1. Introduction
Water is the foundation upon which humanity relies for survival and development. In an era before the widespread rise of industrialization and urbanization, people around the globe generally tended to develop their livelihoods in accordance with the natural environment. Throughout history, lakes, which are widespread on the Earth’s surface, played a vital role as environmental supports, showcasing their unique functional value in the harmonious coexistence between humans and nature. A notable example is the Tonle Sap Lake-centered water regulation and storage network developed during the Khmer Empire of Angkor (802–1432), which not only sustained diverse aquatic livelihood activities [1] but also exemplified the adaptive management of the lake’s natural hydrological processes [2]. Similar lake-based livelihood systems can be found in Lake Iliamna [3] in the United States, Lake Victoria [4] along the South Australian Victorian border, and Lake Fuquene [5] in Colombia. In China, Hangzhou’s West Lake represents another exemplary case. By integrating with surrounding mountains and waterways, it has historically formed a regional water regulation system that supported the area’s livable development and ultimately evolved into a globally renowned cultural landscape [6]. These lakes, through prolonged human–land–water interactions, have fostered models of harmonious coexistence between humans and the environment, embedding ecological wisdom and sustainable development practices within their systems.
However, the dual pressures of accelerating climate change and urbanization have brought the ecological challenges of urban lakes to the forefront [7,8,9,10] while also compromising their landscape quality to varying degrees [11,12]. In response to the growing societal demand for high-quality living environments, a global wave of urban lake landscape development has emerged. Yet, the construction of many artificial lakes frequently overlooks the holistic consideration of surrounding water systems. Characterized by small surface areas, shallow depths, and slow water flow [13], such lakes often exhibit poor self-purification capabilities and high susceptibility to external disturbances. Consequently, they frequently confront challenges such as water pollution, diminished ecological value [11], low-quality recreational spaces, and exorbitant management costs. Therefore, constructing urban lakes that are ecological and beautiful and possess certain water conservancy functions while consistently preserving their diverse values poses a common challenge for cities globally. Against this backdrop, scholars have begun to seek answers from history [14].
China has diverse land types and abundant natural mountains and rivers. Under the influence of ancient agricultural civilization and the idea of “harmony between man and nature” [15], the city mode of the organic combination of human settlements and mountains and rivers has been formed [16]. The original meaning of “west lake” is “a lake located on the west side of an ancient city (inside or outside the city)” [17]. China’s overall terrain characteristic of “high in the west and low in the east”, combined with the traditional urban planning ideology that integrates natural landscapes, has led to the existence of many lakes named “West Lake” (which is translated into “WL” uniformly by the following text) in various cities across China, with a long historical background. Historical records, ancient books, local chronicles, poems, and even folk stories frequently document the genesis, location, scales, functions, management methods, scenery, and human activities associated with WLs. The official Ming Dynasty compilation, Yongle Encyclopedia, specifically collated and recorded 36 WLs, while the Complete Library in the Four Treasuries of the Qianlong period included over 70 WLs. Additionally, there are some specialized documents on WLs such as Chronicles of West Lake, Records of West Lake, Chronicles of Huizhou West Lake, etc. This demonstrates that during China’s historical period, WLs were not only widespread but also recognized by both officials and civilians. In traditional urban landscape systems, WLs were often featured prominently in the “Eight Scenic Views” associated with various cities. A total of 33 WLs are included in the cultural system of China’s traditional “Eight Scenic Views” of cities [18]. Furthermore, in the “Eight Scenic Views” of cities such as Kunming, Yingzhou, Jinan, etc., there is more than one scenic spot associated with WLs. Additionally, there are scenic spots such as the “Ten Scenic Views” of Hanghzou WL, “Eight Scenic Views” of Huizhou WL, and “Eight Scenic Views” of Fuzhou WL, indicating that WLs have become a universal scenic symbol in the context of China’s specific natural geography and sociocultural context [19,20]. However, the accelerating processes of globalization and urbanization have gradually eroded many traditional cultural landscapes [21,22], including WLs. This has led to a diminishing understanding and appreciation of their historical and cultural value. The inscription of Hangzhou WL Cultural Landscape on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2011 revived global interest in traditional Chinese lake scenery exemplified by WLs [6], and the “WL Model” has gradually become an ideal paradigm for creating livable environments [23]. Therefore, systematically reviewing WLs in China’s history; understanding their formation and development mechanisms; uncovering the wisdom behind their construction and the historical, social, scenic, and cultural values they embody; and summarizing the traditional landscape creation characteristics of this type of scenery can help enhance the local and international recognition of WLs. This can not only ensure the scientific and effective implementation of cultural heritage protection in national spatial planning but also provide experience for the construction of modern urban lakes.
The primary disciplines that initially paid attention to regional history were history, sociology, and archeology. By the 1980s, landscape anthropology emerged, focusing on the interactive relationship between humans and their surrounding environment [24]. However, such research largely depends on in-depth fieldwork and interviews [25,26], tends to focus on specific regions, and lacks applicability to historical studies that span multiple epochs. In late 20th century, Berkes’ [27] concept of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) gained widespread recognition and was extensively applied in various fields such as regional cultural studies, traditional revitalization, and biodiversity conservation [28]. Similar terminology includes indigenous ecological knowledge (IEK) [29], local ecological knowledge and local knowledge [30], etc. However, these studies have primarily focused on the aspects of local technology, local society, and local culture, with applications mostly in the research of local settlements, traditional livelihoods, and ethnic settlements. There has been relatively little attention paid to the spatial features of the landscape. The research methods of landscape history originated from the work of historical regionalists, specialists in environmental issues, or landscape archeologists [31,32] and traditional research methods including fieldwork and desk research. In the mid- to late 20th century, advances in Geographic Information Systems (GISs) catalyzed a spatial turn in landscape research, enhancing methodological precision and enabling more visual analyses [33]. In the early 21st century, the methodology of landscape historiography was introduced into the study of traditional landscapes, and many scholars employed this approach to explore the characteristics of traditional landscapes influenced by specific individuals [34,35], geographical units [36], or particular types of feature elements [37,38].
Current research on WLs is quite extensive. Zhang [39] restored the scenery of Xuzhou WL during the Tang and Song dynasties using historical documents. Yang [35] integrated landscape historical research methods to interpret the heritage value of Yangzhou WL. Zhang [6] studied the evaluation system of Hangzhou WL at the time of its inclusion in the World Heritage List and compared it with the actual perceptions of Chinese tourists, interpreting the cultural landscape of Hangzhou WL through this comparison. Liang [40] analyzed the “Eight Scenic Views” and “Twelve Scenic Views” of Huizhou WL in the Ming and Qing dynasties, exploring its landscape and cultural characteristics. Yan [41] conducted a comparative study of Hangzhou WL, Yingzhou WL, and Huizhou WL, all influenced by Su Shi, and summarized the “Dongpo Model” and its ecological principles. While these studies offer valuable insights, their research subjects are either case studies of one WL or comparative studies of three to four WLs within similar regions. The research content mainly focuses on three aspects: first, historical description; second, the analysis of the characters and literary works related to the construction of the WLs’ landscape [42,43]; and third, the current landscape characteristics and value of the WLs [44,45,46]. A few national studies, such as that by Mao who analyzed 36 WLs recorded in Yongle Encyclopedia·Auspicious Water, identify common characteristics of these WLs [20] and proposed the ecological wisdom embedded in “WL Culture” [21]. Wu [17], under the guidance of Professor Mao, and Qiu [18], advised by Professor Li, surveyed over 80 WLs across China. However, these studies focusing on WLs across China primarily emphasize data statistics and the cultural phenomena they present. The systematic summarization of the spatial and landscape characteristics of these WLs remains inadequate, highlighting a gap in current research.
To address the gaps in previous research, this paper adopts a landscape historiography approach to systematically study WLs during the historical period prior to 1911 AD. This study focuses on exploring the spatial distribution, historical development, initial functions, and water source characteristics of WLs. By summarizing the spatial features and landscape elements of WLs, this research seeks to uncover the underlying patterns and regularities behind the complex phenomena across different times and spaces. This paper aims to answer several core questions: How were these WLs formed and developed historically? What are the landscape features of WLs? What are the causes and connotations of the WLs’ scenery? What wisdoms can be drawn from the landscape construction of WLs in the historical period? Through a systematic review and analysis, this study strives to enhance the recognition of WLs both domestically and internationally. It also aims to provide theoretical insights and practical guidance for the design and construction of modern urban lakes, drawing from the historical wisdom embedded in the lake-scape.
2. Study Object and Methodology
2.1. Study Object
Spatially, this study takes all WLs clearly recorded as “West Lake” in historical records within China as the study object (Figure 1). Temporally, the “historical period” referred to in this study pertains to the time span prior to 1911AD. The rationale for delineating this temporal scope is grounded in the fact that during the period before 1911AD, productivity was relatively low, and people primarily relied on natural conditions for their livelihoods, accumulating a wealth of TEK. Following 1919AD, modern industries emerged in China, towns expanded gradually, and numerous large-scale water conservancy facilities were newly constructed, resulting in significant alterations to water and soil resources across the national territory.
2.2. Data Source
The types of data used in this study include historical documents, historical maps, historical surveying and mapping data, satellite images, photographs, and Chinese standard maps. Specifically, the standard map of China was downloaded from the “Standard Map Service System of the Ministry of Natural Resources (
2.3. Research Methodology
This article applied research methodologies from landscape history, specifically including the following 4 key steps (Figure 2): (1) Define the Study Object. This study identified 81 WLs that were clearly recorded as “West Lake” within China in historical records. (2) Build an Information Database. Combining historical research and fieldwork investigations, we completed their geographic location labeling in GIS using ArcGIS Pro 3.0 software. Additionally, information such as the names, excavation types, water source types, initial functions, city–WL spatial relationshipswas collected to establish a historical information database (for details, see Appendix A). (3) Categories, Descriptions, and Graphical Analysis. Based on quantitative data, qualitative descriptions were provided for different results, and morphological methods were employed for classification and illustration. (4) Propose Landscape Strategies. The historical landscape formation of WLs was unearthed, the historical wisdom in their construction was deciphered, and based on this, lake-scape construction strategies that meet the needs of modern cities were proposed.
3. Results
3.1. Spatial Distribution of WLs
We superimposed the spatial distribution of the 81 WLs on ten major cultural zones in China and found that, in terms of geographical distribution, WLs are mainly concentrated in Jiangnan Water Town Cultural Zone, where the number of WLs (38) is nearly one-half of the country’s. The North China Plain Cultural Zone (15) and the South China Mazu Cultural Zone (13) are also relatively well distributed, followed by the Sichuan Basin Cultural Zone (7), and there are four and three WLs in the Loess Plateau Cultural Zone and the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau Cultural Zone, respectively, and one is located in the Northeast Black Earth Cultural Zone (Figure 3a). There are 66 WLs concentrated in the eastern belt of China’s geographical divisions (Figure 3b). Almost all of the WLs are located in the southeastern half of the area divided by the Hu Line, with only the Lanzhou WL located northwest of this line (Figure 3c). In the figure titled “WLs and the National-Level River Basin”, it is clearly observable that WLs are predominantly distributed within the Yangtze River Basin (34), followed by the Southeastern River Basin (17). The number of WLs in the Huaihe River Basin (8), the Pearl River Basin (7), and the Yellow River Basin (7) is roughly equivalent. Additionally, there are 4 WLs located in the Haihe River Basin, 3 in the Southwest River Basin, and 1 in the Songliao River Basin (Figure 3d). Spatially, we can see that the distribution of these historical WLs is closely related to China’s history of water management and the development trend of water conservancy [47,48].
3.2. Historical Development of WLs
As early as the Han and Wei dynasties, historical records concerning WLs began to emerge. In the book the History of the Han Dynasty · Geography, Hangzhou WL was recorded during the Eastern Han Dynasty. Hangzhou WL and the Beijing Lotus Pond were recorded in the book Commentary on the Waterways Classic written by Li Daoyuan in the Northern Wei Dynasty. Prior to the prosperous Tang Dynasty (618 AD), WLs were primarily used as city infrastructure, with a simple and rustic appearance. A few lakes with recreational functions were mainly visited by local officials [46]. During this time, the number of WLs was increasing, albeit at a slow rate. From the Tang Dynasty to the Northern Song Dynasty, the social environment was stable, and cultural endeavors flourished, leading to the rise and prosperity of public gardens [49,50]. WLs gradually became a place of public attraction. However, by the Northern Song Dynasty, factors such as conflict, the expansion of residential land use, and the lack of lake management and maintenance led to the siltation, drying up, and disappearance of WLs from the Northern Song period to the end of the Qing Dynasty. Corresponding the historical development of WLs to the periods of Chinese history, we can see that the rise and fall of WLs and their landscape construction were related to the social, economic, and cultural environment of the time. During periods of political stability, economic prosperity, and cultural flourishing, more construction of WLs occurred. This construction was directly influenced by the will of local managers, as evidenced by cases such as Beijing’s Kunming Lake and Hangzhou WL, which is inseparable from the management system of feudal society in Chinese history.
3.3. Initial Function of WLs
Based on their original functions, WLs can be divided into 3 types: WLs that were developed for water conservancy, WLs that were developed for city security defense, and WLs that were developed under the influence of Feng Shui or secular enlightenment.
3.3.1. WLs That Were Developed for Water Conservancy
This type of WL was often developed from low-lying water bodies within or outside the city. Beijing Kunming Lake, for example, was initially a natural pond formed by the convergence of spring water and rainfall from the Yuquan and Xishan areas in the western suburbs of Beijing, serving as a natural lake for flood detention and water storage in the outskirts. During the Tianbao era of the Tang Dynasty (AD 744), Lu Nanjin, the county magistrate of Fu County, led the people in constructing dikes at Fuxian WL. According to historical records, Fuxian WL was capable of irrigating as much as 16.67 km2 1 of farmland [24,25]. This type of WLs fulfills the functions of flood storage and regulation, as well as water supply, thereby ensuring water safety and meeting the water demands of cities and surrounding agricultural areas.
3.3.2. WLs That Were Developed for City Security Defense
This type of WL can be subdivided into 2 subclasses. One subclass concerns the construction of the city to take soil; this type of WL mostly consists of artificial lakes. On the one hand, they can prevent the impact of external water on the city; on the other hand, they can store water for future use. Xuzhou WL is adjacent to Xuchang County; after taking soil to build the ancient city wall, the low-lying area where the soil was taken was filled with water to form Xuzhou WL. The other subclass consists of WLs that serve as a moat for cities. This type of WL, in conjunction with the surrounding mountains/hills, water systems, or walls, collectively formed the defense system of the early city. Wuyuan WL is a part of the moat formed by artificial water diversion. Chaozhou WL constituted the western defense of the ancient Chaozhou city with mountains/hills (Figure 4).
3.3.3. WLs That Were Developed Under the Influence of Feng Shui or Secular Enlightenment
This type of WL was predominantly constructed under the influence of Feng Shui principles for city planning, secular enlightenment, and the leisure and entertainment needs of scholars and officials. Most of these WLs originated from natural lakes and served multiple functions, including flood storage and water supply. Specifically, they can be divided into 3 subclasses: religious release WLs, tour ornamental WLs, and Feng Shui WLs. During the Qianyuan period of the Tang Emperor Suzong’s reign (758 AD–759 AD), there was a practice of “setting up as many as religious release ponds near the city wall”; at that time, the local official (Yan Zhenqing) dredged Chaozhou WL and turned it into a religious release pond [38]. As tour ornamental WLs, the Beijing Lotus Pond, Yingzhou WL, and Guilin WL are all natural lakes. Yingzhou WL, with its picturesque natural scenery, attracted a local nobleman to build an imperial garden here more than 1000 years ago [51], in the period before the Common Era. During the Tang Dynasty, before the emergence of Shuzhou WL, the site was originally known as “Dongting” (a tourist attraction). By the Northern Song Dynasty, Zhao Yuedao, while diverting water to irrigate farmland, conveniently channeled it to the location of “Dongting,” resulting in the formation of Shuzhou WL. The WL, together with the earlier Dongting, created a space for sightseeing [52]. Feng Shui WLs can be exemplified by Zhangpu WL. According to Chorography of Zhang pu Prefecture, in 1241 AD, the county magistrate Zheng Shishen deemed the original Feng Shui of the Zhangpu county seat’s location unfavorable [53]. Consequently, he ordered the transformation of a portion of farmland on the west side of the county seat into a lake, giving rise to Zhangpu WL.
3.4. Relationship Between WLs and Water Sources
According to the existing literature, the excavation type of WLs can be divided into 3 categories: natural lakes, artificial lakes, and natural–artificial composite lakes. Apart from the 13 WLs that lack historical records, it is evident that natural lakes constitute the majority (52.2%). According to the type of water sources of WLs, WLs can be divided into 4 types: ① WLs formed by foothill catchments, ② WLs formed at the confluence of rivers or along the banks of rivers, ③ WLs formed by the combined flow of springs and streams, and ④ WLs formed by artificial diversion (Figure 5; for details, see Appendix A). Among these types of WLs, artificial WLs are all attributed to the ④ water source type, and natural WLs are developed from the lakes formed by mountain water or evolved from streams and bays (Figure 6).
WLs formed by foothill catchments have close relationships with West Mountain/Hills, usually located at the foot of the West Mountain/Hills, with spatial characteristics of “Mountain/Hills–WL” (Figure 7(a-1,a-2)). WLs formed at the confluence of rivers or along the banks of rivers are frequently linked to natural watercourses through canals and irrigation systems, forming a spatial pattern of “River–WL” (Figure 7(b-1,b-2)). WLs formed by the combined flow of springs and mountain streams are mostly situated in the piedmont plain of West Mountain/Hills, with depressions, springs, and ponds often found between WLs and mountains, forming a spatial pattern of “Mountain/Hills–Spring–WL” (Figure 7(c-1,c-2)).
3.5. Spatial Relationship Between WLs and Cities
Due to the early functions of WLs in urban defense and water supply, there was a close relationship between WLs and their corresponding ancient cities. Based on the positional relationship between cities and WLs, they can be classified into 3 types: WLs that were separated from the city, WLs that were adjacent to the city, and WLs that were embedded in the city (Figure 8; for details, see Appendix A).
WLs that were separated from the city maintain a certain spatial distance from the city and are always connected to the urban water system network through rivers, ditches, and canals. Beijing Kunming Lake, which was located far from the Beijing ancient city, was connected to the lake and water systems within the city via the Zao River, ultimately linking up to the canal. On a larger spatial scale, together with the mountains in the western suburbs, Beijing Kunming Lake formed a scenic landscape pattern of “Mountains/Hills–Spring-WL–River–City–Water (Canal)” (Figure 9).
WLs that were adjacent to the city are closely related to the development of cities. The survival and development of these WLs are often related to the urban population or the size of the city. Because of the important functions of Hangzhou WL, such as flood storage, water supply, agriculture, and fisheries, as well as the landscape, Hangzhou has always had a “city–WL” landscape, “being surrounded by mountains on three sides and adjacent to the city on one side” (Figure 10a). At the end of the Tang Dynasty, with the expansion of Fuzhou city and the construction of interconnected water systems both inside and outside the city, Fuzhou WL, on the one hand, served as a reservoir storage lake to channel water for flood relief and supply water to the city and surrounding fields; on the other hand, it constituted a defense for the city together with the city walls and water system shorelines [54,55]. Despite the continuous expansion and development of the city during the Song, Ming, and Qing dynasties, the scenic pattern of “Mountains/Hills–WL–City–River” has remained consistent and unbroken on a regional scale (Figure 10b).
WLs that were embedded in the city have a close interconnection with the city’s water system. Ningbo WL, with the function of storing freshwater in the urban water ecosystem, constitutes the river network pattern of “three rivers, six ditches, and one lake nestled in the city center” with other rivers and ponds in the city (Figure 11a). To address the waterlogging issues of Nanchang WL during the Tang Dynasty, inner and outer sluice gates and multiple drainage canals were constructed. These canals connected Nanchang WL with the surrounding river and ditch systems, evolving into a city water system featuring “three lakes and nine ditches” by the Qing Dynasty (Figure 11b). Jinan WL Prefecture boasts a relatively vast water surface, and as the city expanded, it was gradually incorporated within the ancient city. This integration created a unique city–WL landscape for Jinan, often described as “mountains encircle the city and half of the inner space is occupied by Jinan WL” (Figure 11c).
3.6. Landscape Characteristics of WLs
3.6.1. The Scenery of the Region
Based on the relationship between WLs and their water sources, as well as their spatial relationships with cities, it can be observed that at the regional scale, the scenery of WLs was characterized by either “Mountains/Hills(–Water)–WL(–Water)–Cities(–Water, River, Sea)” or “WL(–Water)–Cities(–Water, River, Sea)” (Figure 12).
3.6.2. Diversity of Landscape Elements
Numerous historical records show that the scenic elements of WLs include mountains/hills, waterfalls, islands, bridges, towers, temples, and plants, as well as scenes of animal and human activities. These landscape elements can be categorized into 7 types: natural basements, water conservancy facilities, human settlements, secularization, landscape architecture, and animal and human activities (Table 2). Similarly, in the images of WLs (Figure 13), we can also observe the depiction of elements such as mountains/hills, lakes/water systems, bridges, dikes, islands, towers, temples, and villages.
3.6.3. Poetic Landscapes with Cultural Connotations
Since ancient times, scholars and patriots such as Su Shi, Ouyang Xiu, and Xu Ruzi have played pivotal roles in shaping WLs. They either participated in their dredging and construction projects, composed poems and essays to capture their breathtaking scenery, or established their residences. These have promoted the landscape construction of WLs and endowed WLs with deep cultural connotation.
Chen Cheng, the chief keeper of Huizhou in the Northern Song Dynasty, vigorously reformed Huizhou WL and proposed the “Eight Scenic Views of Huizhou WL” (Figure 14), which was the first time that WLs were incorporated into the urban landscape system. Later, the “Eight Scenic Views” landscape system with WLs as the landscape element emerged continuously. For example, the “Eight Scenic Views of Licheng” depicts Jinan WL, including “A Misty Rain of Magpies (鹊华烟雨)”, “Sink Mave at Night (汇波晚照)”, “Boating on the WL (明湖泛舟)”, “Autumn Wind Brushes the Surface of the Jinan WL (历下秋风)”, as well as the “Night Moon on the Fushun WL (西湖夜月)” in the “Ten Scenic Views of Fushun”, “Green Embrace of the Leizou WL (西湖翠拥)” in the “Eight Scenic Views of Leizhou”, etc.
The spatial environment of WLs and the cultural support of literati and writers since ancient times have contributed to WLs having many spiritual and cultural treasures being created about them, such as poems, lyrics, literature, paintings, songs, Fugues, writings, couplets, myths and legends, folk stories, etc., which have been handed down to the present day. In return, these artistic and cultural treasures feed back to WLs and have become important carriers that influence the cultural connotations of WLs and spread the cultural heritage of WLs. When applying for World heritage status at Hangzhou WL, someone once wrote the following: “On the broken bridge, my mind seemed to travel to ancient times, while I drank with Su Dongpo and Bai Juyi under the moon.” WLs are not only a landscape, a garden, but also a cultural landscape containing history, a kind of thought and life. WLs have become the spiritual sustenance in people’s hearts.
4. Discussion
4.1. The Causes of WLs’ Scenery in History
The natural environment of WLs aligns with the traditional Chinese esthetic of landscape, which has always been favored by literati and poets [56]. Over time, lakes naturally experience sedimentation [57]. To maintain the urban functions of WLs, ancient efforts continuously involved activities such as dredging, water diversion, and the construction of dikes and sluices to sustain the integrity of lakes. The infrastructure formed during these processes began to evolve into scenic elements during the Song Dynasty. Furthermore, the landscape relationship formed by WLs and their surrounding natural elements, including mountains, rivers, and springs, aligns with China’s time-honored esthetic appreciation of mountains and waters. It also resonates with the idealized realms revered by religious cultures such as Taoism [58,59], attracting the construction of cultural facilities such as academies, temples, memorials for celebrities, villages and hamlets, and gardens [60]. This beautiful environment also attracts a variety of wildlife, creating ecological scenes like “Orioles Singing in the Willows (柳浪闻莺)”, “Apes Howling at Cold Spring (冷泉猿啸)”, and “Wild Geese Roosting on Reed Beach (芦汀宿雁)”. In summary, the causes of WL scenery can be encapsulated as follows: (1) WLs generally possess a natural foundation that resonates with the traditional Chinese “Mountain–Water” landscape esthetic. (2) Throughout history, the facilities generated during the dredging of WLs have not only supported the functions of livelihood but also sustained the ecological environment of the lake, and these facilities have gradually become part of the scenery. (3) Various leisure facilities have been constructed, drawn by the exquisite natural and cultural scenery of WLs.
4.2. Historical Wisdom in the Construction of WLs
4.2.1. Holistic Approach
WLs are an integral part of the regional mountain and water spatial system. Historically, there were no clear professional boundaries among ecology, urban design, and engineering; instead, thinking about problems was holistic. Therefore, in history, when dealing with regional water relations, people often started from an overall perspective of mountains, water, and cities. This holistic thinking not only comprehensively addressed the water use challenges of urban and rural settlements but also maintained the water storage function of freshwater. City defense-type WLs near city walls could also form a natural moat around the city, ensuring the environmental security of many ancient cities in China and serving as a foundation for orderly urban development. Moreover, this connectivity also helps to maintain the water flow and ecological purification of lakes.
4.2.2. Ecological Techniques
Due to the limitations of technological conditions in early times, people often adapted to the natural environment to carry out production activities. Before the Song Dynasty, the construction of WLs was primarily focused on water conservancy and city security defense functions. To meet the needs of the city at that time, continuous water conservancy activities such as dredging, desilting, and water diversion into the lake were conducted. The silt cleared from the lake was used to create facilities like islets, embankments, and dikes, and vegetation was planted along the shores to stabilize the banks. These engineering techniques, initially for water conservancy construction, often also promoted the development of secondary wetlands in WLs, providing habitats and activity corridors for a variety of organisms.
4.2.3. Dynamic Management
Human civilization has arisen from the use of wisdom to compensate for the deficiencies of natural conditions, a concept reflected in the historical development of WLs. Many WLs exhibit characteristics of “swampification”, and the famous ones that persist to this day have also experienced periods of desiccation and siltation in their histories, especially from the Northern Song Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty. However, after each occurrence of sedimentation and functional degradation in WLs, people carried out dredging and management in line with the historical appearance of WLs. Furthermore, after each dredging and desilting project, people would incorporate new elements into WLs based on the developmental needs and social contexts of the time, enabling WLs to iterate and renew themselves continuously.
4.2.4. Landscape Esthetics
Based on the ancient human settlement construction ideas of harmonizing with nature and emphasizing the scenic beauty of mountains and waters, the scenic development of WLs has also been extended to the regional perspectives of mountains, rivers, and cities. Furthermore, the imperial examination system for selecting officials since the Sui and Tang dynasties promoted knowledgeable individuals to serve as local officials, thereby advancing the high-level cultural construction of WLs [61]. Coupled with the numerous poems, inscriptions, and ink paintings about WLs left by literati of various dynasties, the scenery of WLs far surpasses that of other lakes, making it a symbol of Chinese landscape esthetics.
4.3. Implications for Modern Lake Construction
Nowadays, the water conservancy functions of WLs, such as flood storage and water supply, have gradually diminished. In contrast, the value of WLs as an urban leisure green space and public sightseeing area has become increasingly prominent. Consequently, the protection and management efforts for WLs often focus solely on maintaining their water bodies while neglecting the connectivity between them and the surrounding mountains/hills and water systems. Furthermore, the perceptions of the WL landscape are predominantly confined to the lake itself. There is a notable lack of consideration for landscape cognition and style preservation from a broader citywide or regional perspective. As a result, some historical aspects of WLs have been compromised or lost entirely. Issues such as improper protection leading to surface shrinkage, deterioration in water quality, decline in ecological function, and loss of scenic beauty, among others, have emerged alongside many newly constructed urban lakes that frequently suffer from poor hydrology and ecological challenges. These problems are not unique to WLs in China; regions with TEK such as the Tonlé Sap Lake in Southeast Asia [28], the Shurkul Lake Landscape in Khorezm [62], and the polder landscapes in the Netherlands all face similar challenges.
In the current era, the preservation of historical facilities necessitates creative reconstruction to adapt to contemporary development needs [63]. However, this process demands a profound understanding and cognition of history; otherwise, it may lead to the misinterpretation of the landscape and a loss of historical continuity [64]. Drawing upon the historical wisdom embodied in the construction of WLs, we can reflect on the following four points:
Firstly, it is hoped that professionals from various fields, including ecology, environmental protection, urban planning, landscape architecture, and water conservancy, will engage in understanding traditional knowledge, integrating natural scientific techniques with social scientific methods organically.
Secondly, when protecting and renewing historical lakes such as WLs, it is crucial to draw inspiration from the ancients’ holistic view of the lake’s environment from a regional perspective, thereby establishing a systematic and continuous approach to water management.
Thirdly, history has shown that many beautiful spots in WLs also serve certain functions in maintaining production, living, and ecology. Therefore, when constructing lake landscapes, in addition to esthetic and recreational considerations, more thought should be given to how these facilities can serve the needs of today’s cities. These lakes, with the advancement of technology, can no longer play the same water conservancy and urban defense functions as in historical times, requiring practitioners in urban planning, landscape architecture, and water conservancy to rethink new development directions for these historical WLs.
Fourthly, landscape construction techniques and the culture of “Eight Scenic Views” in WL construction can continue into the new era of landscape construction. This also reminds us that when constructing landscapes, we can infuse a certain amount of local culture, which can make the landscape more iconic and identifiable.
4.4. Limitations and Future Prospects
This study focuses on internationally significant and regionally distinct WLs, examining their long-term developmental characteristics throughout historical periods to uncover their spatial features and developmental mechanisms, which is particularly crucial for understanding urban lakes. This research adopts the methodology of landscape history, analyzing the historical construction wisdom of WLs through categories and descriptions and graphical analysis. This provides valuable insights for the study of TEK. Additionally, the historical information database of 81 WLs established in this study facilitates further in-depth research on WLs in China.
The sample data involved in this study were obtained through manual identification and may be subject to the omission of sample subjects. In the future, machine learning methods could be introduced to train the extraction of “West Lake” content from ancient local records. In addition, historical records have certain limitations. To ensure the completeness and comprehensiveness of the research data, the historical information database constructed in this study was processed with “no data” for parts where no information was found. In this study, the absence of these data does not affect the conclusions and significance of this research. Similarly, due to the limitations of historical materials, there are parts in this study where the author conducted textual research and inference based on multiple historical sources and modern scholarly studies.
5. Conclusions
The landscape of WLs is dynamic, blending nature and culture. Initially, WLs primarily served as a water conservancy facility or a city security defense, with a simple appearance, and they have been preserved through successive generations of dredging. The development of scholar gardens during the Song Dynasty promoted the gradual formation of WLs into an urban landscape that integrates natural beauty with cultural values. Ancient WLs, as they exist today, embody people’s understanding of the natural environment, climate, hydrology, and geography, as well as information about water conservancy projects, social environments, and local customs from different periods and regions, especially in the context of establishing homes and settlements. As a result, WLs contain various landscape elements, including natural basements, water conservancy facilities, human settlements, secularization, and landscape architecture, as well as the activities of animals and people. At the regional scale, WLs form a common landscape pattern of “Mountains/Hills(–Water)–WL(–Water)–Cities(–Water, River, Sea)” or “WL(–Water)–Cities(–Water, River, Sea)”. WLs are not only a model of historical Chinese landscapes but also a quintessential example of the symbiosis between cities and water globally. The wisdom in the construction of WLs—its holistic approach, ecological techniques, dynamic management, and landscape esthetics—is a treasure of human history. This knowledge not only helps in understanding and protecting WLs in China but also offers valuable insights for today’s lake ecological management and landscape planning.
Conceptualization, L.J.; Methodology, L.J., X.W., W.J. and S.C.; Software, W.J.; Validation, L.J., W.J., Z.Z. and Z.C.; Formal analysis, L.J., W.J. and Y.Z.; Investigation, L.J., Q.L., X.W., W.J. and Y.Z.; Resources, L.J., Q.L. and X.W.; Data curation, L.J. and Y.Z.; Writing—original draft, L.J.; Writing—review & editing, L.J., Q.L., X.W., Z.Z., S.C. and A.J.; Visualization, L.J. and Y.Z.; Supervision, L.J.; Project administration, L.J., Q.L. and Z.C.; Funding acquisition, Q.L. and X.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The original contributions presented in this study are included in the
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
1. The original area recorded is 500 Q in Tang Dynasty units. In Chinese history, 1 Q equals 10/3 hectare or approximately 667 square meters.
Footnotes
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Enlarge this image.Figure 1. Study object (source: this Chinese map was downloaded from the “Standard Map Service System of the Ministry of Natural Resources”, with an approval number of GS(2019)4345. The spatial locations of WLs are self-drawn by the author).
Enlarge this image.Figure 3. Spatial distribution of WLs (source: the Chinese map was downloaded from the “Standard Map Service System of the Ministry of Natural Resources”, with an approval number of GS(2019)4345. The rest were self-drawn by the author).
Enlarge this image.Figure 4. Chaozhou WL and ancient Chaozhou City (source: ancient map of Chaozhou City is sourced from Chaozhou prefectural chronicle, and the rest are self-drawn by the author).
Enlarge this image.Figure 5. The water source types of the 81 WLs (source: the Chinese map was downloaded from the “Standard Map Service System of the Ministry of Natural Resources”, with an approval number of GS(2019)4345. The rest were self-drawn by the author).
Enlarge this image.Figure 6. Statistics on the relationship between WLs and water sources (source: self-drawn).
Enlarge this image.Figure 7. Relationship between WLs and water sources. (a-1) Map analysis of WLs formed by foothill catchments (source: ancient map is sourced from Leshan prefectural chronicle, and the rest are self-drawn by the author). (a-2) Schematic diagrams of WLs formed by foothill catchments (source: self-drawn). (b-1) Map analysis of WLs formed at the confluence of rivers or along the banks of rivers (source: ancient map is sourced from Nanchang prefectural chronicle, and the rest are self-drawn by the author). (b-2) Schematic diagrams of WLs formed at the confluence of rivers or along the banks of rivers (source: self-drawn). (c-1) Map analysis of WLs formed by the combined flow of springs and streams (source: ancient map is sourced from Shandong Yellow River map, respectively, and the rest are self-drawn by the author). (c-2) Schematic diagrams of WLs formed by the combined flow of springs and streams (source: self-drawn).
Enlarge this image.Figure 8. The city–WL spatial relationships of the 81 WLs (source: the Chinese map was downloaded from the “Standard Map Service System of the Ministry of Natural Resources”, with an approval number of GS(2019)4345. The rest were self-drawn by the author).
Enlarge this image.Figure 9. The pattern of WLs that were separated from the city (Beijing ancient city and Beijing Kunming Lake) (source: referring to the article Research on Traditional Urban Landscape System of Beijing based on Water Conservancy System, self-drawn).
Enlarge this image.Figure 10. The pattern of WLs that were adjacent to the city. (a). Hangzhou’s city and lake landscape of “being surrounded by mountains on three sides and adjacent to the city on one side” (photo credits: Hangzhou Landscape and Cultural Relics Bureau). (b). The spatial relationship between Fuzhou WL and Fuzhou Ancient City (source: ancient map of Fuzhou City is sourced from Minzu koan (Fujian province), and the rest are self-drawn by the author).
Enlarge this image.Figure 11. The pattern of WLs that were embedded in the city. (a). The spatial relationship between Ningbo WL and Ningbo Ancient City (source: ancient map of Ningbo City is sourced from Ying County prefectural chronicle, and the rest are self-drawn by the author). (b). The spatial relationship between Nanchang WL and Nanchang Ancient City (source: ancient map of Nanchang City is sourced from Revisiting the changes and development of ancient Nanchang city, and the rest are self-drawn by the author). (c). The spatial relationship between Jinan WL and Jinan Ancient City during the Qing Dynasty (source: ancient map of Jinan City is sourced from Jinan prefectural chronicle, and the rest are self-drawn by the author).
Enlarge this image.Figure 11. The pattern of WLs that were embedded in the city. (a). The spatial relationship between Ningbo WL and Ningbo Ancient City (source: ancient map of Ningbo City is sourced from Ying County prefectural chronicle, and the rest are self-drawn by the author). (b). The spatial relationship between Nanchang WL and Nanchang Ancient City (source: ancient map of Nanchang City is sourced from Revisiting the changes and development of ancient Nanchang city, and the rest are self-drawn by the author). (c). The spatial relationship between Jinan WL and Jinan Ancient City during the Qing Dynasty (source: ancient map of Jinan City is sourced from Jinan prefectural chronicle, and the rest are self-drawn by the author).
Enlarge this image.Figure 13. Full picture of Huizhou WL (Source: ancient picture of Huizhou WL is sourced from Huizhou prefectural chronicle, and the rest are self-drawn by the author).
Enlarge this image.Figure 14. The “Eight Scenic Views Of Huizhou WL” (source: pictures of the “Eight Scenic Views of Huizhou WL” are sourced from Records of Huizhou West Lake, and the rest are self-drawn by the author).
Ancient records of WLs (source: self-drawn).
| Type | Name | Dynasty | Author |
|---|---|---|---|
| History Book | History of the Han Dynasty | Han (76–84) | Ban Gu |
| Old Book of Tang | Five Dynasties (941–945) | Liu Xu, et al. | |
| New Book of Tang | Song (1044–1060) | Ouyang Xiu, Song Qi, et al. | |
| Records of Dreams of Glory | Song (1274) | Wu Zimu | |
| Book by Category | Yongle Encyclopedia | Ming (1408) | Anonymity |
| a Collection of Books | the Complete Library in the Four Treasuries | Qing (1792) | Yong Rong, Ji Yun, etc. |
| Monograph | Classic of Water Resources | Northern Wei of the Northern Dynasties (386–534) | Li Daoyuan |
| Literally Essence of Historical Geography or Essentials of Geography for Reading History | Qing (1875–1908) | Gu Zuyu | |
| Annals of Three Mountains in the Chunxi Years | Qing (1182) | Liang Kejia | |
| Records of West Lake | Qing | Lin Dachuan | |
| Chronicles of West Lake | Qing (1735) | Fu Wanglu, etc. | |
| Chronicles of Fuzhou West Lake | 1916 | He Zhenbai | |
| Mountain records of West Lake | 1924 | Rao E | |
| Chronicles of Huizhou West Lake | 1947 | Zhang Youren | |
| Local Chronicle | Linan prefectural chronicle | Song (1250) | Zhou Chong |
| Yanzhou prefectural chronicle | Ming (1573–1620) | Yang Shouren | |
| Kaizhou prefectural chronicle | Ming (1522–1566) | Wang Chongqing | |
| Suizhou prefectural chronicle | Ming (1368–1644) | Li Mengyang | |
| Yanling prefectural chronicle | Qing (1659) | He Elian | |
| Wanping prefectural chronicle | Qing (1662–1722) | Anonymity | |
| Changzhou prefectural chronicle | Qing (1662–1722) | Yu Kunxiu | |
| Jiaxing prefectural chronicle | Qing (1685) | He Zhi | |
| Huizhou prefectural chronicle | Qing (1688) | Lyu Yingkui | |
| Ruyang prefectural chronicle | Qing (1690) | Qiu Tianying | |
| Songzi prefectural chronicle | Qing (1696) | Chen Lin | |
| Chengwu prefectural chronicle | Qing (1702) | Zhao Cijin | |
| XInghufu Putian prefectural chronicle | Qing (1705) | Jin Gaoxie | |
| Xuzhou prefectural chronicle | Qing (1745) | Zhen Ruzhou | |
| Huangzhou prefectural chronicle | Qing (1749) | Wang Qing | |
| Changle prefectural chronicle | Qing (1763) | He Shijun | |
| Jiangle prefectural chronicle | Qing (1765) | Li Yongxi | |
| Nanchang prefectural chronicle | Qing (1789) | Chen Lansen, Wang Wenyong | |
| Huating prefectural chronicle | Qing (1791) | Feng Dinggao, Li Tingjing | |
| Shaoxing prefectural chronicle | Qing (1792) | Li Hengte | |
| Jiangling prefectural chronicle | Qing (1794) | Cui Longjian, Wei Yao | |
| Lianjiang prefectural chronicle | Qing (1805) | Li Beng | |
| Songjiang prefectural chronicle | Qing (1818) | Song Rulin | |
| Xiangyin prefectural chronicle | Qing (1823) | Yan Zhaolang | |
| Qinzhou prefectural chronicle | Qing (1834) | Zhu Chunnian | |
| Qiongshan prefectural chronicle | Qing (1857) | Li Wenxuan | |
| Wenzhou prefectural chronicle | Qing (1865) | Li Wan | |
| Huoqiu prefectural chronicle | Qing (1870) | Lu Dingxiao, Wang Yinqing | |
| Linxiang prefectural chronicle | Qing (1872) | En Rong | |
| Qianshan prefectural chronicle | Qing (1873) | Zhang Yanheng | |
| Huarong prefectural chronicle | Qing (1882) | Sun Bingyu | |
| Xiaogan prefectural chronicle | Qing (1883) | Zhu Xibai | |
| Leshan prefectural chronicle | Qing (1887) | Gong Chuanfu | |
| Jinxian prefectural chronicle | Qing (1875–1908) | Dai Mei | |
| Luoshan prefectural chronicle | Qing | Ge Quan | |
| Yunnan prefectural chronicle | 1912–1949 | Zhou Jifeng | |
| Tianmen prefectural chronicle | 1922 | Hu Yi | |
| Xuchang prefectural chronicle | 1924 | Zhang Shaoxun | |
| Ruzhou prefectural chronicle | 1963 | Cheng Tiangui | |
| Poetry and Literature | A poem written by Su Shi to a good friend about the dredged West Lake | Song (1092) | Su Shi |
| Wen-Gong poetry and literature collection | Song (1066) | Hu Su | |
| Mengliang Record | late Southern Song | Wu Zimu | |
| Old Affairs of Wulin | late Song to early Yuan | Zhou Mi |
Scenic elements of WLs (self-drawn).
| Type | Landscape Elements | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Natural basements | mountains/hills, lakes, waterfalls, clouds, shadows, etc. | “Foshan Reflection (佛山倒影)” and “Gathering Waves at Night (汇波晚照)” of Jinan WL, “Ancient Castellated with Slanted Sun (古堞斜阳)” in Fuzhou WL, “Autum Moon over Calm Lake (平湖秋月)” and “Twin Peaks Piercing the Clouds (双峰插云)” of Hangzhou WL, etc. |
| Water conservancy facilities | dikes, islands, bridges, gates, stone towers, water conservancy monuments, wells, etc. | Six Wells, the Su Causeway in “Spring Dawn on Su Causeway (苏堤春晓)” scenery, the stone tower as a water level warning in the “Three Pools Mirroring the Moon (三潭映月)” scenery, and the causeways and islands in the “Two Causeways and Three Islands (两堤三岛)” scenery in Hangzhou WL. Pinghu Causeway in Huizhou WL, Ou Causeway and Su Causeway in Yingzhou WL, etc. |
| Human settlements | ancient cities, walls, mansions, houses, taverns, fairs, villages, farmlands, etc. | “Rice Field Fragrance (绿稻香来) ” and “Fair Trade (竹楼小市)” in Yangzhou WL. The mansion of Zhang, Fengle tavern in Hangzhou WL. |
| Secularization | temples, Taoist abbeys, ancestral halls, academies, pavilions, tomb stone carvings, release pools, etc. | “The Sound of Temple Bells in the Morning (西禅晓钟)” in Fuzhou WL. Kou’s memorial Temple, Jing’s memorial Temple, Laiquan Academy in Leizhou WL. Ruzi Pavilion (celebrity memorial) in Nanchang WL, etc. |
| Landscape architecture | pavilions, terraces, towers, boats, lotuses, willows, pines and other garden plants | Pavilions named “to take the wind (乘风亭)”, “to wait for the moon (待月亭)”, and “gradually into a better scene (渐入佳景亭)” and temple called “drunk guests return to the temple (醉客方归庵)” of Chaozhou WL, “fairy bridge with willow on the side (仙桥柳色)” of Fuzhou WL, “Lotus in the Breeze at Crooked Courtyard (曲院风荷)” and “Listening to Orioles Singing in the Willows (柳浪闻莺)” in Hangzhou WL, etc. |
| Animal and human activities | chopping firewood, fishing, ferry competitions, fetes, sightseeing, etc. | “When the first rays of dawn break through, fisherman sings in the WL (丰湖渔唱)” and “The woodcutter returned home with the sun descending in the west (半径樵归)” in Huizhou WL. Dragon Boat Festival race of Fuzhou WL [ |
Appendix A
| No. | Name | Excavation Type | Water Source | Initial Function | City–WL Spatial Relationships | Situation |
| 1 | Jinzhou WL | Natural Lake | No Data | No Data | adjacent | Existing |
| 2 | Beijing Kunming Lake | Natural–artificial Composite Lake | ③ | □ | separated | Existing |
| 3 | Beijing Lotus Pond | Natural–artificial Composite Lake | ① | ■● | adjacent | Existing |
| 4 | Changping County WL | No Data | No Data | No Data | separated | Disappeared |
| 5 | Pingyao WL | No Data | No Data | No Data | embedded in the city | Disappeared |
| 6 | Fenyang WL | Natural Lake | No Data | No Data | adjacent | Existing |
| 7 | Huaxian WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | ◯ | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 8 | Lanzhou WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | ◯ | adjacent | Existing |
| 9 | Weizhou WL | No Data | No Data | No Data | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 10 | Hanzhou WL | Natural Lake | ①④ | ♦◯ | embedded in the city | Existing |
| 11 | Chengdu WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | ◯ | embedded in the city | Disappeared |
| 12 | Shuzhou WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | □■● | embedded in the city | Existing |
| 13 | Jiading WL | Natural Lake | ① | ◯ | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 14 | Qiongzhou WL | No Data | No Data | ◯ | adjacent | No Data |
| 15 | Fushun WL | Natural Lake | ① | □● | embedded in the city | Existing |
| 16 | Lijiang WL | Natural Lake | No Data | ◯ | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 17 | Dali WL | Natural–artificial Composite Lake | ④ | □ | adjacent | Existing |
| 18 | Kunming WL | Natural Lake | No Data | ◯ | embedded in the city | Existing |
| 19 | Qinzhou WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | ♦ | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 20 | Lianzhou WL | No Data | No Data | No Data | embedded in the city | Disappeared |
| 21 | Leizhou WL | Natural Lake | ① | ■◯ | adjacent | Existing |
| 22 | Qiongzhou WL | Natural Lake | ③ | ■ | adjacent | Existing |
| 23 | Huizhou WL | Natural–artificial Composite Lake | ① | ¤ | adjacent | Existing |
| 24 | Guilin WL | Natural Lake | ① | ◯● | adjacent | Existing |
| 25 | Leiyang WL | Natural Lake | ② | □ | adjacent | Existing |
| 26 | Linxiang WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | No Data | adjacent | No Data |
| 27 | Huarong WL | No Data | No Data | No Data | adjacent | No Data |
| 28 | Baoqing WL | Natural Lake | No Data | No Data | embedded in the city | Disappeared |
| 29 | Hengyang WL | Natural Lake | ② | ◯ | embedded in the city | Existing |
| 30 | Changsha WL | Natural–artificial Composite Lake | ④ | ◯ | adjacent | Existing |
| 31 | Xiangyin WL | Natural Lake | ② | No Data | adjacent | Existing |
| 32 | Jianglin WL | Natural Lake | ② | ◯ | embedded in the city | Existing |
| 33 | Songzi WL | Natural Lake | ② | No Data | adjacent | No Data |
| 34 | Xiaogan WL | Natural Lake | ② | No Data | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 35 | Tianmen WL | Natural Lake | ② | □ | adjacent | Existing |
| 36 | Mianyang WL | Natural Lake | ② | No Data | separated | Existing |
| 37 | Huangzhou WL | Natural Lake | No Data | ◯ | separated | Existing |
| 38 | Xincheng WL | No Data | No Data | No Data | adjacent | No Data |
| 39 | Jishui WL | Natural Lake | ② | ◯● | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 40 | Nanchang WL | Natural Lake | ② | □■ | adjacent | Existing |
| 41 | Jiangle WL | No Data | ① | □◯ | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 42 | Chaozhou WL | Natural–artificial Composite Lake | ① | ♦◯ | adjacent | Existing |
| 43 | Zhangpu WLs(3) | Artificial Lake | ④ | ¤ | two adjacent and one embedded in the city | No Data |
| 44 | Changtai WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | □■ | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 45 | Putian WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | No Data | adjacent | Existing |
| 46 | Xianyou WL | Natural Lake | ① | No Data | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 47 | Fuzhou WL | Natural–artificial Composite Lake | ①② | □■♦ | adjacent | Existing |
| 48 | Lianjiang WL | No Data | No Data | No Data | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 49 | Changle WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | □■ | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 50 | Qianshan WL | Natural Lake | ① | ◯● | adjacent | Existing |
| 51 | Wenzhou WL | Natural Lake | ① | ■ | adjacent | Existing |
| 52 | Shouchang WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | ■ | embedded in the city | Existing |
| 53 | Longyou WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | ◯ | embedded in the city | Disappeared |
| 54 | Xinding WL | No Data | No Data | No Data | embedded in the city | Disappeared |
| 55 | Yanzhou WL | Natural Lake | ① | □■¤ | adjacent | Existing |
| 56 | Wuyuan WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | □♦ | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 57 | Shaoxing WL | Natural Lake | ① | No Data | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 58 | Jinhua WL | Natural Lake | No Data | No Data | separated | Existing |
| 59 | Fuxian WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | ■ | separated | Existing |
| 60 | Ningbo WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | ■◯ | embedded in the city | Existing |
| 61 | Hangzhou WL | Natural Lake | ① | □■ | adjacent | Existing |
| 62 | Jiaxing WL | Natural Lake | ② | ◯ | adjacent | Existing |
| 63 | Louxian WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | ◯ | embedded in the city | Disappeared |
| 64 | Huating WL | Natural Lake | ② | No Data | embedded in the city | Existing |
| 65 | Yangzhou WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | □ | embedded in the city | Existing |
| 66 | Huzhou WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | ♦ | adjacent | Existing |
| 67 | Chuzhou WL | Natural Lake | ② | ◯ | adjacent | Existing |
| 68 | Changzhou WL | No Data | No Data | No Data | No Data | No Data |
| 69 | Huoqiu WL | Natural Lake | ② | □ | adjacent | No Data |
| 70 | Yingzhou WL | Natural Lake | ② | □◯● | adjacent | Existing |
| 71 | Luoshan WL | No Data | No Data | ■ | separated | Disappeared |
| 72 | Ruyang WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | ◯ | adjacent | Existing |
| 73 | Ruzhou WL | Natural Lake | ② | ■ | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 74 | Suizhou WL | Natural–artificial Composite Lake | ② | □ | adjacent | Existing |
| 75 | Xuzhou WL | Artificial Lake | ②④ | ■♦◯ | adjacent | Existing |
| 76 | Yanling WL | Artificial Lake | ④ | ■◯ | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 77 | Caozhou WL | Natural–artificial Composite Lake | ② | ◯ | adjacent | Existing |
| 78 | Kaizhou WL | Natural–artificial Composite Lake | ② | ♦ | adjacent | Existing |
| 79 | Daming WL | Natural–artificial Composite Lake | ④ | ■ | adjacent | Disappeared |
| 80 | Yizhou WL | Natural Lake | ③ | No Data | adjacent | Existing |
| 81 | Jinan WL | Natural–artificial Composite Lake | ③ | ■ | adjacent | Existing |
| Note: In the Water Source column, ① represents the WLs formed by foothill catchments; ② represents the WLs formed at the confluence of rivers or along the banks of rivers; ③ represents the WLs formed by the combined flow of springs and streams; and ④ represents the WLs formed by artificial diversion. In the Initial Function column, □ represents WLs that were developed for flood storage, ■ represents WLs that were developed for water supply, ♦ represents WLs that were developed for city security defense, ¤ represents WLs that were developed for religious release, ◯ represents WLs that were developed for tour ornamental purposes, and ● represents WLs that were developed for Feng Shui. | ||||||
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; Lin, Qing; Wang, Xiyue; Jia, Wenzhen
; Zhao, Ying
; Zhang, Zhiqing; Cui, Ziqi; Chen, Song
; Jin, Aibo