Lake Iriqui’s Remarkable Revival: Field Observations and a Google Earth Engine Analysis of Its Recovery After over Half a Century of Desiccation

Abstract

In September 2024, following two rare storms, Lake Iriqui in southern Morocco experienced a remarkable revival after five decades of desiccation. Historically, the lake played an important role as one of the largest water bodies before the Sahara Desert, serving as a critical stopover in migratory routes for various bird species. Two field missions documented this event: the first confirmed the lake’s reappearance, while the second recorded the resurgence of the ecosystem and the return of migratory birds, last observed in the lake in 1968. The lake’s surface water extent, which had been completely dry, expanded dramatically, reaching over 80 km² after the first storm and subsequently increasing to approximately 146 km² following the second. This event has drawn considerable attention from international and national media. The revival was monitored using satellite imagery from Landsat 8 and 9 and Sentinel-2A, processed through Google Earth Engine (GEE), with the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) applied to detect water presence. A time-series analysis revealed significant changes in the lake’s surface water extent following the rainfall. This study emphasizes the need for proactive support to preserve Lake Iriqui, aligning with sustainable development goals: SDG 15 (Life on Land) and SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth). These goals highlight the importance of sustainable water resource management, biodiversity conservation, and eco-tourism initiatives to benefit local communities.

1. Introduction

Historically, Iriqui Lake was one of Morocco’s significant natural landmarks, nestled deep in the Moroccan desert. It served as a vital source of life for the region but dried up over 50 years ago due to decreasing rainfall and intensifying desertification. The advancing desert sands blocked the valleys that once fed the lake, cutting off the water supply and contributing to its complete desiccation. This phenomenon of lake desiccation is not unique to Iriqui; it is observed globally and is linked to the combined effects of climate change and human pressures [1,2,3,4,5]. Numerous major lakes worldwide, including the Dead Sea in the Middle East [6], the Aral Sea in Central Asia [7], Lake Chad in Africa [8], and Lake Urmia in Iran [9], are experiencing similar declines. These changes are influenced by factors such as upstream dam construction [10,11], unsustainable water resource management [12], climate change [13], and agricultural expansion leading to over-extraction [14]. Lake drying leads to diverse consequences, including health risks from desiccation-related illnesses [15] and significant ecological impacts [16]. It disrupts habitats for species such as waterbirds, fish, and amphibians [17,18,19], causing biodiversity loss [20,21]. Additionally, it removes essential stopover sites for migratory birds, impacting their survival and migration routes [22].

In Morocco, however, there is limited documentation on the water-level decline in inland water ecosystems like Iriqui Lake and their natural or artificial revivals. The recent revival of Iriqui Lake following an exceptional meteorological event provides an invaluable opportunity to study such phenomena locally. Recently, the eastern region of Morocco experienced intense and exceptional rainfall, affecting areas around Foum Zguid, Zagora, and the Bani Mountain range [23]. These rains were more than a transient weather event; they catalyzed the revival of Iriqui Lake, presenting a spectacular and rare phenomenon that has attracted attention from numerous international and national media platforms, including NASA Earth Observatory, The Guardian, Newsweek, El Pais, and others.

The study of Lake Iriqui is crucial due to its multifaceted importance. As a vital habitat for endemic wildlife [24,25], the lake plays a key role in biodiversity conservation in an arid region. It also serves as an indicator of climatic and hydrological changes, reflecting the effects of rainfall patterns, runoff, and drought. Understanding these dynamics is essential for predicting how arid ecosystems will respond to climate change. Moreover, the successful management of the lake can help preserve ecological balance, enhance biodiversity, and provide vital ecosystem services to local communities [26,27]. Positioned as the last significant wetland before the Sahara Desert, Iriqui is an essential stopover for migratory birds, marking its importance in supporting regional and cross-continental biodiversity [28].

This study investigates and monitors the remarkable revival of Lake Iriqui using satellite imagery from Landsat 8, Landsat 9, and Sentinel-2, processed via Google Earth Engine (GEE) to assess changes in the lake’s surface water extent. The Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) was applied to detect water presence, with a time-series analysis capturing dynamic changes before and after rainfall events. Despite the challenges posed by the lake’s remote and harsh environment, fieldwork was conducted to validate satellite data and observe the return of life to the lake. In addition to examining the recent revival, this paper also aims to monitor the lake’s resilience over time. This research highlights the necessity for comprehensive, long-term conservation strategies that integrate hydrological management, ecological restoration, and socio-economic development. Lake Iriqui’s unique ecological role and strategic regional position present both a challenge and an opportunity for conservationists, local communities, and policymakers. Its recent revival underscores nature’s resilience and showcases the potential for collaborative efforts to sustainably manage desert wetlands and ecosystems on a global scale.

2. Study Area

Iriqui Lake (coordinates: X = −6.504690, Y = 29.812698) is located at an altitude of 450 m, approximately 160 km south of the city of Zagora in southern Morocco, situated between the provinces of Zagora and Tata, at the southern foot of the Jbel Bani Mountain range (Figure 1). The surrounding features include sand dunes (Erg) to the east and south, the Madaouer Seghir Mountain to the southwest, and the Draa River with its tributaries to the south (Figure 2). The lake covers an area of 7086 hectares and forms part of the Iriqui National Park [24], and classified as an IUCN Category IV area in 1967 [29], the park is recognized for its critical ecological role, spanning 123,000 hectares, and is dominated by sand dunes [28]. The lake receives water after occasional storms from ephemeral watercourses flowing from the Jbel Bani Mountains, particularly Oued El Mhasser, as well as from the now-dry Oued El Madaouer and Draa River. In wet periods, the lake temporarily becomes a vital stopover for migratory waterbirds like flamingos and geese, adding ecological significance to the region. Historically, Iriqui Lake was significant for flamingo nesting, with observed breeding pairs between 500 and 1500 during the period of 1957 to 1968, before the species deserted the site due to the drying of the lake following the construction of the Mansour Eddahbi Dam in 1971 [30,31,32]. The climate data for this remote region, based on the only available meteorological data from a station installed in the study area from 2001 to 2012 by Schulz and Fink [33], indicate that, according to Gaussen’s criterion, each month of the year is dry, as the average temperature, when doubled, consistently exceeds the average monthly precipitation (Figure 3). This points to an extremely arid climate, where precipitation is insufficient to balance the high temperatures characteristic of deserts or semi-arid regions.

Socially, the lake holds great importance as a gathering spot for various transhumant tribes, including El Mhazil, Krazba-M’Hamid, Nouaji, Ben Abbou, Isfoul, Ait Atta, and others [24].

The lake is part of the Draa River basin, one of the driest catchments in the world, where sand encroachment and desertification are severe [34]. Decades of dryness have caused sand dunes to cover parts of the lake, diverting the tributaries of the Draa River away from the lake. This diversion occurs because the rivers in the area are shallow and easily shift direction, as the entire region is a vast plain with nearly uniform altitude.

The Draa River basin is characterized by vast and arid landscapes, where some regions receive only minimal rainfall annually, often just a few millimeters. However, when rain does occur, it can be intense [35,36].

A recent instance of this took place on 7 and 8 September 2024, when an extratropical cyclone passed over the northwestern Sahara, delivering heavy rainfall to parts of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. The meteorological stations surrounding Lake Iriqui, namely Tagounit, Mhamid el Ghizlane, Zagora, and Foum Zeguid, experienced a significant rainfall event, resulting in substantial precipitation, generating a total of 378.5 mm that represented and was equivalent to the rainfall of seven years (Table 1). Preliminary satellite data from NASA’s IMERG (Integrated Multi-Satellite Retrievals for GPM) shows accumulations ranging from tens to over 200 mm of rain in the affected regions [37].

3. Methodology

This study employed combined field observations of Landsat 8 and 9 and Sentinel-2 satellite imagery processed in Google Earth Engine (GEE) to monitor the revival of Iriqui Lake.

3.1. Missions to Iriqui Lake

The discovery of water in the lake before the expedition was made possible through a satellite imagery analysis, particularly images from the Sentinel satellite. These images provided accurate data on the accumulation of water in this area. Clear indicators from the satellite data confirmed the lake’s re-filling after heavy rains, motivating the research team to travel to the site and verify these findings on the ground. In an effort to document this rare natural phenomenon, a research team from Ibn Tofail University, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, in Kenitra (Morocco), comprising experts in geography and environmental studies, embarked on an expedition to the lake. The team had to navigate difficult paths, including valleys filled with rainwater and streams overflowing with runoff, making the trek to the lake a significant challenge (Figure 4).

Fieldwork verification was an essential aspect of this study, but accessing the lake proved to be challenging due to severe environmental conditions caused by recent thunderstorms. The investigation encompassed several steps to reach the study area. The first step was to travel to the nearest city on 13 September 2024. The remote nature of the study area made access difficult, as rocks displaced by water flows blocked pathways, and muddy conditions made travel dangerous. The unstable ground, particularly areas of sand covered by water, posed a significant risk to vehicles, potentially trapping them. The second step included a waiting period from 13 to 15 September 2024 in the same city, awaiting clearance from local guides. On 15 September 2024, the team received a call from the guide to move toward the lake site. The journey to the lake took approximately four hours across difficult terrain. This expedition confirmed the presence of water in the lake.

The second mission was organized from 22 to 26 October 2024, in coordination with the “Agence Nationale pour le Développement des Zones Oasiennes et de l’Arganier” (ANDZOA) in Zagora. The mission aimed to observe the resurgence of the ecosystem and the arrival of migratory birds.

3.2. Data Acquisition and Processing in GEE

We utilized both Landsat 8 and 9 and Sentinel-2 imagery to conduct a detailed analysis of water cover changes, particularly in response to a significant rainfall event on 7, 8, and 21 September 2024. Landsat 9, with its 30 m resolution, was selected for large-scale environmental monitoring, focusing on Red (B4), Green (B3), and Blue (B2) bands to generate true-color composites. To detect water bodies, we applied the NDWI, calculated using Green (B3) and Near-Infrared (B5) bands (Equation (1)), following McFeeters [38]. Sentinel-2 imagery, with its superior 10 m resolution, was also employed to provide higher spatial detail. The same Red (B4), Green (B3), and Blue (B2) bands were used for creating true-color images, but NDWI was computed using the Green (B3) and Near-Infrared (B8) bands, allowing for enhanced water feature detection.

(1)$\mathrm{N}\mathrm{D}\mathrm{W}\mathrm{I}={\displaystyle \frac{Green-\mathrm{N}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{r}-\mathrm{I}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{f}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{d}}{Green+\mathrm{N}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{r}-\mathrm{I}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{f}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{d}}}$

To ensure clarity and accuracy, we filtered both Landsat 9 and Sentinel-2 images using the GEE, selecting only those with less than 5% cloud cover. We then focused on capturing imagery from key dates before and after the rainfall event. The NDWI results were compared across multiple dates to observe temporal changes in the lake’s water extent, with Sentinel-2’s higher resolution providing additional validation. The integration of both satellite datasets in GEE allowed for a comprehensive understanding of water dynamics over time, offering critical insights into the lake’s response to climatic events. Data on the used satellite images are shown in Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4, including the satellite type, image IDs, dates, and resolutions.

To monitor the temporal variation of Lake Iriqui, GEE code for Landsat and Sentinel data was used to track changes from before the storms, through Storms 1 and 2, up until 29 October 2024.

3.3. Vectorization and Water Area Calculation in ArcGIS

After generating the NDWI images in GEE, we exported the results and processed them in ArcGIS. Firstly, the NDWI raster was converted into vector format using a threshold of NDWI > 0.1 to highlight the water bodies [39]. Next, the vectorized NDWI results allowed us to calculate the total area covered by water.

3.4. Ground-Truthing Observations

A total of 200 random points from different locations around and within the lake were recorded using GPS and drone footage. To evaluate the accuracy of the NDWI maps, the error matrix method was applied. This allowed for the calculation of the overall accuracy and the Kappa coefficient, as described by Congalton and Green [40]. Additionally, Multiple metrics were used to assess the accuracy of each class based on the confusion matrix. Producer Accuracy (PA) measures the percentage of correctly classified samples in each class relative to actual samples, providing accuracy from the producer’s perspective. User Accuracy (UA) represents the percentage of correctly classified samples relative to the total classified samples in each class, indicating accuracy from the user’s perspective [35,41]. The F1 Score, as the harmonic mean of UA (Precision) and PA (Recall), balances both measures to provide an overall performance metric, with values closer to 1 indicating better classification accuracy.

4. Results

4.1. Satellite Data Analysis

Figure 5 presents a comparison between the Landsat 8 image from 1 September 2024 (pre-storm) and the Landsat 9 image from 9 September 2024 (post-storm). Similarly, Figure 6 shows Sentinel satellite images from 30 August 2024 (pre-storm) and 9 September 2024 (post-storm). Both satellite images in Figure 5 and Figure 6 demonstrate a significant landscape transformation due to the storm and the resulting terrain. The pre-storm image shows a dry, arid terrain with sparse vegetation and total absence of water, while the post-storm image reveals widespread floodwaters concentrated in green-toned areas, with darker shades indicating deeper water. Brownish regions, representing sediment-laden runoff, suggest intense erosion and sediment deposition following the storm. The valleys and low-lying basins have collected floodwaters, with clear runoff paths visible through the terrain. This stark contrast emphasizes the storm’s impact on the landscape, providing insights into water coverage. However, Figure 7 reveals two images that represent the same region after the storm, comparing water coverage using the NDWI from Sentinel-2 and Landsat 9, both captured on 9 September 2024. The Sentinel-2 image (top) shows a clear delineation of water bodies, with darker blue tones indicating areas of significant water coverage. The NDWI highlights not only the central water body but also smaller streams, channels, and flood paths. NDWI images and field observations demonstrate that the most important water source reviving the lake comes from the north, originating from mountain watercourses after storms.

Following the vectorization of the raster data, the total water-covered area was estimated to be approximately 69.7 km² (Figure 8), indicating a significant accumulation of water after the rainfall event. This result aligns with both the remote sensing analysis and field observations, highlighting the storm’s impact on the lake’s hydrology and surrounding landscape.

4.2. Temporal Dynamics of Water Area and Volume Pre- and Post-Storm Events

The Landsat and Sentinel-2 observations following two storm events reveal significant changes in the water area and volume across the region, highlighting differences in the datasets’ spatial and temporal resolution (Figure 9 and Table 5). Initially, on 1 September 2024, Landsat data showed no detectable water area, reflecting dry conditions prior to the storms. Following the first storm on 07–08 September, the Landsat image captured on 9 September 2024 at 10:58:00 recorded a sudden increase in the water area, totaling 71.82 km², but showed no water accumulation in the Draa Valley. This indicates that while runoff and accumulation occurred in certain areas, regions like the Draa Valley may not have received sufficient runoff at this point to be detected. Subsequent Landsat imagery on 25 September 2024, following the second storm on 20–21 September, showed the water area reaching a peak of 88.96 km², suggesting additional accumulation from the second storm. Gradual reductions in the water area were observed on later dates, with 77.45 km² on 3 October 2024, 69.81 km² on 11 October 2024, and 55.53 km² on 27 October 2024, likely due to natural drainage, infiltration, and evaporation processes.

Sentinel-2 data provided a different perspective of the same events due to its higher resolution. Pre-storm observations on 30 August 2024 recorded no water area, affirming the dry baseline prior to the first storm. However, after the storm on 9 September 2024 at 11:13:09, Sentinel-2 showed a larger water area of 84.61 km², with visible water accumulation in the Draa Valley. This is in contrast to Landsat’s data, which did not detect water in this valley on the same day.

The rapid increase in the water area in Sentinel-2’s observations suggests immediate runoff and accumulation from the first storm, capturing smaller and more fragmented water bodies, particularly in areas like the Draa Valley. Sentinel-2’s subsequent observations on 14 September 2024 showed a decrease in the water area to 56.78 km², reflecting dispersal or evaporation following the storm. After the second storm, Sentinel-2 data on 24 September 2024 recorded a peak of 146.98 km², indicating significant additional runoff and accumulation. A gradual decline in the water area was observed on 29 September 2024 (103.82 km²), and further reductions were recorded (93.60 km²) on 4 October 2024, (90.80 km²) on 9 October 2024, and (62.72 km²) on 29 October 2024, showing the gradual dispersal and natural reduction in accumulated water.

The multi-image series (Figure 10) illustrates the temporal variation of Lake Iriqui’s area and the surrounding land area using Sentinel-2 images, captured over three consecutive months (30 August, 9 and 29 September, and 9 October 2024). In August, the image shows a barren landscape, with only sand, argil, and rocks visible in the dry lakebed. By September, the lake begins to fill rapidly, and the shift in color highlights the presence of water. The water coverage increases significantly, supporting the resurgence of biodiversity in the region, which emphasizes an amazing ecological transformation of the lake, showcasing its dynamic recovery.

4.3. Accuracy Assessment for the NDWI Maps

An accuracy assessment for Sentinel-2A showed a user accuracy of 96% for water and 92% for no water, with a producer accuracy of 92.31% for water and 95.83% for no water. The overall accuracy is 94%, with a Kappa statistic of 0.88 (Figure 11). For Landsat 9, the user’s accuracy is 93% for water and 90% for no water, while the producer’s accuracy is 90.29% for water and 92.78% for no water (Figure 12). The overall accuracy is 91.5%, and the Kappa statistic is 0.83. These results indicate high classification accuracy for both water and no-water areas. However, this accuracy could be further improved, if areas classified as water but found dry during a field visit six days after the storm were correctly identified as water on the day of satellite capture (9 September 2024).

4.4. Ecosystem Recovery

During our initial visit to Iriqui Lake, approximately six days after its revival, we observed almost no vegetation around the lake perimeter due to years of severe drought. However, by our second visit, about a month and a half later, signs of ecological recovery had become evident. The lake was teeming with high densities of triops, along with large populations of water insects, particularly Libellula dragonflies and their larvae (Figure 13) and numerous dipteran (fly) insects around the lake. Aquatic life continued to reappear, including various bivalves, coleopteran (beetle) species, and several grasshopper species, further indicating a thriving freshwater ecosystem.

Migratory bird flocks, notably grey herons (Ardea cinerea) and little egrets (Egretta garzetta), had arrived, using the lake as a critical stopover on their migration route between Europe and Africa. Other observed bird species included sandgrouse (Pterocles senegallus and Pterocles coronatus), brown-necked ravens (Corvus ruficollis), and desert sparrows (Passer simplex). Additionally, we spotted Tadorne casarca (ruddy shelduck), which further enriches the avian diversity of the area. We also found bird eggs along the banks of the lake, suggesting that some species are using the area for breeding. In addition to birds, we observed Agama lizards, Uromastix acanthinurus (North African spiny-tailed lizard). The presence of various predators and prey reflects the balanced recovery of a functioning ecosystem in and around the lake.

Vegetation began to regrow around the lake, particularly in areas enriched by sediments from nearby streams. Among the species observed were Pancratium trianthum, Fagonia zilloides, and Anastatica hierochuntica (resurrection plant), as well as reeds (Phragmites), acacia raddiana, and rushes (Juncus). In contrast, areas with sandy dunes and extensive mudflats showed little to no plant growth, limiting vegetation to areas with organic matter and soil deposits.

4.5. Tourism Surge at Lake Iriqui

We observed a notable increase in the number of visitors attracted to Lake Iriqui, highlighting the exceptional interest generated by its recent resurgence after decades of drought. Tourists from various regions gathered around the lake, often traveling in off-road vehicles like 4 × 4 s, trucks, and motorcycles, either in organized groups or as independent travelers. The lake’s unique landscape—where water intersects with desert dunes—creates breathtaking panoramic views that, along with the scenic Medour Seghir Mountain, offer a striking backdrop that is especially appealing to nature enthusiasts and photographers (Figure 14).

This influx of visitors is partly due to the lake’s geographic location along one of the most iconic Saharan tourism routes, connecting Mhamid to Foum Zguid. As a natural stop along this route, Lake Iriqui has become a major draw for travelers eager to experience desert landscapes. Conversations with several tourists revealed that news of the lake’s revival had circulated widely through the media and social networks, sparking the curiosity of those who journey specifically to witness this rare desert phenomenon. Some travelers even adjusted their itineraries or extended their stays to see Lake Iriqui in its revived state.

While this surge in tourism presents a valuable opportunity to boost the region’s profile, it also raises important considerations regarding sustainable resource management. The sudden influx of visitors and the impact of motorized tourism could pose risks to the lake’s delicate ecosystem. Preserving Lake Iriqui’s environmental integrity will require balanced tourism strategies that protect the area’s natural beauty while allowing visitors to enjoy this remarkable desert oasis responsibly.

4.6. Insights from Lake Iriqui’s Regeneration

This unique case study highlights the delicate interplay between extreme weather events, local geography, climate, and ecological resilience that is required for the regeneration of long-dried lakes like Lake Iriqui. The regeneration of Lake Iriqui depends on several critical conditions (Figure 15):

• i.. Intense and Unusual Rainfall Events: The revival of Lake Iriqui after five decades of desiccation was triggered by rare, intense storms in September 2024. These unusual rainfall events generated significant runoff, reaching the lakebed and allowing it to fill once more. For lakes in arid environments, such rare storms are often essential to initiate the regeneration process.

• ii.. Basin Topography and Geology: Lake Iriqui is situated within an endorheic basin, meaning water collects within the basin rather than draining out to the sea. The surrounding topography effectively channels and retains rainwater within the lakebed, which is essential for water accumulation. Additionally, the geology and soil permeability of the area play a role in water retention and limit rapid infiltration, allowing the lake to hold water for a more extended period.

• iii.. Climate Conditions and Extended Rainfall: The arid climate of southern Morocco poses challenges for water retention due to high evaporation rates. However, the second storm on September 21, along with cooler temperatures and additional rainfall in October, helped maintain the lake, reducing the rate of evaporation and extending the water’s presence. This interplay between rainfall events and cooler periods following them is critical to sustaining water in the lake.

• iv.. Ecosystem Resilience and Biotic Factors: Lake Iriqui’s ecosystem displayed remarkable resilience. Dormant seeds, spores, and other biotic elements in the lakebed began to regenerate as conditions improved. The return of large flocks of migratory birds, which had not been seen since 1968, also indicates the presence of a resilient ecosystem ready to support life when water returns.

5. Discussion

The revival of Lake Iriqui stands as a powerful example of nature’s resilience, emphasizing the need for proactive conservation efforts to protect critical ecosystems. After remaining dry for more than half a century, the lake refilled naturally, not even responding to major floods in previous rainy seasons, including those of 2002, 2009, and 2014 [36,42,43,44]. However, its recent natural resurgence has brought life back to the area, starting with the reappearance of triops, ancient crustaceans often called “living fossils” [45]. These remarkable organisms, which hatched from dormant eggs buried in the lakebed for decades, were among the first signs of observed life and likely provided a vital food source that attracted hundreds of migratory bird species to the lake. This recovery underscores Lake Iriqui’s ecological significance as one of the last major water bodies before the desert and highlights the importance of maintaining its water supply to support biodiversity and sustain migratory pathways in the region [46].

Remote sensing data provides invaluable insights into the hydrological changes and flood dynamics of Lake Iriqui. A notable discrepancy in recorded water areas emerges between Sentinel-2 and Landsat imagery. The Sentinel-2 image acquired on 24 September 2024 recorded a water area of 146.98 km², while the Landsat image from 25 September 2024 recorded one only of 88.96 km². This discrepancy can be explained by several factors:

-Timing of Acquisition: Sentinel-2 captured the region shortly after the storm on 21 September, likely capturing the peak water spread, including runoff-fed intermittent rivers. By the time Landsat acquired its image the following day, water levels may have declined due to drainage, infiltration, or evaporation, processes characteristic of arid environments [47].

-Spatial Resolution: Sentinel-2’s higher spatial resolution (10 m) enables the detection of smaller and fragmented water bodies [48], as well as finer details in hydrological features [48], compared to Landsat’s 30 m resolution. This allows Sentinel-2 to provide more precise assessments of flood extents, especially at water-body edges and in smaller channels.

-Hydrological Complexity: The lake’s surrounding terrain and the ephemeral nature of its hydrological system further complicate water-area assessments. Seasonal flooding patterns, temporary tributaries, and localized infiltration can lead to significant spatial and temporal variability. These complexities highlight the value of combining multiple remote sensing datasets to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of flood dynamics in such environments.

Looking ahead, the focus must extend beyond the lake’s revival to questions about its long-term viability. Key considerations include the sustainability of Lake Iriqui’s water supply and the potential scenarios for its future in light of changing climatic conditions, human activity, and possible environmental management strategies. Understanding these dynamics is essential for establishing policies that balance ecological preservation with sustainable development.

Detailed hydrological mapping, facilitated by high-resolution satellite data, can guide decisions on water management, including potential connections with surrounding rivers or tributaries, and provide critical insights into the lake’s water sources. Together, these efforts could create a foundation for lasting restoration and resilience, preserving Lake Iriqui as a valuable ecological and cultural resource.

The rehabilitation of this wetland is essential to preserving the park’s biodiversity.

To sustainably preserve Lake Iriqui and restore its surrounding ecosystems, several key measures can be undertaken:

• i.. Water supply and replenishment:

The lake is surrounded by four main rivers, Oued Draa, Oued Zguid, Oued El Madaouer, and Oued Lmhasser, with the latter playing a significant role in reviving the lake. Several studies suggest two main solutions for restoring water supply [28,44], namely, diverting water from Oued Drâa or Oued Zguid using small diversion dams.

• ii.. Complementary Actions for Ecosystem Restoration:

Efforts to restore local flora focus on stabilizing dunes to prevent sand encroachment, reforesting to combat desert expansion, conserving water and soil to support the regrowth of native plants, and reintroducing indigenous forest species. Since 2018 [49], wildlife reintroduction initiatives have successfully brought back Dorcas gazelles and ostriches, both of which are adapting well to the area a few kilometers east of the lake.

• iii.. Infrastructure development and Ecotourism development:

Improving roads and developing new routes will significantly enhance connectivity for local communities and support sustainable tourism in Lake Iriqui. One proposed infrastructure project is the construction of a road through Foum Lachar and the El Mhasser Mountain Pass, which would cut the travel time from the city of Zagora to the lake in half, from four hours to just two. This improved access could attract more visitors while facilitating the growth of ecotourism and sustainable development around the lake [50].

The area surrounding Lake Iriqui also boasts fascinating archaeological sites [51] and fossil deposits dating back to the Paleozoic era, providing unique educational and cultural experiences for tourists interested in geology and early human history. With careful planning, these attractions could be integrated into the ecotourism model, allowing visitors to appreciate the region’s rich natural and historical heritage. Balancing infrastructure improvements with conservation strategies will be essential to protect these delicate sites and to promote responsible, low-impact tourism that benefits both the local community and the environment.

The rapid re-establishment of diverse flora and fauna at Iriqui Lake underscores its ecological significance in the Sahara.

Water restoration measures, such as channeling water from nearby rivers, align closely with SDG 15 (Life on Land) by supporting efforts to revive Lake Iriqui and preserve its biodiversity. This action sustains a unique desert ecosystem that provides a critical habitat for migratory birds and other species. Infrastructure improvements and ecotourism development around the lake would stimulate the local economy and create sustainable livelihoods, supporting SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth). Through these integrated efforts, the restoration of Lake Iriqui can inspire sustainable practices that balance conservation and socio-economic development.

One limitation of this study was the short duration of our field visit, which restricted our ability to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the lake’s ecosystem, including its flora, fauna, and ecological dynamics. A longer observation period would have provided more complete documentation, capturing variations and interactions within the ecosystem. We strongly recommend that future research initiatives involve multidisciplinary teams specializing in ecology, botany, ornithology, and hydrology to conduct in-depth studies of Lake Iriqui’s biodiversity, water quality, and overall ecological health. Such visits would help establish baseline data essential for effective conservation and restoration efforts, facilitating better-informed management decisions and supporting the full ecological recovery of this critical Saharan ecosystem.

6. Conclusions

The revival of Lake Iriqui in September 2024, following two rare storms, exemplifies the remarkable resilience and vulnerability of desert ecosystems to episodic rainfall events. Our field missions confirmed the lake’s reappearance and observed the resurgence of life within the ecosystem, including the return of migratory birds, after decades of desiccation. A remote sensing analysis, utilizing Landsat 8 and 9 and Sentinel-2A imagery processed through Google Earth Engine, provided valuable insights into the lake’s hydrological dynamics.

This study illustrates the vital role that Lake Iriqui plays in supporting biodiversity, particularly as a crucial stopover for migratory birds in the Saharan region. The lake serves as one of the last significant water bodies before the vast Sahara Desert, making it an essential habitat for various species. The return of the lake and its surrounding ecosystems underscores the importance of preserving such wetlands, which contribute to regional and international biodiversity, stabilize local microclimates, and serve as key ecological corridors for migratory wildlife.

However, this study also emphasizes the urgent need for proactive conservation efforts to ensure the long-term sustainability of Lake Iriqui’s ecosystem. The findings highlight the necessity for sustainable water resource management and habitat preservation strategies that balance ecological health with the needs of local communities. These efforts are crucial for maintaining the lake’s role as a vital water source for wildlife and supporting the surrounding agricultural and pastoral livelihoods.

In this context, aligning conservation strategies with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) becomes imperative. This study particularly highlights the relevance of SDG 15 (Life on Land), which emphasizes the importance of protecting biodiversity. Furthermore, the development of ecotourism opportunities surrounding Lake Iriqui, while safeguarding its ecosystem, could significantly contribute to SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) by providing economic benefits to local communities through sustainable tourism initiatives.

Ultimately, this research reinforces the importance of integrated, long-term conservation strategies that encompass hydrological management, ecological restoration, and socio-economic development. Given the lake’s unique position in the region and its ecological significance, it serves as both a challenge and an opportunity for conservationists, local stakeholders, and policymakers. The revival of Lake Iriqui is a powerful reminder of nature’s resilience, and with concerted efforts, it can serve as a model for the sustainable management of desert wetlands and ecosystems worldwide.

Author Contributions

All authors played significant roles in the study’s conception and design. A.M. and M.Y. led the missions’ preparation and conception. A.M. conducted field observations, data collection, the Google Earth Engine (GEE) analysis, and wrote the manuscript. A.K. contributed to writing the manuscript. T.B., D.L., M.B. (Mohamed Boulakhbar) and A.A.Y. participated in field observations, and all authors provided feedback on earlier drafts. The study was supervised by J.A.K., M.B. (Mouhcine Batchi). and M.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data Availability Statement

Datasets generated or analyzed during the current study are available upon request.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our heartfelt gratitude to the President of Ibn Tofail University, Mohamed Larbi Kerkeb, whose vision and support were instrumental in driving this research forward. Additionally, we would like to acknowledge the support of Said Lahrouz, Said Laaribya, Hicham El Yazami, Said Gougaz, and Youssef Boudlal, whose contributions were essential for these missions. Finally, we thank Mohamed Haroura and Fadili for serving as our guides during these missions.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Mohamed Yassine was employed by the company Caravane du Sud. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Figures and Tables

Figure 1. Localization of the study area (a) Location within Morocco, (b) Localization between Zagora and Tata Provinces (c) Detailed Location of the Study Area: A Map Showing the Nearest City (Zagora), the Bani Mountains, and Iriki Lake.

Figure 2. Extracted topographic map focusing on Lake Iriqui and surrounding features.

Figure 3. The ombrothermic diagram of the Iriqui Meteorological Station.

Figure 4. Landscapes of the study area during the fieldwork and before. (a) Lake Iriqui in 2010, completely dry; (b) a view of the lake during the team’s mission, showing damaged roads preventing access; (c) a photo of one of the occurred storms in the area (photo c was sent by a local nomad from a nearby village); (d–f) surrounding landscape flooded after the storm, which blocked the team from reaching the lake for five days; (g) a panoramic view of Iriqui Lake, with two team members visible on the left for scale, appearing small against the large expanse of the revived lake.

Figure 5. Sentinel-2 true color composite: pre- and post-storm comparison.

Figure 6. Landsat 8 and 9 true color composite: pre- and post-storm comparison.

Figure 7. Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) from Sentinel-2 L2A and Landsat 9.

Figure 8. Raster map of data on the lake extracted from Landsat 9: post-vectorization.

Figure 9. Water area based on Landsat and Sentinel-2 observations.

Figure 10. Temporal variation of the area of Lake Iriqui (false color composite) using Sentinel-2 images.

Figure 11. Sentinel-2A NDWI classification accuracy.

Figure 12. Landsat 9 NDWI classification accuracy.

Figure 13. Ecological recovery of Lake Iriqui. Illustrations of animal and plant species observed at Lake Iriqui, highlighting aspects of its ecological revival. (a) A triop species; (b) Sphinx butterfly; (c) Libellula dragonflies and their larvae undergoing metamorphosis; (d) Reeds (Phragmites) along the lake’s edge; (e) bird egg found along the lake’s banks; (f) large flocks of migratory birds at sunset over the lake.

Figure 14. Drone image of an aerial view of Lake Iriqui surrounded by dunes, showcasing the striking contrast of water encircled by sand dunes. This unique landscape highlights the lake’s revival amidst the arid desert, illustrating the interaction between water and sand that draws both wildlife and tourism to the region.

Figure 15. Diagram of key conditions for the revival of Lake Iriqui.

Table 1

Summary of the rainfall data from the meteorological stations surrounding Lake Iriqui. Data are provided by ORMVAO (Office Régional de Mise en Valeur Agricole du Ourezazat).

Station	Date	Rainfall (mm)	Distance from Lake Iriqui (km)	Direction from Lake Iriqui	Coordinates	Equivalent Rainfall
Tagounit	7–8 September 2024	174.5	87	Northeast	(−5.553280,29.991485)	3 years
	21 September 2024	37
Mhamid el Ghizlane	7–8 September 2024	105.5	73	East	(−5.726501,29.819926)	3 years
	21 September 2024	28
Zagora	7–8 September 2024	55	80	Northwest	(−5.840502,30.359968)	1 year (annual average)
	21 September 2024	61
Foum Zeguid	7–8 September 2024	53.5	43	Northwest	(−6.87800530.081833)	-
	21 September 2024	42

Table 2

Used satellite image IDs used to monitor the first storm.

Satellite	Image ID
Landsat 8	LC08_L2SP_201039_20240901_20240906_02_T1
Landsat 8	LC08_L2SP_201040_20240901_20240906_02_T1
Sentinel-2	S2A_MSIL1C_20240830T105621_N0511_R094_T29RQP_20240830T133232
Landsat 9	LC09_L2SP_201039_20240909_20240910_02_T1
Landsat 9	LC09_L2SP_201040_20240909_20240910_02_T1
Sentinel-2	S2A_MSIL1C_20240909T105621_N0511_R094_T29RQN_20240909T132859

Table 3

Satellites image data (pre-storm).

Satellite	Date	Path/Row	Tile (Sentinel-2)	Resolution
Landsat 8	1 September 2024	Path 201, Row 39	-	30 m
Landsat 8	1 September 2024	Path 201, Row 40	-	30 m
Sentinel-2	30 August 2024	-	Tile 29RQP	10, 20, 60 m

Table 4

Satellite image data (post-storm).

Satellite	Date	Path/Row	Tile (Sentinel-2)	Resolution
Sentinel-2	9 September 2024	-	Tile 29RQN	10, 20, 60 m
Landsat 9	9 September 2024	Path 201, Row 39	-	30 m
Landsat 9	9 September 2024	Path 201, Row 40	-	30 m
MODIS	9 September 2024	-	-	500 m

Table 5

Water area and estimated volume based on Landsat and Sentinel-2 observations.

Date	Observation Source	Water Area (km2)	Volume (million m3) *
9 September 2024	Landsat	71.82	28.73
17 September 2024	Landsat	42.23	16.89
25 September 2024	Landsat	88.96	35.58
3 October 2024	Landsat	77.45	30.98
11 October 2024	Landsat	69.81	27.92
27 October 2024	Landsat	55.53	22.21
9 September 2024	Sentinel-2	84.61	33.84
14 September 2024	Sentinel-2	56.78	22.71
24 September 2024	Sentinel-2	146.98	58.79
29 September 2024	Sentinel-2	103.82	41.53
4 October 2024	Sentinel-2	93.60	37.44
9 October 2024	Sentinel-2	90.80	36.32
29 October 2024	Sentinel-2	62.72	25.09

* The volume was estimated based on field measurements, considering an average depth of 40 cm (0.4 m); so, the volume (million m³) = Water Area (km²) × Depth (m) ×10⁶.

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