Content area
[LANGUAGE=”English”] Background and Research Objectives
Taiwan’s national basic education curriculum was developed on the basis of the principles of whole-person education. According to these principles, students should be self-motivated and active learners and schools should foster students’ learning motivation and enthusiasm and help them cultivate their abilities to meaningfully interact with themselves, others, society, and nature. In this study, a framework was developed for evaluating outdoor education programs. The goal was to develop a basic model for the integration of outdoor education with school-based education. This study was conducted in two steps. First, the literature was reviewed to identify relevant international and Taiwanese articles published within the last decade. Second, on the basis of established indicators of the implementation of outdoor education programs in Taiwan, in-depth interviews were conducted with experts to gather feedback for developing and refining the indicators.
Literature Review
Bisson (1996) introduced a metaphorical model called the Outdoor Education Umbrella. In this model, the handle of the umbrella represents camping education, symbolizing its foundational role as a precursor to outdoor education. The canopy represents experiential education, symbolizing its universality across all outdoor experiential learning methods. As an overarching framework, experiential education is applied in all methods of outdoor experiential learning. The left side of the Outdoor Education Umbrella focuses on outdoor experiential learning methods for self-development (Outdoor Adventure Education, Challenge Education, and Adventure Education), whereas the right side focuses on methods for personal and environmental ethical development (Environmental Education, Earth Education, and Wilderness Education). Conventional education, characterized by a transfer of current knowledge and skills through formal schooling, often neglects the individual needs of learners. Therefore, Dewey (1938) advocated for a revolution in education, focusing on the concept of “learning by doing,” which emphasizes grounding education in learners’ present experiences. Waite et al. (2016) highlighted that outdoor education confers multifaceted benefits covering academic, personal, social, and psychological aspects; the researchers indicated that outdoor education enhances learning interest, motivation, and outcomes. Orda and Leather (2011) suggested that Dewey’s experiential learning, which focuses on “meaning” and “learning potential,” can deepen the meaning derivable through outdoor education. This study highlighted a close association between outdoor education and experiential learning. Unlike other educational approaches, outdoor education involves leveraging outdoor environments to foster human–nature interactions, thereby conferring psychological, physiological, social, and educational benefits; this is the most unique feature of outdoor education. The outdoor education model explored in the current study was developed on the basis of experiential learning. This model integrates elements of adventure and environmental awareness from Outdoor Adventure Education and Environmental Education, respectively.
Methods
This study was conducted in two steps. First, a systematic review of the literature was conducted to identify publications by Taiwanese and international scholars on the implementation of outdoor education curricula in schools over the last decade. Second, on the basis of established indicators of the implementation of outdoor education curricula in Taiwan, in-depth interviews were conducted with purposively selected experts. These interviews offered expert insights for the development and refinement of the indicators.
Results and Discussion
Initially, 8,099 articles were identified. From these, 190 articles were selected on the basis of predefined criteria. Then, a systematic review of the literature was performed. On the basis of the results, a comprehensive framework was developed for evaluating outdoor education programs in schools by combining the characteristics of outdoor education within international and regional contexts with the perspectives of program evaluation. This framework had 5 dimensions and 15 facets: program planning and organization, program design and development, program implementation and teaching, program effectiveness and optimization, and program safety and risk management mechanisms. A total of 46 indicators were selected by analyzing the interview data. The reliability of the results was ensured through triangulation and expert verification.
The characteristics of international and regional outdoor education frameworks were aligned with school operations and curriculum systems; thus, key connotations and features of outdoor education in schools were identified. First, outdoor education is a vital component of school education. Second, it is a crucial method for fostering holistic development in students. Third, outdoor education reflects the integration of national and regional policies, cultural exchanges, and developmental trends. Fourth, it leverages social resources. Finally, safety and risk management mechanisms are consistently embedded throughout the curriculum of outdoor education. Furthermore, a systematic framework for teacher development is established.
Conclusion, Contributions, and Implications
To implement outdoor education programs across grades in an orderly manner, government authorities or school leadership must first recognize the benefits of outdoor education, which are well-supported. The second step is to formulate policies and regulations that enable schools to design outdoor education programs reflecting the traditional characteristics and geographic features of a given country, region, and individual school. Furthermore, a system for training outdoor education teachers must be established to support these programs. Concurrently, awareness of the safety risks associated with implementing outdoor education programs should be increased.
The comprehensive and systematic indicators proposed in this study can serve as a foundation for reviewing and updating the evaluation criteria for outdoor education programs in alignment with national education policies and school needs. Furthermore, these indicators may guide the development of outdoor education programs in schools.
[LANGUAGE=”Chinese”]