1. Introduction
Crop production is pivotal in safeguarding food security, promoting economic resilience, and sustaining rural livelihoods while also providing essential raw materials for agro-based industries and contributing to the global supply chain. As the most widely cultivated cereal crop, rice provides a substantial portion of our daily caloric intake, making it indispensable to both economic and nutritional well-being [1,2]. In addition to its role as a primary food source, rice farming supports millions of livelihoods, contributing to rural economies, employment, and poverty alleviation in developing regions [3,4,5]. The cultivation of rice is intricately linked to various environmental factors, including soil quality, water availability, and climatic conditions [6,7,8]. Rice is typically grown in flooded paddies, which help control weeds and create a favorable environment for rice plants to grow. However, the water-intensive nature of rice farming poses challenges in terms of water resource management, particularly in regions affected by water scarcity [9,10,11]. Furthermore, the sustainability of rice production is increasingly being threatened by climate change, with rising temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and a higher frequency of extreme weather events compromising yields and production stability [12,13,14]. Innovative agricultural development, such as the introduction of high-yielding varieties, precision farming, and integrated pest management, has played a vital role in improving rice productivity and ensuring food security [15,16,17,18]. The adoption of mechanization in rice farming, including the use of automated transplanters and harvesters, has enhanced the efficiency and reduced labor costs, making rice production more competitive and sustainable [19,20]. Recent technological innovations, such as the wide and narrow row cropping (WNRC) system, modern irrigation systems, and precision farming development, have shown substantial promise in enhancing both yield and quality [21,22,23,24]. These advances are crucial for strengthening global food security and promoting broader economic and social development [25,26,27,28,29,30].
The integration of mechanization and innovative cultivation techniques, such as a WNRC system, represents an advancement in modern rice farming [21,22,31]. By optimizing the row spacing, this approach enhances plant growth conditions, improving the yield and quality while reducing resource input and labor costs [32,33,34]. In China, mechanized transplanting has become the predominant method for rice cultivation [35,36,37]. Given the diversity in crop cultivation types and the variability in soil and nutrient conditions, significant regional differences exist in the row and plant spacing configurations and planting density [32,38,39]. Studies on the spatial distribution of crops such as rice, maize, soybean, and cotton have shown that the WNRC system may effectively enhance field ventilation and light interception, promote photosynthesis, and optimize post-planting field management, ultimately leading to an increased crop yield per unit area [40,41,42,43,44]. As a recent innovation, the WNRC planting technology is attracting substantial attention. This approach aims to optimize the row spacing to enhance plant ventilation and light exposure, reduce disease risks, and increase the leaf area index and leaf longevity, ultimately achieving a high yield, superior quality, and cost efficiency. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the research findings on the technical principles, applications, yield impact, and economic benefits of this approach and discusses its potential applications in future agriculture.
2. Development of the WNRC Technology
Traditional crop transplanting, particularly in rice cultivation, involves the manual planting of pre-grown seedlings into prepared fields. This method offers several benefits, particularly in enhancing crop establishment and yield potential. Transplanting ensures that seedlings are more robust and disease-resistant due to the controlled nursery conditions prior to planting [45,46]. The practice also facilitates the optimal plant density, which improves light capture and nutrient uptake, leading to higher crop productivity [47,48]. Additionally, this method aids in weed management, as the initial stages of crop growth are less susceptible to weed competition [49,50,51]. However, traditional transplanting has several notable drawbacks. The primary limitation is its labor intensity, as the process requires substantial manual labor for transplanting seedlings, which can increase the production costs, especially in regions with rising labor shortages [52]. Additionally, the method typically involves the flooding of fields, which leads to inefficient water use and raises environmental concerns related to water scarcity [53,54]. High labor and water demands make it less sustainable for large-scale farming, especially when compared to modern mechanized alternatives such as direct seeding. While traditional transplanting improves the crop quality and effectively manages weed growth, it is limited by inefficiencies in labor and water use. Incorporating more efficient practices or integrating technology could mitigate these challenges and improve overall sustainability.
To address the limitations of traditional transplanting and optimize rice cultivation practices further, recent advancements have focused on modifying the row spacing configurations [55,56,57,58] (Figure 1). While traditional transplanting offers benefits in crop establishment and weed management, its reliance on narrow row spacing hinders plant growth by restricting air circulation and light penetration, which ultimately reduces the photosynthetic efficiency and yield. In contrast, wider row spacing alleviates some of these issues by improving the plant distribution and reducing shading, but it also introduces challenges, such as increased weed competition and light interception losses [59,60,61]. Therefore, the adoption of WNRC transplanting systems has emerged as a promising solution to balance the advantages of both narrow and wide spacing, enabling an improved crop performance and resource utilization. By optimizing the row configurations, these systems enhance soil conservation and crop population structure, contributing to better yield stability and more efficient use of water, nutrients, and light [31].
In crop production, narrow row spacing often leads to poor ventilation and insufficient light penetration, resulting in leaf shading, reduced photosynthetic efficiency, lower dry matter accumulation, and ultimately decreased yields. Conversely, excessively wide row spacing may improve the plant distribution but also causes light interception losses and promote weed growth, limiting overall productivity [62,63]. Therefore, optimizing the row spacing can effectively mitigate these issues. Adopting WNRC technology, as used in maize, has advantages such as protecting cultivated soil and improving the population structure in maize fields. Additionally, optimizing the planting density and row configuration modifies the maize root architecture, thereby enhancing the nitrogen use efficiency [21]. Recent field trials have highlighted that optimizing the row spacing configurations, such as the combination of WNRC, is crucial to maximizing the crop yield potential [41,64]. As agricultural mechanization advances, the successful implementation of such innovative agronomic practices increasingly relies on specialized machinery, such as mechanized WNRC transplanters. These machines are designed to facilitate the precise planting of rice in optimized row configurations, ensuring efficient utilization of space and light while maintaining a high crop density and uniformity [65,66] (Table 1).
3. Effects of the WNRC Technology on Crop Growth and Development
The effects of WNRC technologies on crop growth and development are crucial to optimizing crop yield and resource use efficiency [21,42,67]. The row spacing directly influences the plant competition, light interception, nutrient uptake, and overall crop performance. Wide row cropping typically involves larger inter-row spacing, which allows for increased light penetration, better air circulation, and reduced competition for resources among plants [68]. This system is particularly beneficial for crops with a large canopy structure, such as maize and cotton, as it promotes more efficient photosynthesis and can reduce the disease incidence due to an improved airflow [31,69,70,71]. However, a wide row spacing can lead to a lower plant density, which may reduce the overall yield potential in some crops [72,73]. Additionally, it may result in increased weed competition in the inter-row spaces, requiring additional weed management practices [74].
In contrast, narrow row cropping increases the plant density, enhancing light interception and optimizing land use [75,76]. This system is often associated with higher yields due to an increased plant population, though it may lead to higher competition for water, nutrients, and light, potentially requiring more intensive nutrient and irrigation management. Narrow row systems are also effective in suppressing weed growth, as the canopy closes more quickly, shading out weeds. However, an increased plant density can also stress plants, particularly under suboptimal growing conditions [77,78]. Ultimately, the selection of the row spacing depends on the crop type, soil fertility, and climate conditions. Research suggests that tailored approaches, such as alternating the row configurations, can optimize resource use and maximize crop productivity [79,80,81].
3.1. WNRC Technology’s Enhancements to the Crop Growth Environment
Traditional rice cultivation typically utilizes a uniform row spacing, which, although convenient for field operations, limits the optimal light distribution, ventilation, and dry matter accumulation among the plants. The WNRC system, which alternates between wider and narrower row spacing, optimizes the growth environment by improving the field ventilation and light distribution. Experiments have shown that compared with traditional uniform row planting, the WNRC technology significantly increased the yields of Liaojingxiang 1 and Yanjing 219 in Liaoning, with yield gains exceeding 10% and a marked improvement in ventilation [82]. Without altering the planting density, WNRC planting improves the microclimate conditions between rows, improves ventilation, increases tolerance to high temperatures, and promotes yield increases [83,84,85,86,87].
The ventilation in WNRC planting is significantly better than in equal-row planting, helping to reduce the field humidity and lower disease and pest incidence [88]. Using Fengliangyouxiang 1 as their experimental material, Zhou et al. [89] found that WNRC planting increased the field ventilation and light exposure, reduced sheath blight and blast disease incidence, facilitated mechanized operations, and effectively minimized mechanical damage. This technique also demonstrated reduced disease risk in high-humidity regions, making it suitable for areas with high rainfall. Combining nitrogen fertilizer application with wide and narrow row planting patterns effectively improves the crop root distribution [21,90].
The WNRC rice planting system significantly enhances field ventilation, contributing to better disease management by creating an environment less favorable to pathogens. This system not only improves plant health and yields but also reduces the need for chemical interventions, leading to more sustainable farming practices. However, careful attention must be paid to the field management and equipment requirements to fully optimize these benefits [91,92].
3.2. Influence of the WNRC Technology on Tillering, Spikelet Structure, and Floret Number
WNRC planting not only optimizes field light and ventilation but also positively affects physiological traits such as tillering, spikelet structure, and floret number [87,93,94]. Dong et al. [85], using the main rice variety Liaojing 401 in Liaoning, found that a 25 cm equal-row dense planting configuration achieved the highest leaf area index and yield; however, WNRC planting optimized the population structure and grain filling at later stages, thereby increasing the seed-setting rate and thousand-grain weight. In field trials with Jingu 21 and Zhangzagu 10, randomized block design experiments with different row spacings revealed that WNRC planting significantly increased chlorophyll content, photosynthetic efficiency, and root vigor, enhancing yield components and achieving higher yield, particularly with an 80 cm wide and 20 cm narrow row configuration [21,95].
Rice yield is determined by four factors: the number of panicles per unit area, the number of grains per panicle, seed-setting rate, and thousand-grain weight. WNRC planting significantly promotes tillering, with the tillering numbers during peak tillering significantly higher than those in in equal-row planting [82,96]. This increased tillering is due to the wider row spacing, which provides more growth space and light resources, allowing rice to maximize its tillering potential. Zhang et al. [97] found that with the same planting density and fertilization, WNRC planting increased the panicle numbers by 15,000 per 667 m2, the seed-setting rate by 3.3%, and the thousand-grain weight by 0.15 g compared to the large-ridge single-row planting method. In terms of the spikelet structure, WNRC planting exhibits higher effective panicle numbers and seed-setting rates. Research shows that the WRNC planting model significantly increases the number of spikelets per panicle and total spikelets, enhancing the yield potential [97,98]. Moreover, this approach optimizes the field microclimate, increasing light use efficiency and thereby significantly boosting the yield. A three-factor split-plot design was utilized to evaluate the effects of the planting density and row spacing on the agronomic traits and yield in three maize cultivars. The results demonstrated significant effects on the growth parameters and yield components, with the optimal planting configurations identified for achieving ultra-high maize productivity, particularly for Qiangsheng 51 and Dafeng 26 [99]. The optimal row configurations were identified for both crops, enhancing their growth, chlorophyll content, and photosynthetic efficiency [32,33,62,100]. However, further studies are required to optimize these planting systems across varied environmental conditions and evaluate their long-term agronomic sustainability.
3.3. Variation in the Performance of Different Varieties in the WNRC Technology
The yield enhancement effect of WNRC planting varies among rice varieties, with more pronounced effects in varieties with a high tillering ability, shade tolerance, and disease resistance. For example, the high-tillering rice variety Huazhan exhibited significantly higher tiller numbers and spikelets per unit area under WNRC planting compared to other varieties, whereas low-tillering varieties such as R9311 performed less favorably in this configuration [101]. Additionally, differences in the light requirements among rice varieties also influence the effectiveness of WNRC planting. Varieties with a moderate tillering ability and low shade tolerance tend to exhibit a higher photosynthetic efficiency under WNRC configurations, while light-tolerant varieties maintain high yields even with equal-row spacing. Thus, selecting the appropriate WNRC configurations based on the regional environmental conditions and varietal characteristics is critical for achieving the optimal cultivation outcomes [96,102].
4. Crop Spatial Arrangement and Weed Management
The spatial arrangement of crops plays a pivotal role in the dynamics of weed growth, influencing both crop performance and the competition for resources such as light, water, and nutrients [57,103,104,105]. The interaction between crop spacing and weed growth is complex, depending on various factors, including plant density, row spacing, and the growth characteristics of both crops and weeds [106,107]. Optimizing crop spatial distribution can enhance the crop yield while simultaneously suppressing weed growth, reducing the need for herbicide applications [108,109,110]. Crop density, or the distance between individual plants, is a critical factor in determining the competition between crops and weeds. In densely planted systems, competition for resources is intensified, which can reduce both crop and weed growth. This phenomenon, known as crop interference, occurs when crops are planted closer together, limiting the space available for weeds to establish [108,111]. Dense plantings can shade the soil surface, inhibiting weed seed germination and reducing the overall weed biomass. However, if the crops are too densely packed, the competition may lead to stunted growth of both crops and weeds, negatively affecting the yield [59,112,113,114].
The influence of the row spacing on weed dynamics is also significant. In WNRC systems, more space between crop rows creates an environment conducive to weed growth. This is particularly true for weeds that thrive in open, sunny conditions. For example, species such as Amaranthus and Chenopodium are more likely to establish in wide rows where they have access to abundant light [115,116]. Conversely, WNRC systems, where crops are planted closer together in rows, tend to favor weed species that are adapted to shaded environments, such as Echinochloa or Setaria [117,118]. Thus, the crop row spacing influences both the intensity of weed competition and the composition of weed species in the field. Recent research has shown that adopting WNRC configurations may provide a balanced approach to weed management. This system combines the benefits of wide rows for light penetration with the advantages of narrow rows for higher crop density. The wide rows allow the crops to capture more light, while the narrow rows increase the plant density, enhancing competition against weeds. Such systems have been shown to suppress weed establishment while promoting crop growth, resulting in improved yield and reduced weed pressure [119]. Additionally, this approach optimizes resource use efficiency, ensuring that both light and nutrients are utilized more effectively by the crops [114,120].
The spatial distribution of crops is a key factor in managing weed growth. By adjusting the planting density and row spacing, it is possible to manipulate the competitive dynamics between crops and weeds, leading to higher crop yields and reduced weed infestations [120]. Adopting innovative cropping systems, such as the WNRC approach, offers a promising strategy for integrated weed management, reducing the reliance on chemical herbicides while enhancing overall agricultural sustainability.
5. Crop Spatial Arrangement and the Application of Chemical Fertilizers and Pesticides
Crop spatial distribution and the application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides are critical aspects of modern agricultural practices aiming to optimize the input efficiency and minimize environmental impacts. Crop spatial distribution refers to the arrangement of plants in the field, which can significantly influence resource utilization, pest and disease dynamics, and the efficiency of agrochemical inputs. Proper management of the crop spacing can help reduce the need for fertilizers and pesticides while maintaining or even improving crop yields [75,121]. Crop spacing affects the fertilizer application efficiency by influencing plant growth patterns, root development, and nutrient uptake [21,122]. A denser planting arrangement in narrow rows increases the competition for nutrients and light, which can lead to reduced fertilizer use efficiency if not managed correctly. Conversely, wider rows allow for greater root expansion and enhance nutrient access [123]. Studies indicate that optimizing the row spacing can reduce the fertilizer requirements by improving nutrient uptake and minimizing nutrient leaching [124,125]. In systems like WNRC, alternating row spacings can help balance these effects, improving the nutrient distribution and reducing dependence on chemical fertilizers [40].
The spatial arrangement of crops also plays a pivotal role in weed, pest, and disease management [126]. A narrow row spacing creates a more competitive environment among plants, reducing weed growth by limiting light penetration to the soil surface. This natural weed suppression further reduces the need for herbicide applications [67,127]. Moreover, crop canopy structure, which is influenced by row spacing, can impact the microclimate and disease dynamics [128]. Wider rows promote a better airflow, thereby reducing humidity and the spread of fungal diseases and decreasing the need for pesticide applications [129,130,131]. Conversely, excessively wide rows can create a more open canopy, which might facilitate weed establishment, requiring alternative weed control methods.
The optimal crop spatial distribution is supported by integrated pest management (IPM) strategies that reduce the reliance on chemical inputs. By using practices such as crop rotation, mixed planting, or row spacing adjustments, farmers can manage pest populations more sustainably [132,133]. These approaches enhance the ecological balance in the field, where natural predators can more effectively control pest populations, thus reducing the frequency and volume of pesticide applications. Crop spatial distribution is a key factor in the efficient use of fertilizers and pesticides [130,134]. Proper management of the row spacing can enhance nutrient uptake, improve pest and weed control, and reduce the environmental impact of chemical inputs [135,136,137]. However, achieving these benefits requires careful consideration of the plant density, local environmental conditions, and pest dynamics. Ongoing research is needed to further refine spatial distribution practices and optimize input management for sustainable agricultural production.
6. Conclusions
WNRC transplanting is an innovative agricultural practice that combines the advantages of both wide row and narrow row planting systems to optimize crop growth and weed management. By alternating wide and narrow row spacing, this system improves light interception, enhances weed suppression, and maximizes resource utilization, leading to potentially higher crop yields and more sustainable farming practices. The wide rows facilitate efficient light capture and greater airflow, reducing the risk of pest and disease buildup, while the narrow rows increase the plant density, helping to suppress weed growth through shading and competition. This system can effectively reduce the need for herbicide applications, promoting environmental sustainability and reducing farming costs. Additionally, it enables crops to compete more effectively with weeds, improving the overall productivity.
However, the WNRC system is not without challenges. Narrow rows may lead to increased competition for water and nutrients, which may reduce the crop yield if not managed carefully. Moreover, certain weeds may adapt to narrow row systems, necessitating fine-tuning of the row spacing based on the specific field conditions and weed pressures. Future research should focus on optimizing the row spacing for various crop species and weed types, improving crop varieties suited to high-density planting, and further refining this technique to enhance its applicability across various agricultural systems. With continued advancements, WNRC transplanting has the potential to become a key component of integrated pest and weed management strategies in sustainable agriculture.
7. Prospects
WNRC cultivation optimizes the row spacing, improving ventilation and light exposure in rice fields and thus enhancing the yield. Scientific fertilization management improves the fertilizer use efficiency, reduces waste, and provides stable nutrient support. This technology has demonstrated significant yield and economic benefits across multiple rice-producing regions, becoming a key element in modern agriculture. With the spread of agricultural mechanization, the efficiency of WNRC cultivation continues to improve. Dedicated WNRC transplanters are transitioning from the experimental stages to their practical use, enhancing planting efficiency and ensuring precise row spacing, thus supporting the broad adoption of this method. Additionally, integrating modern WNRC planting with precision and deep side-dressing fertilization further increases yield and economic returns. WNRC cultivation offers notable advantages, including yield increases, fertilizer savings, reduced disease incidence, and improved resistance. Its potential to promote sustainable agriculture is substantial, particularly as intelligent farming progresses.
WNRC technology is already widely applied in key rice-growing areas in China, such as the northeast and the Yangtze River Basin, demonstrating significant yield gains. However, its adoption faces challenges, including variability in the soil and climate conditions across regions, which affects the effectiveness of its application. Furthermore, the cost of specialized transplanting equipment may limit its adoption among smallholders. Additionally, effective implementation requires technical training to ensure its proper adoption by farmers. In the future, as agricultural technology advances and the equipment costs decrease, WNRC planting is expected to expand and become a standard in modern rice cultivation. The integration of smart farming equipment with data analysis technologies will make WNRC planting more efficient and precise, supporting rice yield increases and sustainable agricultural development.
8. Materials and Methods
This study was conducted using the research design approach described. Initially, we performed a comprehensive review of the existing literature, sourcing articles from
L.T. conceived the project, consulted the literature and collected the data, wrote the manuscript, and prepared the figures. J.S., Y.C., H.F. and J.W. revised the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The data and the related conclusions presented in this article were all derived from
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Footnotes
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of traditional transplanting and WNRC technology.
| Traditional Transplanting | Wide and Narrow Row Cropping Technology | |
|---|---|---|
| Advantages | Simplicity and low cost | Enhanced light interception and space utilization |
| Uniform crop establishment | Enhanced marginal effect | |
| Improved weed control | Better air circulation and reduced disease pressure | |
| Suitability for small-scale farms | Compatibility with mechanization | |
| Soil and water conservation | ||
| Enhancement of the population structure in crop fields | ||
| Increased leaf area index and prolonged leaf lifespan | ||
| Disadvantages | Labor-intensive | Weed growth in wide rows |
| Limited space utilization | Water and nutrient competition | |
| Potential for overcrowding | Increased complexity in management | |
| Limited mechanization | Higher initial costs |
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