1. Introduction
In the early 2000s, the Council of Europe defined the religious dimension as an integral part of the concept of intercultural education. By incorporating the religious dimension into intercultural education, individuals are educated to understand both religious and non-religious beliefs (Milot 2007). According to the theoretical concept that includes the religious dimension, intercultural education “aims to develop understanding of religious and non-religious phenomena and to develop the ability to reflect on different worldviews in plural societies. It includes not only the cognitive dimension but also preparation for life and active participation in democracy. It fosters personal autonomy, a critical mindset, tolerance, openness to diversity, and a sense of belonging to a community. It also develops trust and unites citizens despite moral and religious disagreements” (Keast 2007, p. 139). The emphasis is on acquiring knowledge about different cultures and religions, as well as on accepting diversity and fostering openness. The cooperation between intercultural and religious education is necessary to create an environment where communication and interaction enable the understanding and respect of others and their beliefs. It is believed that religious education plays a crucial role in this process, as it is the only school subject where knowledge can address and prevent prejudices arising from religious diversity (Johannessen and Skeie 2018). The goal is to change the attitudes of individuals and groups toward those perceived as Others (Čačić-Kumpes 2004).
According to the French sociologist L. Porcher, the focus of intercultural education is not the knowledge and mere facts that teachers need to learn, but rather the methodology and the development of intercultural competence in order to recognize the other person as both similar and different. Emphasis is placed on the development of attitudes and appropriate learning methods (Porcher 1981). Intercultural competence refers to the ability to interact and communicate with people of different identities and encompasses the cognitive, affective, and behavioural dimensions of the individual (Byram and Zarate 1997; Hammer et al. 2003; Deardorff 2004; Portera 2014). According to the Council of Europe, intercultural competence in interreligious learning includes “the development of tolerance, attitudes based on the recognition of the inherent dignity and fundamental freedoms of every human being; sensitivity to the diversity of religious and non-religious beliefs; the ability to manage conflicts, skills in critical evaluation, and reflection” (Council of Europe 2008, no. 5).
Croatia is a Catholic country, and since the 1990s, after the collapse of the communist regime, the freedom of religion and the free public expression of faith has been guaranteed (Constitution of the Republic of Croatia 2014). The Catholic Church plays a significant role in Croatian society, which is partially reflected in the religious structure of the population, where most of the population (78.97%) is Catholic (Republic of Croatia, Croatian Bureau of Statistics 2021), as well as in the education system. In Croatia, the subject of Religious Education is taught in public schools in various denominational and religious versions representing different religious communities. It is an optional subject in primary (grades 1–8) and secondary schools (grades 9–12, i.e., 1–4), and once chosen, it becomes compulsory. Most students enrol in Catholic RE. The curricula for Catholic RE in primary and secondary schools are developed by the Croatian Bishops’ Conference (Government of the Republic of Croatia and Croatian Bishops’ Conference 1999). In 2021/2022, a quantitative study was conducted in the Republic of Croatia, using a survey method, on a sample of 375 Catholic Religious Education teachers. The study explored the attitudes and opinions of Catholic Religious Education teachers regarding the impact of initial education on their ability to implement the religious dimension of intercultural education in Catholic Religious Education classes (Jurišić 2023). The results revealed the scarcity of experiential learning, such as visits to religious communities and guest speakers from different religious groups, and insufficient RE teachers’ qualifications for developing specific dimensions of intercultural competence, which are the focus of this study. These dimensions include skills related to conflict resolution, critical thinking, and the development of attitudes such as tolerance, openness, and motivation to learn about others. Mediation involves awareness of potential prejudices and stereotypes, as well as the ability to manage internal states without resorting to aggression. In relationships with others and those who are different, conflicts are a reality that should not be avoided. Therefore, it is important to equip students with the skill of conflict resolution in a non-violent way (Portera 2014; Huber et al. 2014). Critical thinking is closely linked to the cognitive dimension of intercultural competence, enabling an individual to reflect and critically approach different worldviews in plural societies (Milot 2007).
In teaching, such outcomes necessitate certain methodological approaches: “more active student engagement, more encouragement of critical and creative thinking, communication skills, problem-solving, group work, and so on” (Piršl 2011, pp. 65–66). Particular emphasis is placed on experiential forms of learning such as “simulation, case studies, volunteering, project-based learning, and role-playing” (Peko et al. 2009, p. 135). Considering that this is a confessional Religious Education setting and students do not have daily experiences of religious diversity, these approaches take into account the dialogical dimension, the development of critical thinking, interaction in teaching, and the facilitation of cooperation with various representatives of religious communities (Keast 2007; Council of Europe 2008).
Among Croatian scholars, the topic of intercultural education has been explored at the level of its implementation in the curricula, as the development of intercultural competence in teaching is linked to the teachers’ qualifications (Sablić et al. 2021). Recent studies indicate a correlation between the development of students’ intercultural competence and teaching methodologies. By comparing the knowledge that teachers acquired during teachers’ initial studies and implementation of teaching methods in classroom, a gap can be observed (Bedeković 2011). Qualitative content analysis of higher education curricula and certain case studies on students reveal an “imbalanced relationship between practice and programme content at the teacher training level. The solution proposed by the results relies not only on knowledge and well-designed programmes but also on the teaching methods that educators must implement, such as collaborative and experiential learning” (Peko et al. 2009, p. 151).
Given that the quantitative research among Catholic RE teachers showed that certain dimensions of intercultural competence remain underdeveloped, and that certain forms of work are less represented, in line with the findings of previous studies that highlight the importance of methodological approaches, the following question arises: How does Religious Education in Croatia help students achieve and develop intercultural competence in relation to the knowledge of other religions and worldviews? The school system offers Islamic, Orthodox, and Catholic Religious Education. This study is focused on the Catholic context.
2. Methodology
Research on teachers’ intercultural sensitivity highlights the connection between the development of intercultural competence and strategies in teaching, as well as teaching methods (Drandić 2016). The results of a survey conducted among Catholic Religious Education teachers in 2022 have confirmed a correlation between the teachers’ knowledge of intercultural competence acquired during their studies and their work in the classroom (Jurišić 2023). However, certain results revealed some inconsistencies. Therefore, the foundation of this work relies on the results obtained from the quantitative research and our aim is to deepen them through qualitative method. Experiential learning methods, when addressing interreligious content, are less represented (e.g., debates, visits to religious communities, hosting members of other religious communities). The teachers showed less proficiency in the matters of developing students’ critical and analytical thinking skills and in shaping attitudes. During their studies, Religious Education teachers were not trained for situations in which they would need conflict resolution skills; they develop these skills in practice, and to a significant extent among students (Jurišić 2023). This raises the question of how this skill is developed through their work and how they are trained for it. The aim of this paper is to examine teachers’ methodological approach to the development of intercultural competence, as well as the obstacles they encounter in the process of transmitting knowledge about other religions within Catholic Religious Education.
The research questions at the core of this study are:
Why are guest lectures and visits to religious communities less represented forms of learning in confessional Religious Education?
Which methods are used to develop specific dimensions of intercultural competence (conflict resolution, analytical and critical thinking, attitudes)?
Does interreligious learning lead to changes in students’ behaviour, and what are the obstacles to interreligious learning?
This research was conducted using a qualitative methodology, through semi-structured interviews. A qualitative approach to data collection and analysis provides deeper, more detailed, and richer data, allowing us to describe and explain the phenomenon of interest (Slišković and Burić 2020). The advantage of qualitative research lies in the fact that “it allows us to describe and interpret experiences, understand the meanings participants assign to events, grasp the context in which participants act, and comprehend the sequence in which specific events and/or behaviours occur” (Slišković and Burić 2020, p. 50). The target population for this research were Catholic RE teachers, with a sample consisting of nine Catholic Religious Education teachers—more specifically, three male and six female participants. All of them work in primary and secondary schools in the Zagreb County (Republic of Croatia). Four individuals have over 30 years of work experience, three between 20 and 30 years, one over 10 years, one between 5 and 10 years, and one between 1 and 5 years. In addition to the mandatory theological-catechetical education, one participant also completed studies in social pedagogy.
After conducting the interviews, a response analysis was carried out: nine transcripts were created, and a combination of open and axial coding was applied. Following the identification, codes were linked at a more abstract level into categories (Table 1). The categories were interconnected and placed in relationships with one another to provide a more precise and comprehensive explanation of the phenomenon and the relationships between categories and subcategories (Corbin and Strauss 1998). The research was conducted from March to June 2024. Before recording, participants were given an Informed Consent form, which they were asked to read and sign to authorize audio recording. The aforementioned form included information about the study and its purpose, the research procedure, confidentiality, anonymity protection, and the option to withdraw at any time. The average interview duration was 35 min. A guide for conducting semi-structured interviews, i.e., a questionnaire, was developed. The questionnaire included thematic sets: sociodemographic questions, introductory questions, questions about teaching methods, student behaviour, and the objectives and barriers in interreligious learning. The total number of questions in the questionnaire was 14, though some main questions included additional sub-questions to encourage discussion. The questions were created exclusively by the researcher for the purposes of this study. As agreed with the participants beforehand, the research results will be presented using pseudonyms, i.e., participant numbers, to maintain anonymity.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Application of Experiential Learning in Interreligious Learning
Why is experience important in interreligious learning? Learning about other religions and cultures with the goal of building social cohesion and tolerance requires encountering others. It is essential to acquire knowledge within diverse communities, as students will eventually communicate this knowledge in interactions with different worldviews (Goldburg 2010; Abu-Nimer and Smith 2016). Learning through experience fosters a deeper understanding and acceptance of religions. Interreligious dialogue is a key tool in developing intercultural competence; however, understanding a person of a different religion requires engagement and relationships (Abu-Nimer and Smith 2016). Experiential learning through encounters with those of different religious backgrounds is crucial for the success of interreligious learning, even if those encounters refer to the presence of students or teachers affiliated with other religions (Kolb 2021). These processes imply a pedagogy of encounter that broadens concepts about others, transforming perspectives. Transmitting cognitive knowledge and content alone is insufficient; experiences are essential for understanding interreligious learning (Gill 2016). One group of authors has categorized experiences in the learning context, distinguishing between the formal and the informal. Formal experiences include dialogic activities, such as discussions, debates, and visits to religious communities, while informal experiences include case study analyses and conversations with members of other religions (Mayhew and Rockenbach 2021).
Research conducted among students who belong to different religious communities in Zagreb, Croatia has shown that students acquire new knowledge about other religions more efficiently through active and experiential learning. Experiential learning has the power to eliminate prejudices toward other religions (Blanuša et al. 2014). However, in practice, most Religious Education teachers (52.9%) hardly ever invite representatives of other religions to their classes (Filipović 2016). Forms of experiential learning, such as dialogic learning, debates, guest speakers, and visits to other religious communities, are less common in practice (Jurišić 2023). Qualitative research confirms these findings. Formal forms of experiential learning, such as visits to religious communities, are present but not as a regular practice. They occur once a year, depending on the curriculum and the school’s resources. Only a small number of Religious Education teachers take their students to religious communities.
“The most enriching experience for them is when I take them there; I’ve already visited the rabbi in the Jewish community at least 15 times. (…) I’ve taken them to the Islamic religious community three times, but then I stopped, so I no longer take them there.”
(S3)
“I think it’s less present, although I also believe it depends on us, the RE teachers, and how much affinity we have for it. (…).”
(S4)
“(…) we visit the mosque when we study Islam. And the students who attend Religious Education as well as those who do not, go. (…) We also visit the Jewish community. For several years, we also visited the Greek Catholic church and the Orthodox church, as well as the Baptist church.”
(S6)
“(…) I always try, especially in the seventh grade, to organize field trips. (…) And the children who attend Religious Education as well as those who do not, go on them. (…)”
(S7)
“(…) we are limited in terms of the number of visits we can do within one school year.”
(S8)
“(…) it’s a bit more difficult with the experience. (…) We usually visit the Jewish community, the synagogue. We haven’t been to the mosque in a long time. (…)”
(S9)
In addition to encouraging interaction among students, experiential learning also includes guest lectures from members of religious communities within the school setting. Given that Islamic or Orthodox Religious Education is taught in schools, collaboration with Religious Education teachers from other religious communities in the school is also possible. However, the results show that the lectures held by members of other religious communities are not organised at all.
“Unfortunately, there was never any cooperation, despite my efforts (…). I even asked students to invite them (…). Cooperation simply did not happen.”
(S1)
The presence of students belonging to other religious communities, as a form of peer experiential learning, is more an exception than a rule.
“(…) It mostly comes down to our work in the classroom. If I manage to make it happen, it depends on whether such students are even present in the school, and willing to share their experiences. For example, if someone belongs to the Evangelical Church, they talk about that, or if they’re Muslim, and so on.”
(S1)
“When we talked about religious movements, we had a girl who was a Jehovah’s Witness, and she spoke about how they celebrate and live out their faith.”
(S9)
“In the fifth grade, when we were explaining religions, we would sometimes invite a girl or a boy to speak about their faith (…), and those were always impactful classes because everyone listened attentively. The students were proud to be in the centre of attention, and it was a really good experience.”
(S7)
Besides visits to religious communities, experiential learning involves acquiring knowledge about other religions through interactions characterized by dialogue and openness. This interaction includes the exchange of knowledge about different worldviews acquired by experience (Visser et al. 2021). In line with that, the Council of Europe proposes interactive learning methods to foster intercultural competence within interreligious learning (Table 2).
Setting intercultural competence as an outcome of the educational process requires active teaching methods. Croatian scholars also emphasize the importance of methodological approaches based on collaboration with others, incorporating sensory elements of learning to achieve the objectives of an intercultural approach (Hrvatić 2007; Bedeković 2011). Instead of merely transferring information, experiential learning should therefore come first in intercultural education: simulations, case studies, volunteering, project-based learning, and role-playing (Peko et al. 2009). More “active student work, greater encouragement of critical and creative thinking, communication skills, problem-solving, and group work is needed” (Piršl 2011, pp. 65–66).
Although Religious Education teachers do not apply all the methods mentioned above, the results show that informal learning is more prevalent. The interactive acquisition of knowledge about other religions is largely achieved through media, film, and similar means. Teachers are more inclined to use other forms of interaction, such as digital content, including video materials and presentations, collaborative learning through group research projects, and sharing their travel experiences as a form of contextual learning (Table 3).
Based on the statements of the participants, we can conclude that the most interesting and common way of presenting the religious dimension of intercultural content to students goes beyond the theoretical frameworks. The dialogical and cooperative forms of learning are present, but Religious Education teachers bring novelty to the methodological approaches they use in the confessional context. Interaction is achieved through the use of digital technologies, quizzes and games, stories about the customs of other religions, research-based learning through interviews, projects, and exhibitions. Contextual learning, on the other hand, is related to religious experiences during family travels.
3.2. Obstacles in the Implementation of Experiential Learning
Considering the results of the quantitative research, which indicated a limited use of experiential methods (Jurišić 2023), further corroborated by qualitative analysis regarding visits to other religious communities and hosting their members, the following question arises: What are the obstacles? Why do Catholic Religious Education teachers not include the experiential dimension in the form of visits and guest lectures? Moreover, why is the interaction in classrooms achieved through digital technologies?
Although Religious Education teachers recognize the importance of encounters, visits to other religious communities, and personal contacts, they point out certain obstacles that exist both on a personal level and within the educational system, limiting these visits. Teachers have identified several factors that pose a challenge to the implementation of experiential learning: personal attitudes, prejudices, and negative experiences with other religious communities. To a lesser extent, there is also a lack of openness within some religious communities to cooperate with Catholic RE teachers.
“Honestly, perhaps the problem lies in the prejudices among us (…) Such voices sometimes come also from the representatives of religious communities. (…) Not all religions teach about others from an ecumenical, dialogical perspective.”
(S2)
“(…) I have a personal issue; I no longer take them to the Muslims. And I hope no one is offended. I respect them, appreciate them, love them. I have neighbours with whom I am on good terms. But I no longer take students to them because of my own stance.”
(S3)
“There are also some personal barriers in my case. For example, I don’t want to go to a mosque, take off my shoes, and dress appropriately because, well, somehow it feels uncomfortable to me. I would rather invite guests to speak in a neutral setting (…). That’s my stance.”
(S8)
To a lesser extent, the reason lies in parental resistance to visits to religious communities:
“(…) sometimes some parents don’t even allow their child to enter, meaning they wouldn’t give us consent. (…) Parents often show resistance (…).”
(S4)
The explanation lies in the misinterpretation of the goals of Religious Education as a school subject. Research conducted in Rijeka, Croatia, confirms the fact that a large percentage of parents, 84.8%, perceive Religious Education in schools as faith education, focusing on the transmission of Christian content. While the socio-cultural dimension of Religious Education is acknowledged as one of its objectives, it is recognised to a much lesser extent (Rukavina Kovačević 2018). This dimension, which encompasses education for intercultural dialogue, is anticipated by religious-pedagogical experts to become a central aspect of Catholic Religious Education in the future (Rukavina Kovačević and Mrnjaus 2017). It is, therefore, necessary to work on informing parents about the broader objectives of the subject so they may appreciate the importance of learning about other religious communities within confessional Religious Education.
Religious Education teachers have identified time constraints as one of the challenges to implementing experiential learning. The limited teaching schedule hinders the organisation of fieldwork that cannot be accommodated within the 45 min framework of a regular school lesson.
“Well, the problem is the schedule, you can’t do much in 45 min. (…) Obstacles are more administrative, of course, followed by human factors, human resources (…).”
(S5)
“I see no obstacles except maybe time, organization, and parents’ approvals. Stepping outside the school grounds requires approval.”
(S7)
RE teachers stress administrative obstacles in the form of organizing lessons, obtaining approvals from the school board and parents, as well as finances. They also point out the lack of teacher motivation and the willingness of other colleagues to collaborate.
“Due to administrative difficulties, the experiential dimension is possible, but too demanding. (…) You need five signatures from parents. And then, it’s not only complicated to leave the school, but it’s also complicated to bring someone to the school. (…) You have to turn the world upside down to get them to come.”
(S1)
Only one respondent did not mention any obstacles:
“I’ve been working for 30 years, and I’ll say, without exaggeration, that we’ve had this cooperation surely for 20 years now (…) the cooperation with the Islamic community is the best. When we go on field trips, there’s no problem, as we, Religious Education teachers, go along with the class teachers. So, the whole class goes.”
(S6)
One of the obstacles pointed out by one teacher is the lack of knowledge of one’s own identity, which raises questions about prioritizing the understanding of the identity of others:
“Here’s one obstacle. I was thinking about taking my fifth graders to the mosque, but then I thought, most of them haven’t been to a church in a long time, and now I’m going to take them to a mosque? (…)”
(S5)
Therefore, the experience of Religious Education teachers points to a large number of obstacles within the system, which explain the previously mentioned data about the insufficient use of field trips and guest lectures as methods of experiential learning. Some of these obstacles are beyond their control, such as organization, administration, and permissions from the school and parents. However, it is evident that some of the obstacles stem from within, such as a lack of motivation, an unwillingness to organise experiential learning, and prejudices against certain religious communities.
4. Development of Intercultural Competence
After presenting a general overview of the experiential learning in addressing interreligious content, the next step is to review the results related to the specific dimensions of intercultural competence and the methods of work associated with them. Before examining the methodological aspect for the development of the cognitive–behavioural dimension of intercultural competence, we will present the results concerning the goals of interreligious learning and their connection to student behaviour. The development of students’ intercultural competence primarily relies on the goals of the teaching process.
4.1. Relationship Between Interreligious Learning and Student Behaviour
At a theoretical level, the goal of interreligious learning is the development of the behavioural dimension of the individual. Therefore, the goal is not the acquisition of knowledge itself, but rather the mediation of knowledge that leads to tolerance and coexistence of different religious beliefs and worldviews in society. Thus, we can speak of the influence of interreligious learning on student behaviour (Byrne 2011; McCowan 2016). Research conducted among high school students confirmed that learning about other religions at the peer level significantly impacts the knowledge and understanding of those religions, removing negative attitudes, stereotypes, and reducing discrimination. The experiential element in interreligious learning has a significant power to transform the individual (McCowan 2016). Other studies have also shown that knowledge of other religions increases levels of both passive and active tolerance (Lester and Roberts 2009). A study conducted among Spanish students demonstrated that the behavioural dimension of intercultural competence enhances problem-solving skills in a peaceful manner. The development of interreligious competence has proven to be crucial for mutual understanding, reducing tensions, and promoting harmonious coexistence (Aneas et al. 2024).
Before looking into the relationship between knowledge acquisition and behavioural change, we were interested in what Religious Education teachers aim to achieve with students, i.e., what their goal is. Catholic Religious Education teachers, in terms of the goals of interreligious learning, most often remain focused on the cognitive level, where they expect the acquisition of basic information, connecting the beliefs of other religions with Christianity. After that, they emphasize fostering attitudes of respect and tolerance toward differences. They see exposure to knowledge as a pathway to fostering respect and appreciating the richness in others. The goals of interreligious learning vary between cognitive and behavioural orientations. Primarily, they want to inform students about the other and the different. The development of attitudes of respect and tolerance is achieved through the knowledge transfer.
“(…) to show that God can be worshiped in various ways depending on traditions. Something that will have an impact on their attitude toward life (…).”
(S1)
“To recognize their own life context, in which there are members of other religions, as a shared place for coexistence with others.”
(S2)
“(…) I want to make them aware and open them up to learning about others and those who are different (…).”
(S3)
“I want them to get to know other religions (…) To accept others, to prevent discrimination, tolerance (…)”
(S7)
“I think the primary goal is to introduce them to the fundamental knowledge of other religions.”
(S9)
However, when asked to provide concrete examples where they believe interreligious learning has led to a change in attitude, the majority of respondents were unable to cite any. They believe that the insufficient coverage of those topics makes it difficult to discuss any impact on behaviour.
“I wouldn’t know. I feel like students come to Catholic Religious Education just to, well, just to get it done, you know? We’re here because we need it for the grade average, or because mom said so. (…)”
(S5)
“It is not reflected in their behaviour.”
(S9)
Religious Education is a privileged space for learning about relationships and communication with different identities, and in this context, the development of the behavioural dimension should not be assumed as an outcome that is accomplished without active learning. Religious Education teachers often assume an automatic change in student behaviour. Or, simply due to other educational influences—such as society, media, and family, as many findings indicate—they do not recognize the educational power of Religious Education. They do not consider the development of attitudes as a planned outcome of teaching the interreligious content.
However, a certain number of respondents provided examples from practice, showing that students can apply what they learn about others in their local context and that learning about others can indeed lead to changes in attitudes.
“Well, it definitely helps classes to be more inclusive.”
(S3)
“(…) when the earthquake happened in Turkey and Syria, we organized a school fundraiser for them, and the response was very positive. Everyone got involved equally, if not more (…). It didn’t matter at all what religion they were affiliated with. Empathy was really the focus (…).”
(S4)
“For example, this student who gave a presentation on Islam—I could sense that he was proud. Afterward, he was happy to see me in the hallway. (…)”
(S7)
The inability to develop the behavioural dimension is explained by the great influence other factors have on it. Teachers have identified certain factors that pose challenges but lie beyond their reach. One of the most common obstacles teachers highlight in the process of interreligious learning refers to the attitudes students acquire through family upbringing and the influence of media and social networks, to which children and young people are significantly exposed. They believe that these external factors have a greater educational influence:
“I believe the range of influences on their experiences is exceptionally broad today, and I think it’s difficult to even assess how much is due to education versus all the media influence (…).”
(S4)
“Students adopt and bring in what they see from their parents and friends. I think intolerance often arises because children pick up these attitudes from close relatives or older friends. (…)”
(S2)
RE teachers imply that many prejudices arise from the family context, which questions the need for learning about other religions in Catholic Religious Education classes. This finding is confirmed by research conducted among parents in Rijeka, Croatia, which reveals that parents do not sufficiently recognize the importance of fostering intercultural dialogue within Religious Education and are unaware of the goals of the subject (Rukavina Kovačević 2018).
“(…) I notice that even among children who attend Catholic Religious Education, (…), it seems to be a certain degree of radicalism that has emerged recently.”
(S4)
“(…) we learned about Islam in the fifth grade, and during our next lesson, one of the children comes to me and says, ‘My dad asked why we are learning about Muslims, was I not enrolled in Catholic Religious Education?’”
(S7)
The students’ closed-mindedness is evident in their questioning of the reason for learning about others within Catholic Religious Education, as well as in the increasing individualization:
“They often ask, why are we learning this now, we’re in Catholic Religious Education, not Jewish. (…) Do these religions learn about us? If they don’t learn about us, why do we have to learn about them?”
(S3)
“There’s a kind of alienation among them, a lack of interest in others and differences. It’s becoming harder to foster empathy. It’s tough. It’s really challenging.”
(S3)
The amount of content in the curriculum that forms the foundation for interreligious learning and field trips to other religious communities is also seen as an obstacle:
“(…) the new curriculum. On the one hand, it’s too broad in terms of content, but on the other hand, textbooks and workbooks should place more emphasis on other religions (…).”
(S9)
The curriculum for Catholic Religious Education includes goals aimed at fostering dialogical, ecumenical, and interreligious openness in students, and is aligned with the objectives of intercultural education (Rukavina Kovačević and Mrnjaus 2017). Research on the curriculum of Catholic religious education, as well as the analysis of textbook content, shows that interreligious and intercultural education is systematically promoted (Šegina 2024). An analysis of all Catholic Religious Education textbooks used in primary and secondary schools has revealed that, while the value of dialogue is being promoted, there is still room to increase content related to the religious and cultural pluralism (Rukavina Kovačević and Mrnjaus 2017). Research on the value-pedagogical identity of Catholic Religious Education showed that the value of intercultural dialogue and education for diversity is still not sufficiently represented, and this element is a key indicator of the changes that will take place in the Religious Education curriculum (Rukavina Kovačević 2018).
The explanation for the results regarding the inability to connect knowledge of other religions with changes in students’ behaviour towards religious differences can be found in the examination of methodological approaches aimed at developing the behavioural dimension of intercultural competence. The question arises as to whether RE teachers pay attention to the development of students’ attitudes or expect knowledge to passively shape their attitudes.
4.2. Methods for Overcoming Prejudices in Students, Cultivating Openness, and Fostering Motivation for Interpersonal Understanding
Rothangel asserts that we acquire biases through imitation, that is, by observing the reactions of individuals within our immediate environment. However, he does not attribute decisive influence to external factors, such as parents, peers, or the media, but rather emphasises the importance of the educational process. In this process, it is essential to bring students into direct contact with children and youth from different religious backgrounds in order to reveal potential biases acquired from their families or other surroundings, ultimately enabling attitudinal change. He thus argues that, in interreligious education, encounters between groups and individuals are highly valuable (Rothgangel 2016). Research conducted among students of pedagogy and cultural studies in Rijeka, Croatia demonstrates that knowledge about religious groups acquired in academic settings facilitates the development of positive attitudes towards national and religious communities (Mrnjaus 2013). Furthermore, research on social distance among Croatian high school students towards religious groups has raised questions about the capacity of Religious Education to shape students’ attitudes, highlighting the importance of student motivation, the role of Religious Education teachers, and the structure of Religious Education itself (Blažević Simić 2011).
What attitudes do we aim to cultivate in students? Attitudes that consist of tolerance, reduction of prejudices, and the elimination of discrimination are primary goals of interreligious education, with the ultimate aim of fostering coexistence. An affirmative attitude involves inspiring curiosity in students, helping them see differences as opportunities to enrich their own faith rather than as a threat. We were interested in which methods Religious Education teachers use to overcome biases, promote openness, and motivate students to engage with individuals affiliated with other religions. However, Religious Education teachers did not report using experiential methods to develop positive attitudes toward those of different religions; this omission may be explained by the aforementioned obstacles. Meetings and interactions with other religious communities were not identified as methods actively used to shape attitudes, although they are somewhat present in practice, as indicated by prior findings on experiential learning. Interestingly, however, teachers themselves did not associate these encounters with fostering openness, motivation, and the reduction of prejudice. Participants’ statements thus far partially underscore the limitations of Religious Education in influencing attitudes, especially when compared to other factors.
“It is difficult (…). Students are already shaped; I mean, they come from different family backgrounds and often tend to replicate conversations or situations from home.”
(S5)
Research conducted by D. Vican and E. Piršl among teachers across various counties highlighted the importance of teacher attitudes in the educational process. A teacher’s role is not only informative but also formative, encompassing the promotion of understanding and tolerance (Piršl and Vican 2004).
Religious Education teachers foster attitudes towards those affiliated with other religions through the technique of teacher modelling. The development of attitudes, thus, strongly relies on learning through imitation:
“(…) through examples. Through concrete things. By looking at things from a different angle. I deeply believe that kids remember and learn through examples and correlations. Because then you get a different perspective.”
(S1)
“By setting that example, I think we encourage children to act similarly.”
(S6)
The development of attitudes that we expect to notice in students’ behaviour must be fostered through social learning. Cultivating a sense of empathy for others within the context in which students live allows them to become aware of discrimination and recognize it in society through the knowledge they acquire. Developing affirmative attitudes toward religious differences requires both an understanding of others and situating that knowledge within the social context in which students live and where they are able to actively engage (Visser et al. 2021). The application of this form of teaching by Religious Education teachers has been relatively limited.
“(…) Muslims pray the morning and evening prayers around the time when the public streetlights in Zagreb are turned on and off (…). Then, for example, I encourage them to use this as an association when they encounter the moment when the lights turn on and off in the city, and how wonderful it would be if the whole world united in prayer, each in their own way.”
(S1)
Role-playing is used as a method in teaching Christian content, but it is also linked to the development of empathy for others and the relationship towards those who are different:
“(…) somehow through the role of Jesus Christ, because when we look at it, He is truly the greatest liberal. (…) But I have a feeling that this is more about information and less about formation.”
(S4)
“(…) for example, Jesus is an excellent figure for interculturalism… They often have the opportunity for dramatic expression, and then you discover a child you haven’t seen in that light before.”
(S6)
Primarily, the focus is on acquiring knowledge, on the transfer of information that should subsequently influence the student’s behaviour and attitudes.
“(…) I believe this must first happen at the cognitive level, so we present to students the current teachings of the Catholic Church on others (…) I guide students to the method of brainstorming, and then when I mention Islam, often the course of this brainstorming leads to terms like bomb, jihad, and so on. (…) For each of these prejudices, I provide a positive counterpart related to that religion.”
(S2)
Discussion is also one of the methods used, but they view the development of attitudes as a challenge within the process of education and upbringing.
“(…) discussion. The question is how many of them say what they mean (…) that possibility of expression as a form of work. And I am glad when someone says something so radical because it gives us an opportunity to discuss it.”
(S4)
“Conversation, and it starts from there.”
(S6)
We can conclude that the majority of Religious Education teachers do not use direct methods to develop attitudes of openness, motivation, curiosity, and tolerance. Instead, the behavioural dimension of intercultural competence is expected as an outcome that is passively acquired through the knowledge of others and by observing teachers’ attitudes toward other students. While this aspect is certainly important, we cannot agree that it represents the only method of learning. Some Religious Education teachers emphasize the powerlessness of education in terms of fostering tolerance, highlighting the decisive role of external factors, particularly family upbringing. In line with the theory, they rely on the knowledge that leads to affirmative attitudes. Role-playing and debates are less commonly used. However, as evidenced by the aforementioned results of the study on the prevalence of experiential learning, this method is not applied for the development of the behavioural dimension of intercultural competence, though we could argue that it is, in fact, the most effective method for overcoming prejudice.
4.3. Methods for Developing Conflict Resolution Skills
Quantitative research results indicate that Catholic Religious Education teachers are not trained in terms of conflict resolution skills during their studies, yet they significantly develop these skills with students during Religious Education classes (Jurišić 2023). This raises questions about how these skills are fostered in their work and what type of training supports this. Intercultural competence encompasses the ability to interact with diverse identities and worldviews, which naturally leads to varying opinions and potential conflicts. That is why teachers need to acquire conflict resolution skills that encourage peaceful conflict management and avoidance. A teacher’s task is to equip students with specific strategies they will use later in life. One of the primary goals of intercultural education is to develop conflict resolution strategies, one of which is cooperative learning. This approach fosters positive interdependence among students and ultimately leads to the development of social skills. Alongside cooperative learning, role-playing and multiperspectivity are also recommended, as they allow students to compare different viewpoints (Huber 2012). Teachers can further reduce conflicts by exposing students to situations in which they can experience various biases, enabling them to better understand how to resolve conflicts (Yue and Ning 2015). Catholic Religious Education teachers also incorporate these methods in their practice.
“(…) My students regularly assess themselves based on the predefined criteria when they have an oral exam. (…) then a small conflict arises. And I usually tell the students (…) it’s important to mention someone’s name (…) because it shows a friendly attitude. The second step (…) is to express your own view and explain how you understood the other person’s perspective, then give them the floor to share their thoughts. (…) this is a game that actually becomes a principle for resolving things.”
(S1)
“A cooperative approach (…).”
(S9)
“(…) And I always use role-playing, asking what we would do and how we would act if it were our own children.”
(S4)
A high level of intercultural competence increases the propensity for collaboration and adaptation in conflicts (Deardorff 2018). Learning about equality, equity, and respect directly contributes to the development of conflict resolution skills through peaceful means. Nonviolent conflict resolution is one of the key indicators of highly developed intercultural competence (Polat and Metin 2012). The development of trust and the promotion of stable relationships stem from intercultural competence. The results confirm that Catholic Religious Education teachers place significant emphasis on teaching about others and highlighting positive values in students, such as respect for diversity, empathy, as well as reciprocity in terms of rights and mutual relationships.
“Discussing with students some customs of other religions that may be incomprehensible or unacceptable to us (…).”
(S2)
“I use every opportunity to instil in children the idea that we have the right to be different and that diversity is not an obstacle but an opportunity. (…).”
(S7)
By sharing personal life examples in the context of peaceful conflict resolution, Religious Education teachers also demonstrate their own intercultural competence.
“I start from my experiences and personal examples. I explain that violence and conflicts are never the solution.”
(S3)
“Since I enjoy telling stories to the kids, I share a story from my own life.”
(S1)
The ability to resolve conflicts peacefully within the framework of intercultural competence involves internal reflection on the issue as well as the capacity for a constructive external response (Bertelsmann and Cariplo 2008). Knowing how to ask “why” and adopting an investigative approach are methods used by Religious Education teachers to encourage students to adopt another person’s perspective.
“(…) through understanding and investigation. (…) when they learn the ‘why’, they think differently. When they see where people come from and why, they’ll be able to resolve their own conflicts. (…).”
(S8)
The results indicate that Religious Education teachers do not associate this skill exclusively with a single topic but view the entire curriculum as an opportunity to convey certain attitudes explicitly and implicitly. Teachers emphasize that every topic in Religious Education can serve as an occasion for acquiring the skill of nonviolent conflict resolution. It can be concluded that teachers place greater emphasis on the passive acquisition of this skill throughout the year, rather than focusing on it directly within interreligious education. Additionally, they highlight the importance of their own attitudes and interactions with students during lessons and outside the classroom, e.g., in the school hallways, as methods that profoundly influence students through passive learning and that they later on replicate.
“I think these skills truly need to be nurtured on a daily basis. I feel it’s embedded in the teaching style. There’s no strict definition, but in every hallway encounter, in conversations with a child, through personal example. It’s a way of being (…).”
(S6)
As demonstrated by the quantitative research (Jurišić 2023), Religious Education teachers that participated in this research confirm that their studies did not significantly contribute, or contributed only minimally, to the development of their conflict resolution skills. They emphasize the importance of personal, life, and professional experiences, as well as the influence of family connections and friendships with individuals of different religions. This suggests that experiential learning has proven to be the most effective teaching method for developing these skills. With this in mind, it can be asserted that education alone cannot serve as the sole instrument for developing conflict resolution skills among students. Like all other dimensions of intercultural competence, this is a lifelong learning process shaped by relationships and situations, often taking place outside the classroom.
“In the family, because I grew up in a context that was multi-confessional (…) I was not taught just tolerance, but active coexistence full of respect for what others believe.”
(S2)
“That would be life. (…) a combination of both. Life experience and university.”
(S3)
“(…) primarily due to my upbringing rather than my studies.”
(S4)
“(…) maybe outside of university.”
(S8)
The results of the qualitative research show that the methods for developing conflict resolution skills in Religious Education are applied both in the context of interreligious topics and beyond them. The methods most frequently used by Religious Education teachers in developing conflict resolution skills include games, investigative approaches, and role-playing, as well as methods that implicitly anticipate the acquisition of these skills, such as dialogical formats, discussions, highlighting certain values, and acquiring knowledge that serves as a prevention of violence.
4.4. Methods for Developing Critical Thinking Skills
Alongside findings indicating weaker development of the behavioural dimension of intercultural competence, the results also revealed a limited development of the cognitive dimension, i.e., individuals remain at the level of information transmission and knowledge acquisition without fostering critical analytical skills (Jurišić 2023). Critical thinking represents a result of practice and education. Acquiring this skill requires training, and it is situated within the educational context (Yue and Ning 2015). Critical thinking is a skill that constitutes the cognitive element of intercultural competence, where knowledge of other religions is acquired in a critical manner. According to Deardorff’s model of intercultural competence, the skills of analysis, interpretation, and evaluation are crucial for its development and assessment. Therefore, critical thinking is of utmost importance in the process of acquiring intercultural competence (Esen 2021). This skill also requires specific methodological approaches. According to M. Barrett, sharing personal experiences and critically reflecting on them, role-playing, simulations, text analysis, films, plays, collaborative learning, and project-based learning are just some of the methods that need to be applied for the development of intercultural competence and critical thinking as its integral component (Barrett 2018). Research has shown that the application of collaborative learning, alongside acquired knowledge, contributes to the development of critical thinking and logical reasoning, as well as the development of communication and collaboration skills, which results in noticeable improvements in the quality of interpersonal relationships and more effective interaction (Bedeković 2011). In presenting Freire’s Critical Pedagogy, Cathy Byrne highlights the limitations of interreligious learning in the context of the dominant Christian culture, emphasizing its privileged position of power from which it speaks and represents other religious perspectives, making critical thinking more difficult to achieve. For critical thinking to be realized, it is essential to include the authentic voice of the Other, rather than only presenting one perspective, which often comes from an authoritarian stance of the teacher. A strong identification with one perspective prevents the acquisition of new knowledge. According to Freire, critical thinking is achieved through comparison, questioning, and exploration without judgment or limitations. Critical thinking requires an outsider perspective (Byrne 2011).
The qualitative analysis showed that the role-playing and dramatic expression methods are applied when learning about the contents of one’s own faith, as well as in relation to individuals on the margins of society.
“This is already more complex. It’s not simple (…) If I see that the children are less motivated (…) I challenge them to make comparisons, give them a concrete example from the lives of Old Testament figures, the lives of the apostles, Jesus, Mary, and try to modernize it with some contemporary names. (…) they get involved in the story, they somewhat immerse themselves in it, distinguishing what is good, which attitudes are good, how they should behave in specific encounters (…).”
(S3)
“They role-play with the stance of considering how they would act…”
(S4)
One of the methods involves problem-based learning, which requires critical reflection on the issue (Yue and Ning 2015). Problematic situations are presented as a logical response to the question of methods needed for developing critical thinking. However, in explaining the implementation process, it becomes clear that they understand the problem-based approach as a conversation. The research-based problem-solving approach is carried out dialogically.
“When we have a conversation and set a problem task, I encourage them to speak up and express their opinion, but I always remind them to respect each other. It is mostly a conversation. (…).”
(S5)
“There are a lot of prejudices at the beginning, and we start from how much I know. Then, when we begin to discover, someone remembers something, and we build on that knowledge.”
(S6)
The research-based approach places emphasis on the student, yet it remains unclear how and in what way the teacher guides the student towards critical thinking. This prompts the question of whether these methods leave students confined to presenting information rather than critically analysing or evaluating it.
“It’s not easy. (…) mostly through research, actually. I guide them, give directions on what, how, and in what way to work. It’s mostly about some projects (…).”
(S9)
The choice of reading materials for home assignments, particularly those linked to contemporary social topics, enables the organisation of debates in class. This method helps students develop their ability to express their viewpoints and critically analyse media-sourced information (Yang 2024). The debate method is rather important, and teachers need to know how to lead it as a learning process, so that students can actively participate in the debate (Kolb 2021). Debate, as an approach that highly contributes to the development of this skill, is not used at all by the Religious Education teachers included in this study.
Additionally, it is necessary to create a learning process in which learning takes place through the exchange of information between the teacher and the students, not through a hierarchical transfer of knowledge (Yue and Ning 2015). This approach, where knowledge is not mediated hierarchically but as an exchange, is included in the classroom activities of Religious Education teachers:
“… it works best when they teach each other, whatever the topic is. (…) The knowledge is somehow suggested, quite unobtrusively, but that is where opinions and attitudes are formed.”
(S8)
The method of reflection after experiential learning, which encourages critical questioning of the acquired knowledge, is also common.
“I focus on what you liked, what seemed unusual to you, what you might have liked, what seems more interesting than what we know. (…) And then, there are some questions and reflections, (…).”
(S6)
Acquiring knowledge necessitates a critical perspective on one’s own religion to gain a deeper understanding of its history, diverse dimensions, and inherent limitations (Visser et al. 2021). Some Religious Education teachers use the method of critical approach when teaching about their own faith.
“In Religious Education, a critical approach to everything is always present, from studying Christianity to always exploring both the positive and negative sides of customs and regulations.”
(S8)
Critical thinking also requires the ability to contextualize content in interreligious learning. This way, students gain insight into conflicts and misunderstandings that arise due to the lack of understanding and knowledge of the context in which a particular religion originated (Visser et al. 2021).
One respondent highlighted the use of contextualization in learning as a way to develop critical thinking towards other faiths.
“(…) something we always try to understand is the time and space in which that religion was born. (…) Research, research on your own.”
(S8)
Such critical thinking represents a challenge for both students and teachers, as confirmed by one respondent who expressed the difficulties of developing critical thinking as a skill.
“It is easier to provide ready-made solutions, to stay on the level of information. I must say that this is also easier for children. When I set a task that is more difficult, there is some resistance at first.”
(S9)
According to the results of the research survey, Religious Education teachers are not trained to develop critical and analytical thinking skills in students and develop them to a lesser extent compared to other skills (Jurišić 2023). Methods for developing critical thinking are present in the work of Religious Education teachers, but only partially. The results of the qualitative research indicate the frequent use of the following methods in practice: dialogue, role-playing, problem-based learning, research, reflection, and contextual learning. Debate is not represented, even though it is the most effective way of acquiring critical thinking skills. Although the research and problem-based approaches are mentioned, they are not clearly defined, and it is uncertain what they refer to. We can conclude that the focus of the lessons is more on information than on analysis and reflection, and that students support these learning processes more because they are less demanding. The challenge of the teaching process lies in staying at the informational level. Teachers view Religious Education as a space that implicitly involves critical thinking through its content, but their responses do not point to the learning processes that would lead students to develop critical thinking skills. Much like the behavioural dimension of intercultural competence, critical thinking is understood as an outcome that is achieved through the learning process itself, but is not purposefully planned. The problem-based approach requires guided reflection, not just the presentation of one’s own ideas and opinions.
5. Conclusions
The aim of this study was to examine the methodological approaches employed by teachers in developing the behavioural and cognitive dimensions of intercultural competence, and to explore the obstacles encountered in the process of transferring knowledge about other religions and worldviews within Catholic Religious Education. The qualitative research conducted among Catholic Religious Education teachers both confirmed and deepened the findings obtained through quantitative research.
When addressing interreligious content, formal experiential learning activities, such as visits to religious communities, are present but not as regular practice. Only a small number of teachers take students to religious communities, and visits by the representatives of other religious communities do not occur at all. The prevalent form of informal interactive learning when dealing with interreligious content is the presentation of the religious dimension of intercultural content to students.
Religious Education teachers use innovative methodological approaches within a confessional context by incorporating digital technologies to enhance student interaction. They also use quizzes, games, storytelling about the customs of other religions, and research-based learning methods, such as interviews, projects, and exhibitions.
The underrepresentation of experiential learning was attributed to several factors, including personal attitudes, prejudices, and negative experiences with other communities; the insular nature of religious communities towards collaboration; parental resistance to visits to religious communities; time constraints; and administrative obstacles, such as the organization of classes, and obtaining permissions from the school management and parents. Financial limitations and a lack of teacher motivation for collaboration were also cited as significant barriers.
At the level of educational goals, the results have showed that Religious Education teachers most often remain focused on the cognitive aspect of interreligious learning. They regard awareness as the pathway to fostering respect and appreciating the richness in other traditions. However, they perceive obstacles to interreligious learning in the influences of family upbringing, media, and social networks, which they believe exert a greater educational impact than classroom teaching. Moreover, they noted a lack of curricular content that could serve as a foundation for interreligious learning.
The limited development of the behavioural dimension of intercultural competence appears to stem from the use of inadequate methods. Most Religious Education teachers do not employ methods to develop attitudes of openness, motivation, curiosity, and tolerance. Role-playing, debates, and experiential learning are less frequently employed, while experiential learning is not mentioned at all. The development of the behavioural dimension of intercultural competence is treated as an outcome that is passively achieved through the acquisition of knowledge about others and by observing the teacher’s attitudes toward other students. They also highlighted the greater educational influence of parents in this area.
The qualitative research further revealed that conflict-resolution skills were not developed during their studies but were acquired through personal, life, and professional experiences, as well as family ties and friendships with individuals from other religions. This gap in formal training is reflected in their teaching methods, and the development of such skills is often tied to the teacher’s role and personality. Greater emphasis is placed on the passive acquisition of conflict-resolution skills through the teacher’s attitudes and interactions with students, both in and outside the classroom.
Methods aimed at fostering critical thinking in Religious Education are employed only to a certain extent. Debate, recognised as one of the most effective methods for cultivating critical thinking, is not utilised enough. The research-based and problem-based approaches to learning are not clearly defined, with teaching predominantly focusing on the transmission of information rather than encouraging analysis and reflection—processes that students reportedly favour due to their lower cognitive demands. Given that the results showed insufficient development of critical thinking skills and the absence of adequate methods, one can ask the following question: does it confirm Freire’s argument about the impossibility of critical thinking in interreligious learning, as it takes place from a dominant Christian perspective that does not include the authentic perspectives of others? However, considering confessional framework of RE, there are two possible solutions. In order to achieve the authentic voice of the Other through experiential learning, it is necessary to address barriers at the administrative level, as well as at the level of changing the teacher’s attitude, contributing to their greater openness during their studies and as part of professional development.
A significant challenge in the teaching process lies in the tendency to remain at an informational level; it is necessary to equip and sensitise teachers to prioritise the development of attitudes, critical thinking skills, and conflict-resolution skills. The absence of experiential learning can largely be attributed to external factors, such as family upbringing and parental attitudes. It is therefore crucial to inform parents about the objectives of the subject to help them appreciate the importance of introducing students to other religious communities within the confessional Religious Education context. We advise implementation of experiential learning at the level of initial teacher education and professional development. Experiential learning can include online meetings as well as work in the local community context, the city, or the area to which the school belongs. In collaboration with parents, RE teachers could promote workshops aimed at raising awareness of the intercultural goals of RE.
Conceptualization, M.J. and M.Ž.K.; methodology, M.Ž.K.; software, M.J.; validation, M.Ž.K.; formal analysis, M.J.; investigation, M.J.; resources, M.J.; data curation, M.J.; writing—original draft preparation, M.J. and M.Ž.K.; writing—review and editing, M.J. and M.Ž.K.; visualization, M.J.; supervision, M.Ž.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The study did not require ethical approval.
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author due to privacy and ethical reasons.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Presentation of obtained codes.
| Development of Intercultural Competence |
| Goal of interreligious learning |
| Experiential learning |
| Interactive learning |
| Teaching methods: conflict resolution development |
| Teaching methods: critical thinking and analysis development |
| Teaching methods: attitudes development (preventing prejudices, tolerance, openness, and motivation to learn about others) |
| Obstacles |
| Obstacles in interreligious learning |
| Obstacles in experiential learning (guest lectures and visits to religious communities) |
Interactive learning methods (
| simulation, to create situations that involve dialogue, dilemmas, and critical thinking |
| role playing, to replicate and understand others’ perspectives and emotions |
| “living“ libraries |
| encouraging students to objectively reflect on their own and others’ existence and viewpoints |
| phenomenological approach |
| interpretative approach |
| contextual approach |
Interactive learning statements.
| Interactive Forms of Work in Interreligious Learning |
|---|
| Dialogue, discussion |
| Cooperative learning |
| Sacred texts of other religions |
| Contextual approach |
| Film/video/photography |
| Games/quizzes |
| Interviews with members of different religious communities |
| Storytelling |
| Creative work: exhibitions, posters |
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Abstract
According to European organizations, intercultural competence is considered a prerequisite for achieving social cohesion. Even though its development calls for a lifelong learning approach, the formal education system has a primary task in its development through all school subjects, i.e., the entire school curriculum. In the last twenty years, international and European organizations have emphasized the importance of religious education in developing students’ intercultural competence. The Republic of Croatia has applied European recommendations in its educational documents and defined intercultural competence as one of the fundamental competencies in the national educational curriculum. The question arises of how religious education in the Republic of Croatia helps students achieve and develop intercultural competence concerning knowledge of other religions and worldviews. This paper is focused on Catholic Religious Education in primary and secondary education. Data are collected using semi-structured interviews among nine Catholic RE teachers in Zagreb County, Republic of Croatia. Qualitative research is based on findings of a quantitative survey conducted among Catholic religious education teachers in 2022. The research questions are: (1) Why are guest lectures and visits to religious communities less represented forms of learning in confessional Religious Education? (2) Which methods are used to develop specific dimensions of intercultural competence (conflict resolution, analytical and critical thinking, attitudes)? (3) Does interreligious learning lead to changes in students’ behaviour, and what are the obstacles to interreligious learning? This paper aims to examine the methodical approaches of RE teachers in the development of intercultural competence, as well as the obstacles they encounter in the process of imparting knowledge about other religions and worldviews within Catholic religious education. Results have shown that the teaching process remains at an informational level; the development of attitudes, critical thinking skills, and conflict-resolution skills is lacking. The absence of experiential learning can largely be attributed to external factors, such as administrative obstacles and teacher’s/parents’ attitudes.
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1 Catholic Faculty of Theology, University of Zagreb,10000 Zagreb, Croatia
2 Department of Sociology, Catholic University of Croatia, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia