpha was 0.90.
Career adaptability
Savickas and Porfeli (2012) developed the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale, and Hou et al. (2012) transformed this scale into the Chinese version. This scale contains 24 items with 4 subscales, including career concern, control, curiosity, and confidence. We asked participants to score items from 1 (not strongest) to 5 (strongest) (e.g., "Concerned about my career") and calculated the total scores of each career adaptability subscale. High scores indicate a high level of a specific dimension of career adaptability. Previous research has provided evidence that this scale has good validity and reliability (Hou et al., 2012; Zeng, He, et al., 2022). In this study, the measurement model fitted well (RMSEA = 0.071, CEI = 0.938, TEI = 0.930, SRMR = 0.037). For the whole scale, the Cronbach alpha was 0.96. For each subscale, Cronbach alpha was 0.90 for career concern, 0.92 for career curiosity, 0.90 for career control, and 0.94 for career confidence.
Life meaning
By modifying and translating the original scale (Steger et al., 2006), Wang (2013) developed the Chinese version of the Meaning in Life Questionnaire. The 2 dimensions of this 10-item scale are the presence of meaning and search for meaning with 5 items each rating from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) (e.g., "I understand my life's meaning"). High total scores indicate high levels of perceived meaningfulness. Wang (2013) and Wang et al. (2023) have demonstrated this scale's validity and reliability. In this study, the measurement model was acceptable (RMSEA = 0.142, CEI = 0.909, TEI = 0.880, SRMR = 0.050). The Cronbach alpha was 0.91 for the whole scale, 0.82 for the presence of meaning, and 0.93 for search for meaning. The homogeneity coefficient of the scale was 0.71, allowing the computation of total scores (Ye & Wen, 2012). The composite reliability was 0.95 (95% CI = [0.94, 0.95]).
Learning engagement
Schaufeli, Martinez et al. (2002) developed the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale for students, and Fang et al. (2008) transformed this scale into the Chinese version. The scale has 17 items with 3 subscales, including vigor, dedication, and absorption. We asked participants to give scores ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (always) (e.g., "When I'm studying, I feel mentally strong"). High total scores indicate high academic engagement. Liu, Wang et al. (2023) and Fang et al. (2008) reported the high validity and reliability of this scale. In this study, the measurement model had a good fit (RMSEA = 0.100, CEI = 0.926, TLI = 0.913, SRMR = 0.036). The Cronbach alpha of the whole scale was 0.97. For the three dimensions, the Cronbach alpha values varied from 0.92 to 0.93. The homogeneity coefficient of the whole scale was 0.78; thus, we calculated the total scores of this scale (Ye & Wen, 2012). The composite reliability was 0.97 (95% CI = [0.97, 0.98]).
Data analysis
We analyzed the data in two phases using SPSS 26.0 software. The first step was a preliminary analysis: We performed a descriptive analysis on all variables to calculate the means, standard deviations, and correlations among variables. Meanwhile, we used Herman's one-way test to assess common method bias. If the explanatory rate of the unrotated first factors is below 50%, it indicates the absence of significant common method bias (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). Next, we employed the variance inflation factor (VIF) test to explore multicollinearity, with values less than 10 acceptable (Tripathi, 2000). The second step was a path analysis: We performed the mediation pathways using PROCESS (Hayes & Rockwood, 2020; Model 80) based on 5000 bootstrapped samples and 95% confidence intervals.
RESULTS
Preliminary analysis
We display the results of the descriptive analysis in Table 1. The findings indicated that all variables were positively and significantly correlated with each other, and the average response indicated high levels of these variables. In addition, the results of Herman's one-way test revealed that the unrotated first factors explained 42.56% of the total variance. Therefore, there was no significant common method bias. Meanwhile, we adopted the VIE test to test multicollinearity. Results indicated that the VIE was less than 10, and there was no multicollinearity in this study.
Path analysis
We performed path analysis using PROCESS based on 5000 bootstrapped samples and 95% confidence intervals to explore the mediating effects of career adaptability and life meaning in the impact of career-related parental support on learning engagement (Figure 1). This model included gender and age as covariates. We display the results in Table 2 and Figure 2.
Results revealed that career-related parental support directly affected learning engagement (ß = 0.14, 95% CI = [0.07, 0.21]). Career-related parental support exhibited an indirect effect on adolescents' learning engagement only via career confidence in four career adaptability dimensions (ß = 0.10, 95% CI = [0.05, 0.15]). Specifically, career-related parental support showed a positive relationship to career confidence, which was related to learning engagement. Meanwhile, life meaning mediated the impact of career-related parental support on learning engagement (ß = 0.05, 95% CI = [0.02, 0.09]). Moreover, for career concern, control, and confidence aspects of adaptability, the chain mediating effect of each component and life meaning between career-related parental support and learning engagement was significant (ß = 0.01, 95% CI = (0.00, 0.03], ß = 0.02, 95% CI = (0.00, 0.03], and ß = 0.03, 95% CI = [0.02, 0.05], respectively). Specifically, career-related parental support positively influenced each of career concern, control, and confidence, which positively affected life meaning. Further, life meaning exerted a positive influence on learning engagement.
DISCUSSION
This study employed path analysis to explore the impact of career-related parental support on learning engagement. In addition, it investigated the mediating roles of individual effects of career adaptability and the influence of life meaning in this relationship. Our main findings were: (1) Career-related parental support directly affected learning engagement; (2) career-related parental support was indirectly associated with learning engagement only via career confidence in four career adaptability dimensions; (3) life meaning exhibited a mediating role in the impact of career-related parental support on learning engagement; and (4) for the career adaptability components except career curiosity, each aspect and life meaning sequentially mediated the impact of career-related parental support on learning engagement.
These findings suggested that career-related parental support was directly linked to learning engagement. Parental support in career development is closely associated with learning involvement in adolescence, which is consistent with previous studies (Basler & Kriesi, 2019; Negru-Subtirica & Pop, 2018). Career-related parental support may motivate adolescents to connect themselves with their future and develop career and educational aspirations (Ma & Yeh, 2010; Timar-Anton et al., 2023). Consequently, they are more likely to engage in learning activities. This study suggests the impact of career-related parental support on learning engagement in adolescents and highlights a close relationship between vocation and education in high school.
The mediating effects of career adaptability and life meaning
Contrary to the self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017), the study did not offer evidence supporting the mediating effects of career concern, control, and curiosity on the relationship between career-related parental support and learning engagement. This may suggest that placing importance on preparing for the future, responsibility for constructing careers, and inquisitiveness about self and future may not be sufficient to stimulate adolescents to devote themselves to career-related activities. However, the study found that career confidence played a mediating role in the relationship between career-related parental support and adolescents' learning engagement, which is in line with the self-determination theory and previous studies (Jiang et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017; Taber & Blankemeyer, 2015; Zimmerman, 2000). Career confidence is a sense of self-efficacy about one's ability to successfully make actions required to develop and adopt appropriate choices for education and vocation (Savickas, 2013). Parental support in career development has the potential to engender a sense of competence within adolescents. This sense of competence, in turn, may prompt them to cultivate greater career confidence. Further, people with high confidence are more likely to participate in behaviors to develop knowledge in educational and vocational fields. In summary, our results stress the key function of career confidence, linking career-related parental support with learning engagement.
The study indicated that life meaning acted as a mediator connecting career-related parental support with learning engagement, which is consistent with the self-determination theory and previous studies (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017; Stillman & Baumeister, 2009; Wann et al., 2017). Career-related parental support may fulfill adolescents' relatedness needs by providing them with a sense of belonging. Consequently, adolescents who experience this sense of relatedness are more likely to perceive life as meaningful. Additionally, life meaning may serve as an incentive for them to actively participate in various learning activities. This result highlights the important role of life meaning in the impact of career-related parental support on learning engagement.
In line with the self-determination theory, we found a chain mediation relationship between careerrelated parental support, career concern, control, confidence, life meaning, and learning engagement (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017). Parents are imperative in molding individuals' vocational paths (Guan et al., 2016). Career-related parental support has the potential to fulfill the competence needs of adolescents, thereby enhancing their career adaptability. Adolescents who possess a sense of competence may search for feelings of relatedness. Consequently, they tend to perceive a higher level of meaningfulness (Zhuang et al., 2018). Additionally, life meaning encompasses individuals' dedication to their lives, and they are more likely to engage in learning activities. However, career curiosity did not act as a mediating role in this chain mediation between career-related parental support and learning engagement. Nevertheless, career curiosity was significantly correlated with life meaning. However, after considering the other dimensions of career adaptability, the relationship was not significant, aligning with prior research (Buyukgoze-Kavas et al., 2015). This outcome implies that, concerning life meaning, career concern, control, and confidence components in career adaptability may hold greater significance than curiosity.
LIMITATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
The study had the following limitations. First, this study's design was cross-sectional. Although previous theories and studies provide strong evidence for this study, we could not infer the causal relationship among variables. Second, this study depended on self-reported data, which could result in common method bias, inflating the correlations among variables. Third, we only examined the impact of career-related parental support on adolescents' education but did not explore the effects of parental inference and lack of engagement. Finally, given China's representation of collective cultures, adolescents in this cultural context often prioritize their relationships with family members, and parent-child interactions like career-related parental support may greatly influence adolescents (Brewer & Chen, 2007). However, adolescents from individualistic cultures may place less importance on interactions with parents (Brewer & Chen, 2007; Triandis, 2001).
Given the aforementioned limitations, future research can employ a longitudinal design to investigate the influence of career-related parental behaviors (career-related parental support, inference, and lack of engagement) on adolescents' learning engagement while also considering the mediating roles of career adaptability and life meaning. In addition to gathering self-reported data from adolescents, researchers can also administer questionnaires to parents to reduce common method bias. Furthermore, the study can prove the model in both individualistic and collective cultures to discern potential cultural differences.
Implications for practice
These findings may provide important insights for developing interventions aimed at fostering adolescents' educational development. First, parents can provide increased career-related support to their children by engaging in discussions about their career interests and abilities, as well as encouraging them to actively seek out information regarding potential career paths, in order to potentially enhance their academic advancement. Second, the research underscores the interconnectedness between vocation and education in high school students. Schools can offer adolescents interventions designed to increase their career confidence, including role modeling, achievement recognition, encouragement, anxiety reduction, and problem-solving training (Savickas, 2005, 2013). Such actions may strengthen their career confidence and enhance their participation in more academic activities. For example, teachers can acknowledge the value and efficacy of students in their schoolwork, potentially enhancing their feelings of career confidence and participation in more academic activities. Third, the study suggests the significant impact of life meaning on adolescents' engagement in the learning process. School counselors can lead adolescents to seek or find missions or purposes for their lives, potentially increasing their sense of life meaning. This measure may be salutary to adolescents' educational development.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, this study explored the impact of career-related parental support on learning engagement and the mediating roles of four career adaptability components and life meaning. This study has the following contributions. First, the findings reveal the mechanism by which career-related parental support influences adolescents' learning engagement, highlighting the close relationship between vocation and education among high school students. Future research should focus on this close relationship. Second, we confirm and expand career development and systems theory as well as self-determination theory. Career-related parental support only indirectly affected learning engagement through career confidence in the four career adaptability aspects. Life meaning acted as a mediator linking career-related parental support with learning engagement. In addition, this study showed a chain mediation path between career-related parental support, career concern, control, and confidence, life meaning, and learning engagement. Third, the study, which targeted high school students in China, may inform instrumental measures to promote their educational development.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
All authors contributed to the study in a meaningful way. Data collection·. Qing Zeng. Material preparation and data analysis: Qing Zeng and Tong Xiao. Writing: Tong Xiao and Ying Peng. Writing review: Qing Zeng. Supervision: Minqiang Zhang and Biyao Wang.
FUNDING INFORMATION
The study received no funding.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the first authors upon reasonable request.
ETHICS STATEMENT
The study was approved by the local Ethics Committee of the School of Psychology, South China Normal University (SCNU-PSY-2022-211).
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