Theory of higher education learning

Abstract

Purpose

This study proposes the theory of higher education learning (THEL). The theory argues that certain concepts are difficult to understand, so learners and instructors should consider common factors that will enhance learners’ understanding of key concepts that are difficult to comprehend across various fields of study. The components of this theory have been tested in three different fields (public administration, entrepreneurship and chemistry) in separate studies in Ghana, Nigeria and Burundi within a five-year span to validate their applicability to higher education learning.

Design/methodology/approach

The design covers empirical, philosophical and theoretical discussions and comparative studies of other researchers and the authors’ work and thinking.

Findings

This theory proposes five variables (gender, age, opportunity, instructor knowledge and instructor confidence) that address students’ difficulty in understanding concepts in higher education learning. These factors are premised on six assumptions: (1) gender orientation must be either male or female; (2) age must be consistent with the parameter set; (3) there must be learners’ desire to study the same subject after school; (4) there must be an institution offering further studies on the same subject; (5) the instructor might have understood the subject in his/her official training, experience or practice and (6) the instructor must demonstrate certainty, accuracy, verifiability and reliability in the transfer of knowledge to the learners. Given these assumptions, the uniqueness of this theory lies in its application of the five variables to solve challenges uniquely related to studies in higher education.

Originality/value

This theory will incite debate and provide further insights into higher education learning models. The novelty lies in the five prepositions proven to enhance effective teaching and learning in higher education. Specifically, it introduces an extension to Piaget’s cognitive constructivist theory by proposing higher age brackets for students at the university level, opportunity (for future studies) to close the gap in Ausubul’s theory of advance organizers and endogenous factors to bridge the gap in Okebukola’s culturo-techno-contextual approach.

1. Introduction

After paying attention to rigorous research protocols for qualitative and quantitative data and findings in previous studies, the author discovered that many students encountered difficulties in understanding key concepts in major subjects or courses they pursued at the university level, especially in Africa (Awaah (2021), Awaah et al. (2021), Awaah (2022), Nitereka et al. (2022), Nitereka (2024). A critical literature review reveals that the situation is not peculiar to one field of study, but pervasive across educational fields, especially the social sciences, arts, humanities, sciences, and mathematics at all levels of Africa’s education (Onowugbeda et al., 2024; Agbanimu et al., 2022; Oladejo et al., 2023; Gbeleyi et al., 2022). This challenge can be effectively and efficiently addressed if this phenomenon is investigated in depth. Thus, the proposer spent five years assessing the factors that influenced students’ difficulty in understanding key concepts in higher education learning within the African region. The assessment was carried out sequentially in three different academic fields: public administration education (relating to administrative, civil, public, and political governance studies), entrepreneurship education (relating to business management or administration in general), and chemistry education (relating to the sciences). Having been a student, practitioner, lecturer, researcher, and supervisor in these fields, the author has sufficient knowledge and experience to examine the phenomenon and provide a basis for future validation in other fields.

Learning can be challenging when the right teaching methods or environments are not created for both the learners and instructors. This can result in poor performance by learners and future unintended negative consequences (Awaah, 2019; Awaah and Abdulai, 2020) to learners and the country at large. Admittedly, teaching methods, such as lecture methods and the culturo-techno-contextual approach (CTCA), exist to provide guidelines for effective teaching and learning. However, these models appear weak in regard to their applicability in holistically solving teaching and learning challenges geared toward enhancing students’ understanding of concepts. For instance, the CTCA focuses largely on the cultural setting where learning is taking place and states that the cultural factors of the learner, technology, and his/her environment should be considered to promote effective learning (Okebukola, 2020). This implies that one’s culture and environmental factors, coupled with the use of technology, can influence his/her ability to understand what is being taught. Therefore, the CTCA only provides exogenous assumptions that limit its scope of application. At best, there must be acknowledgment of endogenous factors that internally influence the learner’s attention or instructor’s ability during the learning process, which this theory fills that gap. Additionally, despite the usefulness of CTCA, it may be saddled with challenges such as lack of support and cooperation from teachers and other staff of the school, lack of internet-enabled devices by students, eruptive power supply, small or insufficient time frame for the lesson, lack of motivation on the part of learners to take up the responsibility of doing the assignment given, and teachers’ knowledge and competence in solving misconceptions that might arise when cultural beliefs are inconsistent with the scientific explanation at hand (Abdulhadi et al., 2023). These exogenous challenges are overcome by this theory.

The lecture method has also come under attack because of its inability to enhance students’ understanding of concepts in school environments. A significant challenge with the lecture approach is that it appears wasteful (Rahman, 2020). It is not as effective as it used to be in higher education (Roehl et al., 2013). Los Santos et al. (2016) also argued that the lecture method is D-E-A-D in every word; the average mid-term test score for peer teaching was much higher than the lecture technique and the average final exam (Safari et al., 2020). While the lecture method is the major tool of instruction within the African higher education space and in many parts of the world, the new proposition in this theory cures the challenges noted by proposing specific variables that can enhance teaching and learning.

This THEL suggests that, given a good learning environment, internal factors are more distractive than external factors regarding students’ comprehension of key concepts in perceived difficult subjects. Therefore, it is essential to also consider factors that are within the control of the learner and the instructor because the learner will be assessed by the instructor, and the learner will ultimately be responsible for the outcome of his/her education.

2. Rationale of the theory

This theory is motivated by the increasing level of poor student achievement in courses perceived as difficult to learn or understand (Okebukola, 2020; Awaah et al., 2023). The phrase ‘difficult to learn or understand’ refers to the presence of barriers that must be overcome or problems that must be solved (Awaah, 2022). The adjective ‘difficult’ is frequently used by learners, teachers, and practitioners to denote when a goal requires a disproportionate amount of work. Awaah (2021) posits that in determining how difficult a subject or course is, one must consider the course’s nature, the instructor’s ability to teach, and the learner’s ability to understand. Furthermore, a lack of practical teaching and an overburdening curriculum make some topics difficult to understand or learn (Buah and Akuffo, 2017). From the learner’s perspective, Awaah (2022) observed that learners’ difficulty in understanding courses is attributable to their inability to understand, relate to, or comprehend an idea, phenomenon, philosophy, or concept as conveyed directly or through other teaching aids by an instructor. On the other hand, Okebukola et al. (2020) revealed that instructors’ lack of readiness for teaching methods or technological changes may make it difficult for learners.

Existing theories of learning relate students “understanding of concepts to various factors or indicators. For instance, the widely used Piaget’s cognitive constructivist theory considers age as an influencer of students' understanding of concepts. The theory is mainly centered on children, making it skewed and narrowed to the pre-tertiary level. However, empirical studies (e.g. Yoo and Huang, 2013; Awaah, 2021, Awaah, 2020) have established that age influences students' understanding of concepts, even at a higher educational level. Piaget proposed that children progress in four stages: These stages are assumed to reflect qualitative differences in children’s cognitive abilities (Piaget, 1976). He emphasizes the holistic approach to learning – a child constructs an understanding by exploring and experiencing their environment. Piaget’s theory was later expanded to explain how new information is shaped to fit learners” existing knowledge and how existing knowledge is modified to accommodate new information. Key elements in the cognitive process are (1) assimilation, which occurs when a learner perceives new objects or events in terms of existing schedules or operations; (2) accommodation, which occurs when an existing scheme or operation has been modified to account for a new experience; and (3) equilibration, which is the master developmental process that encompasses both assimilation and accommodation. Since the theory mainly focuses on children, it is inappropriate to apply it to studies at the university level because students at this level usually exceed the age bracket (i.e. 0–11 years), as espoused by the theory. At best, Piaget’s theory provides a theoretical foundation for the current theory, as age is justified as a key determinant of students’ understanding of difficult concepts at a higher educational level.

Another relevant learning theory is Ausubul’s theory of advance organizers, which argues that learners rely on their previous knowledge of a subject to understand concepts in that subject (Mayer, 2003). The theory suggests that learners’ ability to understand concepts is based on their pre-existing knowledge of these concepts. While Ausubul’s theory emphasizes the importance of previous studies (advanced organizers), it overlooks the opportunity to study the same subjects after school (future studies). Everyone starts learning with no previous knowledge, and subsequently progresses to accumulate more knowledge. In this case, the initial influencer anticipates future study that inspires beginners at the childhood level. This means that an opportunity for further (future) studies must exist to stimulate beginner learners. Thus, in theory, Ausubel should have included future learning opportunities into the theory. For instance, when university students have an opportunity to study after school, their previous knowledge becomes a scaffolding for understanding lessons in the new study area, since they come with some previous knowledge (advance organizers) that will facilitate understanding. Therefore, there must be an appropriate connection between existing knowledge and the opportunity to study after school, as proposed by this theory. This propels the proposition of the opportunity to study in the future as a component of this current theory, closing the gap left by Ausubul in his theory.

Furthermore, transgender theory is evaluated. Transgender theory is an emerging theoretical orientation toward the nature of gender and gender identity in understanding the lived experiences of transgender and transsexual individuals. This emphasizes the importance of physical embodiment in gender and sexual identity (Nagoshi and Brzuzy, 2010). Transgender theory integrates this embodiment with the self-and socially constructed aspects of identity through the lived experiences of those with intersecting identities. Thus, it provides a theoretical basis for reconciling feminist and queer theoretical scholarship with social work practice and advocacy, with regard not only to issues of working with transgender people but also to larger issues of group identity. While the theory’s strength lies in the physiological description of gender, it is weak in terms of the psychological definitions of strictly male and female, which do not make room for looks, feelings, etc., in determining one’s gender. This weakness is rooted in a lack of sensitivity to the contextual cultural systems of people in different parts of the world, which strictly adhere to gender as male and female. Given the setting of this theory (Africa), which is culturally sensitive to gender being male or female, it closes the theoretical gap by treating gender as either male or female, so that it fits well into the African cultural system without any denunciations from potential users or adopters.

In academic fields, such as the arts and humanities, concept difficulties have been overlooked by researchers, particularly in Africa (Awaah et al., 2022). Only a few studies have considered evidence that studies in areas such as entrepreneurship utilize indigenous methodologies that are more relevant to practice than instruction (Paul et al., 2017). However, researchers in the field of science have conducted studies on difficult concepts and indigenous knowledge systems to ease the difficulties in different concepts (see Gbeleyi et al., 2022; Onowugbeda et al., 2024).

Specific to higher education, Awaah et al. (2021) Awaah (2021) Awaah (2022), Nitereka (2024), and Nitereka et al. (2022) have catalogued difficulties related to studying public administration, entrepreneurship, and chemistry in selected African universities. Awaah et al. (2021a, b, c, d) sought to establish the concepts found difficult to study within Ghanaian and Nigerian Universities. Their study established that bureaucracy, decentralization, public policy, and politics are moderately difficult to study. They further established a significant relationship between gender and concept difficulties. They suggested curriculum development that would improve students' knowledge by emphasizing the perceived difficult areas in the study of public administration and teachers' attention drawn to gender as an influencer of students' understanding of concepts in the course. Awaah (2022) also investigated the Ghanaian undergraduate entrepreneurship development curriculum to establish concepts found difficult to study by undergraduate students. The study revealed that industry and competitive analysis are the most difficult concepts found by students studying at Ghanaian universities. Nitereka et al. (2022) examined the undergraduate chemistry curriculum in Burundi and established that among the twenty-three concepts investigated, pH and octet rules are perceived as the most difficult concepts in the Burundian university system. These findings were significantly linked to sex and concept difficulty.

Regardless, no concrete theory has been developed to guide teaching and learning to address learners’ difficulties in understanding concepts specifically within the higher education space. Although the above findings are germane, they are not based on historical data. The study processes were not repeated over time in different jurisdictions to provide common factors that can be applied across educational fields with little or no modification. Like other teaching methods, a deliberate factor accounting for learners’ difficulty in understanding concepts can be consolidated into a model or theory to propel further discussion among scholars. This theory is, therefore, timely and crucial to inciting a fruitful academic debate on the appropriate principles to adhere to when dealing with difficult concepts in higher education.

3. Methodology

3.1 Materials

At the initial stage of the development of this theory, the proposer conducted a desk review of empirical studies on the factors impeding students’ understanding of concepts within the higher educational space. Desk reviews are helpful in making well-informed decisions and in focusing on the research (Kiely, 2024). Since data credibility is an important component of desk reviews (Kiely, 2024), the proposer strictly relied on published studies related to difficulties in students’ understanding of concepts within the Scopus database, Google Scholar, and completed doctoral thesis related to difficulties in students’ understanding of concepts/topics within the African higher education space.

Next, reviews were conducted on teaching methods and educational theories intended to resolve the conceptual difficulties in the study of courses, critically establishing the weaknesses of these methods and theories and proposing how the current propositions fill the gaps. The literature reviews help to build a foundation, demonstrate how a study advances knowledge, conceptualize the study, and provide a reference point for interpretation of findings (Merriam and Simpson, 2000). Building a foundation requires using previous work in such a way as to demonstrate linkages, illustrate trends, and provide an overview of a concept (Rocco and Plakhotnik, 2009). A comparative approach was also adopted to confirm the claims in the proposer’s previous studies, which are at the core of the theory.

4. Results

4.1 Ghana – public administration curriculum

The first Ghanaian study (Awaah, 2021) included 566 participants from three public universities. Data to address the research question of whether there are relationships between the pre-determined variables (gender, age, opportunity to learn the subject after school, teacher confidence, and teacher knowledge) and concept difficulty in studying public administration were subjected to correlation and regression analysis. In establishing the relationship between the pre-determined variables (gender, age, opportunity to learn the subject after school, teacher confidence, and teacher knowledge) and concept difficulty in the study of public administration, the study found statistical significance between the variables and concept difficulty in the study of public administration in Ghanaian universities.

4.2 Ghana and Nigeria – public administration curriculum

From the previous Ghana study of 566 students (Awaah, 2021), the study was extended to include 84 students from two Nigerian universities (N = 650). The results revealed a similar trend as the Ghana study: (1) gender, (2) age, (3) opportunity to learn the subject after school, (4) teacher confidence, and (5) teacher qualification, influence students' understanding of concepts in the study of public administration at the university levels in both countries.

4.3 Ghana–entrepreneurship development curriculum

In a study to establish the factors influencing students’ understanding of the entrepreneurship curriculum in a Ghanaian university, Awaah (2022) adopted a survey method using 575 participants. Data to address whether there is a relationship between the pre-determined variables (gender, age, teacher qualification, teacher confidence, opportunity to learn the subject after school, teacher knowledge), and concept difficulty in the study of entrepreneurship were subjected to correlation and regression analysis. In establishing the relationship between the pre-determined variables (gender, age, opportunity to learn the subject after school, teacher confidence, and teacher knowledge) and concept difficulty in the study of entrepreneurship development, the study found statistical significance between the variables and concept difficulty in the study of entrepreneurship development in Ghanaian universities.

4.4 Burundi – chemistry curriculum

Nitereka et al. (2022) investigated the factors that impede students' understanding of chemistry in Burundian universities (also see Nitereka, 2024)). The study involved 817 students from 4 Burundian universities. The study reported a statistically significant relationship between the difficulty of teaching and learning concepts in general chemistry and students' gender, age, opportunity to learn the subject after school, teacher confidence, and teacher knowledge.

5. Discussions

Bijou and Liouaeddine (2018) examined school performance gaps by gender on a global scale. They found inequalities in students’ achievements between countries and within every country. They found that girls performed better than boys at reading, whereas boys performed better in mathematics and science. This finding is reflected in the work of Mkpanang (2016), who examined the influence of creative style and gender on students’ achievement in physics. Mkpanang’s (2016) findings showed that gender and innovative style as factors independently and mutually exercise a significant influence on students’ achievement in physics. Additionally, Atmatzidou and Demetriadis (2016) revealed that students reach the same level of CT skill development regardless of their gender. However, girls need more time to equal the same level as boys; further affirming gender differences in students’ comprehension levels. In a similar study, Becirovic (2017) reported that female students were more successful in learning English as a foreign language than male students. On the contrary, Eriksson et al. (2020) reported that more gender egalitarian values were associated with improved performance in boys than in girls in the same countries.

According to Nasir (2012), academic performance improves with age. Furthermore, in their investigations, Keith et al. (2006) and Sheard (2009) discovered a favorable association between age and academic achievement, stating that older students had better-completing degree GPAs than younger students. Their assertion may be attributed to focus, as it relates to older students, as opposed to less focus pertaining to younger students. Debatably, older students are usually mature enough to know what they desire from the school system and, as such, study toward achieving same, compared to younger students. Ebenuwa-Okoh (2010), on the other hand, found that although there is a favorable relationship between age and academic achievement, it does not substantially predict concept understanding and academic performance among pupils. Instead, students’ personality and behavior toward a particular subject are the most important indicators of their ability to absorb topics. The perspectives of Nasir (2012), Keith et al. (2006), Ebenuwa-Okoh (2010), find relevance with the consistent findings in the three county studies. Of particular reverence is the finding that older students had better-completing degree GPAs than younger students (Keith et al., 2006, Sheard, 2009). This narrative gives more credence to the theory, following that, a key proposal is ages to be between 18–40 as opposed to the works of Piaget that suggests lower age limits that may not be applicable to higher education studies.

Literature on how opportunity for future studies influences students' understanding of concepts in the educational literature seems scant. This may be attributed to researchers perhaps not giving attention to examining the variable as a possible depressant to students' understanding of concepts. It may be taken for granted from the works of Ausubul that, with advance organizers (previous knowledge), students are likely to excel in their studies. Although this has been proven to be true (see Awaah, 2021), what his study did not consider is the possible efforts students will put into a subject to excel if they have future ambitions to study the same course or subject and likely have a career in that area of study. When students have future career interests in certain fields, they usually will require opportunities to further study in that field in bids to enhances their future career chances. This usually will push such students to study at the current level, anticipating to excel so they can qualify to study the same course at a higher level in future to achieve their future career ambitions.

According to McNeill et al. (2016), a key vital for student learning is the teacher’s confidence in employing argumentation in the lecture hall. Instructors with more regular in-service opportunities in co-teaching were more confident in their co-teaching practice and showed greater levels of enthusiasm and favorable attitudes toward co-teaching than teachers with fewer in-service opportunities Pancsofar and Petroff (2013). Furthermore, pre-service co-teaching training has been linked to increased teacher confidence.

Darling-Hammond (2000) claimed that governmental investments in teacher quality are linked to improved student achievement in qualitative and quantitative examinations. According to quantitative assessments, teacher training and certification are the most critical determinants of reading and math performance both before and after adjusting for student poverty and language status. Darling-Hammond (2000) asserted that state rules on teacher education, licensing, hiring, and professional development may substantially influence the qualifications and talents that teachers bring to their professions. Podolsky et al. (2019), asserts that teaching experience is favorably related to student success increases throughout a teacher’s career. Furthermore, König and Pflanzl (2016), reports that when it comes to teacher knowledge and student performance, students' evaluations of successful classroom management, generic teaching methods/teacher clarity, and teacher-student connections are all positively correlated with GPK (general pedagogical knowledge). From the experiences of the researcher, teacher confidence and knowledge are usually linked to the teacher’s qualifications, how long he/she has been teaching the subject/course, the teaching method adopted, and the quality of the instructional materials used.

6. Assumptions of the theory

Assumptions are the underlying principles of the theory. As a scientific process, the proposer assumes the following and argues that these assumptions provide contextual conditions for the successful application or use of the theory. The following six assumptions are made:

• Gender relates to male and female: given that gender is a component of the theory, it is important to assume that gender could only be male and female. This formed the basis for validating this theory. A learner must be either male or female so that the instructor can assess them based on their gender differences and abilities (i.e. psychological features). In the field of psychology, it has been established that gender differences exist, and therefore, dealing with human beings, one must consider this (Giudice, 2015). Individuals decide and interact with others differently because of gender disparities (Lippa, 2010; Arkorful and Hilton, 2022). Therefore, an assessment of what influences their decisions or ways of life should consider gender differences (Giudice, 2015). These scholars regard gender as male or female, and the same applies strictly to this theory, since the definition is from a psychological perspective (i.e. relating to traits) and not a physiological perspective (i.e. physical looks or transformation).
• Age must be consistent with the parameter set: an age bracket must be considered when dealing with learners’ ability to understand difficult concepts. Research shows that the year or period in which one is born influences one’s attitude toward educational training (Severt et al., 2009). This is sometimes referred to as generational difference or cohort. A recent study in the field of entrepreneurship by Arkorful et al. (2022) reported that the underlying socio-economic conditions prevailing at the time of one’s birth influence one’s behavior toward education and entrepreneurship. This implies that age must not just be seen as a number, but also a serious determinant of how learners will react to their studies. Hence, age parameter sets are the basis for the inclusion of age in theory.
• There must be learners’ desire to study the same subject after school: research proves that if students have the expectation to progress further in a course, they devote much attention to understanding and performing well (Awaah, 2022). This desire becomes a driving force in developing the ability to study the course and eliminate any possible internal distractions. Therefore, the proposer believes that a learner who does not see his/her future in a subject may approach the subject lackadaisically, thereby perceiving the concepts in that subject to be difficult and would not do anything to change. The learner must first have the passion to progress further on the same subject for this assumption to hold.
• There must be an institution offering further studies in the same subject: which is another important assumption of this theory. Where the learner knows or believes that there is no available institution offering further studies in the course, he/she may not be motivated to pay adequate attention to understanding what is being taught. This assumption suggests that institutions of higher learning must run progressive programs that offer learners the option of studying the same subject after school. This assumption is consistent with assumption 3. While the learner must have the desire to progress further on the same subject, an institution offering the same subject at a higher level must equally exist. This assumption is based on previous studies that suggest that future career interests propel students to study and understand concepts in bids to fulfill their future ambitions. For instance, in a study by Awaah et al. (2021a, b, c, d) in two African countries, they established a significant relationship between future career interest and students’ understanding of public administration. A study of entrepreneurship and corporate governance education revealed similar results (Awaah et al., 2023; Awaah and Hilton, 2024). It can be inferred from these results that institutions offering further studies in the same subject will motivate students to study in anticipation of excelling to meet the demands of their future careers.
• Instructor might have understood the subject in his/her official training, experience, or practice: which states that the instructor should have an adequate understanding of the concepts in the subject during his/her education or official training. In this way, the instructor will be in a better position to transfer that knowledge with ease and appropriate illustrations. Here, the author assumes that the instructor might have already understood difficult concepts before attempting to teach. This assumption is supported by the work of Foli et al. (2023), which suggests that teacher knowledge is a panacea for students’ understanding of difficult concepts at the tertiary level. Similarly, Podolsky et al. (2019) revealed that teaching experience is positively associated with student achievement gains throughout teachers’ careers. Furthermore, gains in teacher effectiveness associated with experience are steeper in teachers’ initial years but continue to be significant as teachers reach the second, and often third decades of their careers. In addition, König and Pflanzl (2016) asserted that with teacher knowledge and student performance, general pedagogical knowledge positively correlates with students’ perceptions of effective classroom management, generic teaching methods/teacher clarity, and teacher-student relationships.
• Instructors must demonstrate certainty, accuracy, verifiability, and reliability in the transfer of knowledge to the learners: Students become more confused when the instructor is not certain about what he/she is teaching. As a matter of condition, the instructor must show that he/she understands the concepts, demonstrates certainty, provides error-free illustrations, and provides sources of information so that learners can verify and be consistent in his/her approach and delivery to make him/her reliable. Learners doubt that what they read or learn can distort their absolute focus on the course.

7. Components of the theory

The theory consists of five components that together define and conceptualize it. The components are gender, age, opportunity, instructor knowledge, and instructor confidence.

• Gender: To provide a common model to address learners’ difficulty in understanding concepts in a subject, gender emerged in all the empirical studies reviewed. This implies that understanding gender disparity is essential for addressing learners’ perceptions of concept difficulties in some subjects. Ebenuwa-Okoh (2010) posited that there is no substantial difference in academic achievement between males and females. In his discovery, Ebenuwa-Okoh (2010) noted that because of the conceptual challenges with topics, both male and female learners find it difficult to understand and perform. This implies that learners are exposed to the same social and intellectual milieu, providing equal chances of performance. Ebenuwa–Okoh’s (2010) finding underscores earlier and current revelations (Oladejo et al., 2021). However, it is not theoretically sound to assume that exposure to the same learning environment will lead to equivalent performance. For instance, the five-factor model (FFM) in psychology explains gender differences in behavior or traits. The model contains five factors called the Big Five: (1) neuroticism (negative emotionality and emotional instability), (2) agreeableness (altruism and cooperation), (3) conscientiousness (self-control, self-discipline, and organization), (4) extraversion (sociability, assertiveness, and positive emotionality), and (5) openness (imagination, intellectual curiosity, and esthetic appreciation). These factors suggest that individuals decide and interact with others or situations differently depending on their gender (Lippa, 2010). It follows that the instructor must determine the best work for a female or male learner during the learning process. This assertion is empirically supported by Crosser (1991), who found a statistically significant difference in composite test battery scores, favoring both older males and older females. Awaah et al. (2021a, b, c, d) established a significant relationship between gender and concept difficulties in the study of public administration.

These contradictory findings are due to study setting differences and, more importantly, the lack of a single conceptual basis. None of the studies are premised on any tailored theory, as there is none. Consolidating their views and findings into a single theory will provide a reasonable guide for learners and instructors in higher education. Thus, this theory proposes that gender must be a key factor to consider when dealing with difficult concepts by evaluating what makes a male or female understand concepts in subjects rather than the holistic assumption that both genders will understand and perform better.

• Age: This theory states that, depending on the generation in which one is born, his/her current age will affect his/her ability to learn difficult concepts and pass. Age has featured many studies on students’ comprehension and achievement. All such studies reported different age groups and comprehension levels. Similarly, students’ academic achievement was premised on their age groups. An earlier study in Europe, conducted by Crosser (1991), demonstrated that age poses an advantage to students’ understanding of concepts and performance. Unfortunately, Crosser (1991) focused on young ages (5–6 years), which makes his findings inapplicable at higher education levels. Nevertheless, Keith et al. (2006) discovered a positive relationship between age and academic achievement, such that older students completed GPAs better than younger students. This provides an idea of an appropriate age limit at the higher education level. Subsequently, Nasir (2012) observes that one’s academic performance improves as one gets older. However, Keith et al. (2006) and Nasir (2012) failed to define an appropriate age limit for higher education learning. Consequently, other scholars have provided inconsistent findings regarding age and learners’ understanding of concepts and performance. For instance, Ebenuwa-Okoh (2010) revealed that, although there is a positive relationship between age and academic achievement, age does not substantially predict concept understanding and academic performance among learners. Ebenuwa–Okoh’s (2010) conclusion is indeed true because a mere correlation cannot automatically translate into prediction. He rather failed to follow up his study with a predictive assessment, rendering his findings weak and prone to criticism.

Another interesting finding was made in Europe by Gray et al. (2014) that older students were more difficult to model than younger students when applying classification models to identify college students at risk of failing in their first year of study. While modeling younger students, 10-fold cross-validation correctly predicted model performance, but overestimated model accuracy when modeling senior students. Their sample size of 1,074 is large enough, and the European setting provides ample room for comparison of age and students’ understanding of concepts from different geographical regions. Therefore, to conceptualize age as a determinant of the learner’s ability to understand difficult concepts in subjects to address the inconsistencies in the existing literature, this theory defines age using the following parameters: (1) general classification (between 18 and 40 years) and (2) specific classification (between 18 and 24 years) for undergraduate learners and (between 25 and 40 years) for postgraduate learners. At age 18, the learner might have gone through some life experiences (socio-economic, cultural, and moral) that give him or the ability to relate what is being taught to real-life situations. The learner’s ability to listen, understand, and remember concepts diminishes with the rise in socioeconomic responsibility. Ideally, by 22 years or a maximum of 24 years, one should have completed undergraduate studies and be ready to take on postgraduate studies. After 40 years, it is quite uncertain whether many learners will have patience, time, and attention to listen effectively to the instructor and understand what is being taught. In summary, the suitable age to undertake higher education with the possibility of understanding what is being taught, regardless of the field of study, should be between 18 and 40 years old.

• Opportunity: This component refers to the opportunity for the learner to study the same subject after school. Once there is an opportunity for the learner to progress further to read the same subject at an advanced level, he/she will pay much attention to understanding what is currently being taught in order to qualify for further study. This motivates the learner to defy all the odds of understanding concepts in a subject, regardless of perceived difficulties.
• Instructor knowledge: This component deals with the instructor’s knowledge or competency in teaching a subject. Angeli et al. (2016) discovered that instructors must first understand the technical and pedagogical content to teach the subject. An instructor’s knowledge of the concept of a course helps him/her determine the best approach to get the learner to understanding the concept. Prior educational studies have established a link between instructor understanding of course materials and students’ learning. Sadler and Sonnert (2016) submit that instructors who understand the course material and recognize learners’ weaknesses can enhance their learners' understanding of the course they are teaching more than their counterparts who do not. This is an affirmation of an earlier finding by Muzenda et al. (2013) that indicated a positive correlation between instructor competency and learners’ academic performance. Muzenda et al. (2013) demonstrated that instructors’ knowledge of topics or concepts, teaching abilities, attendance, and attitude positively impacts students’ academic performance. Given the empirical evidence above, this theory postulates that the instructor’s knowledge of concepts perceived as difficult is a necessary factor to enhance learners’ understanding of the concepts and subsequent performance.
• Instructor confidence: Instructor confidence is essential to the learning process. During the learning process, the instructor’s confidence level is determined by the kind of interaction they have with learners (McNeill et al., 2016). Instructors with more regular in-service opportunities in co-teaching are more confident in their co-teaching practices and show greater levels of enthusiasm and positive attitudes toward co-teaching than those with fewer in-service opportunities (Pancsofar and Petroff, 2013). In addition, pre-service co-teaching training increased instructor confidence. Albeit, Felten (2016) indicates that most learners could not comprehend course content due to the “threshold idea,” not necessarily the instructor’s confidence level. The idea is that particular professions have “conceptual gates” or “portals” that open up previously inaccessible and challenging methods of comprehending a subject. However, because the learner may work around the problem by conquering it, it transforms the learner’s learning, regardless of whether the instructor is there. Regardless, this theory contends that the instructor’s knowledge of perceived difficult topics or concepts and how he conveys them to the learner in clear and practical terms may be the foundation of the learner’s comprehension.

8. Validating the components of the theory

To validate the theoretical components, the proposed instrument was designed to measure each component. The instrument was developed based on an extensive literature review. The instrument development process was strictly adhered to for the instrument to be valid and reliable. The following subsections outline the validation process:

• Instrumentation: The Awaah Theory of Higher Education Learning Questionnaire (TATHEL-Q) was designed using information from the reviewed literature (see Appendix 1). The author designed his own scale because the components were newly propounded. Nevertheless, the scales were strictly based on a literature review. The next subsection details the measurement of these variables.
• Variables measurement: The variables constituting the theory were gender, age, opportunity, instructor knowledge, and instructor confidence. Gender was assessed by giving participants options to indicate whether “male” or “female.” Age was assessed using the parameters proposed for the age range of 18–40 years. This means that potential participants must fall within the age bracket of 18–40 years to qualify for participation in the survey. Respondents were expected to indicate their age. Opportunity was measured using the following items: ‘Do you consider a future career in this subject or will you like to have further studies in this subject?’ If you want to learn this subject after school, does your current institution offer further studies on this subject or are you aware of the one where you can further your studies after this course?”. Instructor knowledge was measured using the following items: “My instructor’s qualification in this subject is:”, “My instructor has been teaching this subject for …. years”, and “How do you rate your instructor’s knowledge in this subject. “Instructor confidence was measured with items including: “My instructor uses methods that make it easier to understand what is being taught,” “My instructor does allow time for questions,” and “How confident is the instructor in teaching the topics you find difficult to learn?”.
• Validity and reliability tests: To ensure that the measuring items measured what they were intended to measure, a content validity test was conducted. The instrument was reviewed by experts in higher education in three major academic fields in which the instrument was tested. An initial pilot test was conducted with 566 undergraduate students. The test generated an acceptable Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.87 for reliability. The results proved that the variables could be validated using a formal data-collection process.
• Sampling and data collection: Applying Patton’s (2002) sample size determination criteria endorsed by Saunders et al. (2016) and widely applied in social science and humanities research (such as Hilton et al., 2021; Tetteh et al., 2023), 566 students from three public universities were selected in Ghana. This was later extended to include 84 students from two Nigerian universities (N = 650). The selection criteria included the following: (1) the university should be running both entrepreneurship and public administration courses; (2) the participant must be in the final year (e.g. level 400); (3) the participant might have learned or currently learning concepts in any topic in the broad subject areas of entrepreneurship and public administration; and (4) the participant must be able, willing, and available to take part in the survey. The same protocols were applied in entrepreneurship education in Ghana and Chemistry in Burundi.
• Evaluation and key outcomes: The analysis was performed using the SPSS statistical application, SPSS. Descriptive statistics, analysis of covariance, correlation, and regression analyses were performed. The outcomes reveal that the components (gender, age, opportunity, instructor knowledge, and instructor confidence) are essential factors that relate significantly to learners’ understanding of difficult concepts in the selected subjects (public administration, entrepreneurship, and chemistry). However, the understanding of difficult concepts varies by gender, but it largely depends on the perception of the learners and gender definitions based on males and females. Regarding age, the results show consistency in the age parameter proposed, which should be considered to have a great impact on learners’ understanding of the perceived concepts. The opportunity to learn the same subject after school was ranked higher, followed by instructor knowledge and instructor confidence.

9. The Awaah model for higher education learning–TAMHEL

This model is based on two broad perspectives: learner-based and instructor-based. The learner-based perspective refers to the component (gender, age, and opportunity) that relates to the learner, whereas the instructor-based perspective refers to the component (knowledge and confidence) that relates to the instructor. These perspectives provide further clarification of the theory for its easy assessment and application. It can be observed from Figure 1 that higher education learning encompasses learner-based and instructor-based factors as mentioned above. It is proposed that these internal factors influence students’ understanding of difficult concepts. This model attributes the difficulty of the concept to the instructor’s ability to teach the concept well and the learner’s ability to understand. In this regard, the emphasis is on the learner and instructor, given that other exogenous factors such as course content and curriculum structure have been dealt with extensively in existing literature. Therefore, this model illustrates the components of the theory and serves as a conceptual framework for the theory.

10. Practical implications

This theory has implications for higher education, teaching, learning, curriculum development policies, and management. To the extent that teachers in the higher education space apply themselves to being knowledgeable in their specific areas of expertise, this will translate into an accurate transfer of such knowledge to students, thus enhancing their understanding of various subjects. This stance is further situated in the context that knowledgeable teachers will exhume some levels of confidence that will inure students’ understanding of the concepts, since teacher confidence is established as a key influencer of students’ understanding of concepts (McNeill et al., 2016; Pancsofar and Petroff, 2013). Practically, this implies that teachers will need to equip themselves with skills, knowledge, and attitudes to enhance their confidence to gain students’ trust and improve their understanding of concepts. This implication is tied to the finding that, teacher knowledge and confidence are panaceas to students understanding of concepts in the study of public administration, entrepreneurship development and chemistry education.

Specific to learning, students below 18 years of age may suffer conceptual difficulties in understanding subjects at the university level, especially within the African region, where this theory has been validated since university students are often between 18 and 40 years. This assertion finds backing in literature. For instance Nasir (2012), reports that academic performance improves with age, whiles Keith et al. (2006), Sheard (2009) discovered favorable associations between age and academic achievement, stating that older students had better-completing degree GPAs than younger students. Thus, to ensure students’ success, learners admitted to tertiary education should fall within the stipulated age brackets. This stance is premised on the thinking that at ages below 12 espoused by Piaget, students are likely too young to understand concepts that may appear abstract in nature. In the instance of practical subjects, their minds may also not be as mature as persons aged 18 and above, who practically will draw from their lived experiences to aid their understanding of concepts.

For curriculum, developers should express recognition of age differentials related to different levels of the contents of the programs. Specifically, the age of 18–24 (undergraduate) should have contents different from that of 25–40 (postgraduate). Similarly, concepts in each program should be buildups of the previous curriculum to reflect the component of opportunity (for further studies) as a build on previous scaffolds.

Furthermore, from a gender perspective, a learner should identify him/herself as male or female devoid of their looks and feelings consistent with the conservative cultural orientation of sex in Africa, which is strictly defined as male or female (binary). This suggests that the parameters of the instrument were male and female. Therefore, any other description of gender may not support the replicability of this theory or its practical adoption. For emphasis, this gender description are the foundations of the three studies underpinning this theory.

At the university managerial/leadership level, students should be encouraged to identify their natural biological orientations. In addition, students should be supported to complete their higher education within the age brackets of 18–40. Within the framework of opportunity, management may ensure that courses offered at the diploma level are also mounted at the first degree, master’s, and doctoral levels to ensure that students have the opportunity to further their studies in the same field or area of study. This will encourage them to excel in their present study in anticipation of moving on to a higher level of the same training. Refresher courses and related training sessions may also be organized for teachers to ensure that they are up-to-date with current trends in teaching the course to ensure students’ understanding. This will not only enhance knowledge transfer but also improve teacher confidence.

11. Conclusion

This theory proposes that age, gender, opportunity to study the subject in the future, teacher knowledge, and teacher confidence influence students’ understanding of concepts in the study of various courses within the higher education space. The theory is based on five basic assumptions that are prerequisites for its adoption. The theory is mainly applicable in the context of Africa since the initial validation involved African universities. The cultural setting of the respondents may influence the validation outcome; hence, it is important to apply it primarily in this region. However, developing countries with similar higher education systems should use this theory with caution. In addition, the theory’s generalization must be preceded by empirical research on the educational curriculum of the intended institutions. The expansion of the validation process is anticipated in the future; therefore, criticisms and suggestions are welcome.

12. Suggestions for further research

Empirical studies that were reviewed to form the basis of this theory have been conducted in Ghana, Nigeria, and Burundi. This limited the scope of this study to Africa. Further examination of this theory using this instrument is needed in other regions of the world to incite new debates on areas of consistency and departure.

The proposer acknowledges the academic resources availed by The Awaaah Research Foundation for the successful completion of this study. Special mention is made of my former mentees – Solomon Yeboah, Andrew Tetteh and Francois Nitereka who helped in collecting data for the Public Administration, Entrepreneurship Development and Chemistry studies respectively. To Sam Kris Hilton for his meticulous pre-submission critiques, I am grateful. This theory is inspired by the works of Piaget, Ausubul and Okebukola (who also helped me in data collection in Nigeria for the Ghana and Nigeria study on Public Administration).

Funding: The study is funded by the Awaah Research Foundation.

Figure 1

The Awaah model for higher education learning (TAMHEL)

[Figure omitted. See PDF]