Content area
Purpose
This study aims to explore various conceptions of global citizenship education (GCE) and pedagogies among frontline Chinese Hong Kong secondary school teachers under the onset of a new political climate of conservative nationalism.
Design/methodology/approach
It utilised interview findings with a purposive sample of about 22 experienced secondary school teachers in 2019, which was shortly before the city was caught in huge waves of protests. Interviewees come from different demographics, such as subsidy types of schools and school sponsoring bodies and admit students of different socio-economic status and academic capabilities.
Findings
The findings reveal both liberal and nationalistic orientations on knowledge and values of GCE, including sustainability, in recent school education, and the use of discussion and experiential learning for teaching GCE.
Research limitations/implications
A conceptual framework is developed for further research on teaching GCE in different cultural contexts. Developing pedagogies to instil in learners the values, attitudes and behaviours that support responsible global citizenship should become an international research agenda.
Originality/value
The analysis offers insightful views on what, why and how these teachers teach GCE. The authors also construct a framework of teachers' values and teaching beliefs that cultivate global citizens based on the research findings. This framework can inform school leaders, curriculum planners and teacher trainers in developing a more substantial pedagogical framework for GCE.
1. Introduction
This paper examines the state of global citizenship education (GCE) in Hong Kong within social changes and the growing prevalence of conservative nationalism, especially because of the enactment of the National Security Law in 2020. It utilizes interview findings with frontline teachers on their values and beliefs, key essential knowledge, teaching methods and assessment of GCE. These aspects are crucial for developing students' global perspectives and the necessary skills to compete and solve problems on a global scale. UNESCO (2024) believes that only an education that provides a global outlook with a deep appreciation of local perspectives can address the cross-cutting challenges of today and tomorrow. However, developing an effective set of pedagogies for teaching GCE has been limited, likely due to the lack of theorization of GCE as understood by frontline teachers. The authors explore several pedagogies associated with teaching GCE and present data gathered from interviews with 22 experienced teachers. The analysis offers insightful views on what, why and how these teachers teach GCE. The authors also construct a framework of teachers' values and teaching beliefs that cultivate global citizens based on the research findings. This framework can inform school leaders, curriculum planners and teacher trainers in developing a more substantial pedagogical framework for GCE.
2. Background
Globalization first appeared in the civic education curriculum in Hong Kong in 1998 (author, 2015) after China resumed sovereignty over Hong Kong in 1997. Though some Hong Kong schools adopted GCE since the early 2000s, the overall school curriculum has had limited content related to it. It was only until the 2017 curriculum guide for the key learning area of Personal, Social and Humanities Education that included keywords such as global citizenship identity, quality and awareness of one’s global citizenship identity (CDC, 2017). Instead, Hong Kong schools have been facing a nationalistic education project focused on building a Chinese national identity. Previous studies have highlighted and problematized the role of curriculum and schools in constructing national identities (Antal, 2008; Tormey, 2006), and similar challenges exist in Hong Kong. Despite Hong Kong teachers using collaborative, inquiry-based and creative teaching methods since the early 2000s education reforms and interdisciplinary school curricula addressing global topics (author), there is a perception that students' awareness of global issues is consistently unsatisfactory.
After the controversial Occupy Central Movement in 2014, Hong Kong entered a period of political uncertainties and an adversarial executive–legislative relationship (Lam, 2017). The society was divided, and political unity was fragmented. Against this context, Hong Kong civic education faced competing ideas of Chinese nationalism, patriotism, stability and prosperity versus cosmopolitanism, democracy, human rights and freedom. Lo (2018) argued that the confrontational and “separatist” elements after the 2014 Occupy Central Movement became prominent. Yet, with the dampening of anti-extradition bill protests in December 2019 and then the introduction of a new national security law in June 2020, Hong Kong society has stepped into an era of conservative nationalism, which concluded the previous struggles between factions of conservative nationalism on the mainland side and those pro-liberal democracy and localism (Lo, 2018). The eventual rise of Chinese conservative nationalism after the implementation of a new national security law in 2020 has warranted informed findings about what can be taught and how to teach global citizenship in education. This paper explores how teachers perceive GCE and its pedagogies under a political climate of conservative nationalism. It will also possibly help any educators implement GCE in dynamic global contexts. The justification for investigating the relationship between the teacher’s perception – so the forming of an idea – on pedagogies is that teaching is a largely individualised deliberation and delivering process of selecting from the teacher’s previous knowledge, understanding and experience (Branson, 2003). Yet the relationships from teacher conception to teaching methods on civics (Branson, 2003; Davies et al., 1999; Garratt and Piper, 2008) remain mostly under-researched in non-western literature, though there are new developments from critical perspectives on global citizenship in Asia after the pandemic (Nakaya et al., 2024).
3. Literature review
Global citizenship has different implications in different social, cultural and political contexts, sometimes contradicting prevalent values. Global citizenship is also conventionally associated with cosmopolitan political theory (Eckersley, 2007; Enslin and Tjiattas, 2008), but it has also moved into the public domain, which was taken up by elites, and international institutions, policymakers, nongovernmental organisations, education and even commoners in social media (Pathak-Shelat, 2018). Starting from the age of modern globalisation, it is argued that citizens develop inclusive, multiple citizenship identities instead of exclusive, single identities. This is important because identity calls for loyalty; single, simplistic loyalty may lead to excluding and suppressing other identities (Myers, 2010; Heater, 1990). UNESCO (2014, 2024) urged governments, schools and nongovernmental organizations to develop and adjust curricular programs that would foster young peoples’ abilities to appreciate cultural diversity, promote peace and nonviolence and act on issues of global significance. The authors note that Hong Kong teachers are, however, often unprepared to teach GCE and argue that it should start with research about teacher values and beliefs, which matters to their choice of what to teach and pedagogies. From the empirical findings, we call for pedagogies and school-based curricula that accommodate both global issues and universal values, as well as local contexts and address the challenges posed by conservative nationalism. We also found that experiential learning and discussion as effective methods for teaching GCE. We suggest a synergy of them.
3.1 GCE under an emerging political climate of conservative nationalism
This study is about situating GCE in a changing social context. Previous research, however, has shown that GCE could have different implications for different populations (Goren and Yemini, 2016, 2017) – scholarship on GCE does not include distinctions between the normative and descriptive aspects of the concept, thus making it difficult to understand the pedagogies in different contexts. Furthermore, without specific definitions and taxonomies, the term GCE could become simply a token term, arbitrarily chosen from a list of similar generic terms (i.e. global mindedness, global consciousness, transnationalism, global competencies, global education.). This presents challenges in understanding the normative aspects, especially when we situate this concept in a background of conservative nationalism (Gallagher, 2019). We saw ideologies and pedagogies of conservatism and nationalism take over other ideologies in politics and public administration in Hong Kong (Lo, 2018).
There is increasingly more research and practices on GCE worldwide, including the global south (Davies et al., 2018; Gardner-McTaggart, 2016; Goren and Yemini, 2017; Sant et al., 2018). Yemini (2017) advised more understanding and navigating the inherent tensions related to the complex processes associated with globalisation. In a world where civic debates emphasising a narrow notion of patriotism may push students to disengage from civic life because it does not represent their lived experiences and identities (Myers, 2010). Hence, Myers (2016) suggested conducting research studies exploring the complex dynamics that globalisation has introduced to schooling. Accordingly, studies address the challenges posed by teaching and learning to help youth make sense of the world and their role in it. Hong (2020) also stated that knowledge of the possible effects of GCE for meeting specific school needs has been inadequate, while identifying schools' needs and applying the right pedagogies may help educators implement GCE.
Today schools worldwide are, among many educational initiatives, increasingly adopting a global citizenship perspective to prepare students for global competition, global problem-solving and the changing nature of modern society (Dill, 2013; Reilly and Niens, 2014). For instance, Gardner-McTaggart (2016) argued that GCE in International Baccalaureate (IB) curricula represents a pastoral (religious) component as is common in elite school systems. Alternatively, GCE, in its globalised form, is secular and inclusive while equitable and distinct. Citizenship foundations can encourage young people to develop skills including “confidence”, “perseverance”, “drive” and “self-management” (Weinberg and Flinders, 2018). Yet studies found that teachers usually lack the confidence and pedagogical skills to implement GCE, though they consider it relevant (Carr et al., 2014; Reimer and McLean, 2009; Robbins et al., 2003).
There is a call for a more effective pedagogical model for GCE, which pays attention to how teacher education programs understand and navigate the inherent tensions related to the complex processes of globalisation (Estellés and Fischman, 2021). In fact, the mechanisms of global governance of teachers are being transformed from “education as (national) development” and “norm setting” to “learning as (individual) development” and “competitive comparison” (Robertson, 2012). Estellés and Fischman (2021) identified patterns in how GCE for teacher education was described and defended – the dominant trend is framing GCE as a redemptive educational solution to global problems. It requires teachers to embrace a redemptive narrative following a model of rationality based on altruistic, hyper-rationalised and overly romanticised ideals. Veugelers (2021) argues that GCE focuses on humanity and human rights as moral guidelines towards a better world, while national citizenship focuses on strengthening national culture and integrating newcomers. The following will discuss the key theories in framing the pedagogies of GCE, which shall help to answer the questions of this study.
3.2 Experiential learning in framing GCE
Experiential learning is a core strategy for teaching GCE, recommended in UNESCO’s guidelines (2015) and is more often used to develop the behavioural dimension. It is effective for developing understanding, empathy, igniting transformation and teaching topics related to diversity and multiculturalism. Experiential learning is a learning process consisting of a four-stage cycle: (1) experience, (2) observe and reflect, (3) formation of an abstract concept and generalise and (4) use the hypothesis in future situations and resulting in new experiences (Kolb, 1984). These processes not only enhance students' learning and cognitive skills but also address social-emotional learning, which leads to changes in students' attitudes and behaviour (Krimbill et al., 2021). Such complements the aims of GCE, which are “transformative, building the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that learners need to be able to contribute to a more inclusive, just and peaceful world” (UNESCO, 2015, p. 15). Learning by doing, participation and action are the three key factors for GCE. Rieckmann (2020) considers experiential learning contributes to the development of competencies of global citizens' because it is related to action, while experiences are critical to developing students as global citizens (Putman and Byker, 2020). A study by Chan et al. (2021) shows that experiential learning is more effective than non-experiential learning in improving the empathy and quality of citizens.
Experiential learning is used for pre-service teacher training in sustainability (Evans et al., 2017) and environmental citizenship education (Georgiou et al., 2021). Experiential learning includes place-based learning, service-learning, community-based learning, field trips, study abroad programs, interactions with overseas peers and museum visits. Experts highlighted community service and participating in global events, global and local issues as effective learning opportunities (Alazmi, 2021). Research studies show experiential learning effectively develops students' global citizenship, transforms and helps pre-service teachers gain insights into environmental citizenship (Georgiou et al., 2021). It also enhances their global competencies, cultural responsiveness, intercultural awareness and social relationships that foster empathy (Byker and Putman, 2019). The author (2019) gave a detailed account of how experiential learning was adopted to improve students' empathetic skills. Wong et al. (2022) show that different types of experiential learning can result in different learning outcomes, reiterating the critical role of teachers in achieving desired learning goals in GCE.
3.3 Role of discussion in framing GCE
Discussion is a teaching practice used across different disciplines and is a common pedagogy in GCE. Parker and Hess (2001) stated that discussion is an effective teaching strategy and an ability. Types of discussion include deliberation, seminar and conversation. Discussion is a key teaching strategy for GCE. Putman and Byker (2020) set discussions focused on global issues to help students understand the world as one of the characteristics of competent teaching. It is stated in Oxfam’s guideline for teaching controversial issues that participatory teaching and learning, including discussion, offers opportunities for learners to “absorb new information, judge bias and reliability, analyse, synthesise, make informed decisions and take considered action on the issues they care about” (Oxfam, 2018). Discussion opens an arena for students to learn and apply GCE skills such as critical thinking (Nakaya et al., 2024), analytical, judgement, reasoning and listening. Parker and Hess (2001) noted that students “raise questions, express their positions, challenge others, using analogies, giving reasons and seeking clarity” (p. 277). Students also learn how to find a common understanding and reach decisions and agreements. In addition, discussion can foster global citizens' attributes that come under the socio-emotional dimension of GCE. Brookfield (2006) shortlisted the claims for discussion, such as improving awareness, tolerance for the ambiguity of complexity, respect and appreciation for differences and developing empathy; other learning benefits include exploring diverse perspectives and co-creating knowledge, both are important skills of global citizens.
Discussion is a kind of participatory teaching and learning approach and can be implemented in diverse disciplines, from language subjects to sustainability and peace education. In English subject, Reynolds et al. (2019) described teaching GCE through offering opportunities for communication with their peers and later with community members as a kind of “clarifying and interrogating ideas”. Group discussion is used in teaching sustainability, where students learn how to apply the knowledge and information gained in the course to real-world situations (Chiba et al., 2021). In peace education, a program mentioned by Edwards et al. (2020) was delivered through discussion, pairing, group work and role-play. Discussion is often used with other teaching strategies to enhance student learning. It can be the main strategy or a supporting strategy in scaffolding student learning. Discussion helps establish and consolidate knowledge or learning after introducing or sharing theoretical or factual knowledge, as well as after experiential learning or in-class participatory activities. Blackmore’s (2016) further proposed teaching GCE consists of four main steps: critical thinking, dialogue, reflection and responsible being/action. Blackmore (2016) argues that dialogue is a way to engage with difference. Discussion as a teaching strategy is also incorporated into Oxfam’s GCE teaching guidelines. The author (2019) detailed an action research study on developing empathy among Hong Kong students through experiential learning on poverty. Students learnt better when they conducted inquiry learning before the experiential learning activities.
3.4 Synergies of discussion and experiential learning in framing GCE
Discussion and experiential learning work hand-in-hand. Discussion-based teaching and learning strategies are easily applied; they support experiential learning and augment its effectiveness. The discussion itself can be a form of experiential learning. Dague and Abela (2020) explore developing democratic citizenship through discussion. The process offers students the opportunities to learn how to engage democratically, understand and recognise others' views, contribute and apply knowledge, skills and concepts learnt. Building this competence among the students (Robertson, 2012) is especially important in this politically divided world. Discussion plays a significant role in the process of experiential learning. Post-activity/training discussions are often carried out as reflective exercises. The process elicits changes that benefit students' learning (Hidayah et al., 2022). Ely (2018) evaluated strategic teaching and learning activities for “innovation for sustainability”. He found that reflecting on personal experiences, case-based discussions and role-play games while engaging learners in the cycle of experiential learning of Kolb’s model enhance inter-cultural sensibility, empathy and understanding of different sustainability perspectives, which are much needed in this divided world. On learning outcomes, students commented that they shared and reflected on their own experiences, became more aware of others' experiences, applied concepts they had learnt during case base discussion and engaged emotionally during role play. Another study (Caniglia et al., 2016) on an experiential-based learning framework for teaching sustainability adopted reflective discussions pre- and post-activities to facilitate experience sharing and collaboration. The action research conducted by the author (2017) shows that discussion-based learning enriches experiential learning and post-activity discussions can develop students' empathy. Post-activity discussions propel students to reflect and reinforce learning and emotions they experienced while consolidating their knowledge base and concepts through classroom discussion-based inquiry learning and visualising activities.
4. Methodology
In early 2019, qualitative interviews were conducted to explore teachers' viewpoints, just before large-scale social protests which made it difficult to share genuine social views after the protests began in summer. Human experiences are narrative (Caine et al., 2013), so when interviewees talked about their views, they reconstructed and made sense of them, thus constructing the meaning of their own experiences (Elbaz-Luwisch, 2005; Kelchtermans, 2009). The data from the recorded interviews were collated and further examined with the relevant literature to establish potential themes to answer the research questions. The thematic analysis creates meaning from the data and is helpful in developing rich analyses that reflect the complexities of the lived world (Creswell, 2007). The specific questions are:
- How do teachers understand the rationale and scope of GCE?
- What do teachers see as the key essential knowledge and values that students should be helped to develop through GCE?
- What pedagogical approaches to GCE do teachers employ in their teaching?
Ethics approval was granted by The Education University of Hong Kong (#2016–2017–0,142) before data collection. This study explores the perceptions, meanings and viewpoints of key individuals (Cohen et al., 2018; Newby, 2010). This study attempts to create “thick descriptions” (Geertz, 1973) to analyse GCE from the perspective of interviewees (Robson, 2011).
4.1 Participants
The participants were invited through purposive sampling when completing a wider questionnaire study (authors, 2020) on citizenship and national education for all Hong Kong secondary schools in early 2019. The interview time was this city about to enter a period of protests and social unrest. A cover letter which informed the interviewees about the purpose, ethics, schedule, questions and processing was included for the interviewees, who are expert teachers of civic and moral education. Purposive sampling allows researchers to carefully select cases to fulfil representativeness (Teddlie and Yu, 2007). At last, 22 teachers gave intact and full answers to all those research questions about GCE. Their inclusion balanced age group, sponsor and type of school (Table 1). They will be referred to as “T(a number)” in the analysis. Nationality in Hong Kong can be expected of a majority of Chinese. They serve as the coordinator or members of the moral, civic/national education team, thus having the necessary credentials to offer informed views. The interviews were conducted in a secure place of their schools in the summer of 2019 when Hong Kong was about to be engulfed in a prolonged period of social protests and then a swift introduction of a new national security law in July 2020.
4.2 Data analysis
The analysis in this paper focuses on the teacher’s perceptions of aims and rationales, scope, essential knowledge, skills and values, pedagogical methods and assessment of GCE. This study adopted inductive coding to analyse the interview data (Fereday and Muir-Cochrane, 2006; Strauss and Corbin, 1990). Here this paper utilises the teaching of GCE literature (Estellés and Fischman, 2021; Goren and Yemini, 2016) to inform the setting of interview questions. Inductive coding refers to the data-based coding approach whereby the patterns and themes emerge from the research data (Fereday and Muir-Cochrane, 2006; Strauss and Corbin, 1990). Keywords are identified before and during data analysis based on the reading of the literature (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005). The interview transcripts were reviewed and analysed, and notes were made concerning the fit between the data and the keywords identified. By using the constant comparison method, new codes were created and revised based on the data. This process recurred until the codes have become representative of the data (Strauss and Corbin, 1990) of discovering emerging patterns or intelligible themes. Themes generated to form an analytical framework include “teacher values and beliefs”, “rationales and scope of teaching”, “key essential knowledge and values”, “pedagogies” and “assessment”, etc.
5. Findings and discussion
Interviews with 22 teachers were conducted to explore teachers’ viewpoints on teaching GCE. Three main themes were identified from the literature: teacher values and beliefs on GCE, essential knowledge and values that they taught and the pedagogies used. From these findings, the authors construct an analytical framework of teacher values and beliefs on cultivating global citizen (see Figure 1). This analytical framework offers important insights for school leaders, curriculum planners and teachers’ trainers for developing their GCE.
5.1 Teachers' values and beliefs in GCE
In answering research question 1 How do teachers understand the rationales and scope of GCE? During the interviews, the ideas and accounts given by the teachers provide hints or even evidence of how their values and understanding influence their values and use of pedagogies. Teachers emphasize teaching universal values, global interconnectedness and cultural diversity. They advocate for a broad, multicultural perspective and stress maintaining neutrality by presenting multiple viewpoints.
5.1.1 Global citizenship education is necessary
Our interviewees expressed that now everyone is living in a globalised world: “We are increasingly feeling ourselves as global citizens” (T#7). Students should learn about the definition of a global citizen, the identity of a global citizen (T#13, T#7) and the rights and responsibilities (T#9) that come with the role. They also think that students being global citizens should have a broad perspective (T#3, T#7). Hence, GCE is perceived to be imperative among the teachers.
5.1.2 Universal values are core values
As global citizens (UNESCO, 2024), and members of the world, students are subject to universal values, such as human rights, freedom, democracy, climate change, world peace, security and sustainable development, which are enshrined in the UN charter and their works. These are essentials (T#4), what people usually embrace (T#13, T#19), and what they are entitled to (T#19). They are also the common values that connect the nations and the world (T#18). These values are globally applicable (T#16). Universal values should be taught too (T#16). This accords with a liberal view in citizenship education.
5.1.3 Learning about nation and the world
Teachers well understand that in this globalised world, people and nations are connected. As one teacher said, “the world has become a global village where lives are connected” (T#11). Teachers also perceive the interplay and dynamics between nations and the hierarchy in national, social and individual levels of citizenship. In some teachers' view, nations are subject to universal and global contexts (T#21), while global citizenship is larger in scope compared to national citizenship (T#17).
Moreover, China’s resumption of sovereignty in Hong Kong draws more attention to this area and to the fact that students have to “contemplate our [their] Chinese identity and as a member of the world” (T#11) and how “One Belt One Road project may affect interactions between countries and world peace” (T#18). Students learn about the relations of nations and their positions in the world. Accordingly, international relations should be taught.
5.1.4 Living in the age of multiculturalism
Globalisation and technology bring people from every corner of the world closer. Two teachers mentioned the effect of the Internet on students. While surfing the Internet, students come across information unfiltered and contacted other people easily (T#14).
When ideas move around via the internet, this necessitates understanding about outside. We have cultural differences but also having more interactions. (T#14)
Young people have more online participation now. Teachers should prepare for such impacts on students. (T#17)
GCE helps students build the skills and attitudes for living in a multi-cultural world (T#9). They learn to interact with people of different cultures and ethnicities (UNESCO, 2024).
Starting from junior secondary, we teach students about a sense of cultural diversity and ethnic minorities. This can minimise any tendency of narrow mindedness. (T#9)
We don't have enough understanding about different cultures. There is moral value like respect, but global citizenship can be broad like how we interact with ethnic minorities and protect their needs. (T#14)
The return of Hong Kong to China followed by frequent interactions with mainland Chinese, but also having a diverse population require a mind-set and skills that accommodate multiculturalism and diversity (T#11). This sounds like multiculturalism.
One teaching goal of GCE that was most mentioned is developing students' perspectives. Teachers believe that students should have a “broad perspective” (T#3, #10) and “global perspective” (T#11); they should learn multiple views (T#11, #14, T#16, #22) and different stakeholders' views (T#6, #12, #20). As they said, being global citizens should be less inward-looking (T#7) and open-minded (T#9).
5.1.5 Maintaining neutral
Teachers adopt a neutral position when they teach GCE (T#5, #9, #12, #17). They mentioned staying professional and open, and the need to present multiple views (T#5) and both sides of arguments (T#9, #17). In doing so, they can ensure a fairground with minimum intervention for idea exchange and sharing. Their neutral position is also reflected in the pedagogies they choose for teaching GCE.
I cannot tell them directly about what is right and wrong, should or shouldn't. Instead, I teach them the facts and ask them to develop reasoning. (T#2)
Varied perceptions on relations between local, national and GCE can be found when facing political changes, though more teachers (T#3, T#6, T#7, T#14, T#16, t#17, T#21) agree that local, national and global citizenship can be formed in some overlapped connections. Facing political uncertainties, our findings agree with an integrated notion of citizenship education that includes local and national issues, which shall recognise multiple citizenships in different communities (Myers, 2010; Heater, 1990).
The above findings reveal values and beliefs on GCE as perceived by Hong Kong school teachers, who faced an unfolding political climate of conservative nationalism, in particular on promoting a Chinese national identity through appealing to the shared national culture and identity. Perhaps, these are also responses to any saying of the cultivation of students to be non-questioning, non-participatory, cynical, passive and docile citizens (Ho et al., 2011). For practical recommendations, policy makers shall formulate teaching guidelines to advise and promote GCE. Schools can also organise professional learning communities for teachers to acquire perceptions from peers through collaborative lesson planning, teaching observation and evaluation, so that teachers concern more about supranational polity or cosmopolitan ethics (Appiah, 2006).
5.2 Key essential knowledge, skills and values in GCE
In answering research question 2 What do teachers see as the key essential knowledge and values that students should be helped to develop through GCE? Certain knowledge, skills and attitudes fundamental in GCE are essential elements in sculpting the characteristics of a global citizen. Their answers point to the goals of teaching GCE here.
5.2.1 Knowledge and universal values
Teachers (6 out of 22) mentioned teaching students’ universal values when they are surrounded by political uncertainties in the society. It is the main topic in GCE and, to an extent, defines world citizenship. Good knowledge of universal values forms the basis of a global citizen. Concepts and values of human rights, democracy, the rule of law, civic participation (T#8), human rights, freedom and equality (T#13) are what GCE education should uphold, which echo with Veugelers (2021) on human rights as moral guidelines.
We teach how the world define citizenship, what are international covenants on human rights. These are essentials. (T#4)
I would teach universal values, human rights, respect of human dignity, justice, and other essentials. (T#7)
When appropriate, I teach article No. 30 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, since they are globally applicable. Schools should teach such universal values. (T#16)
Environmental education is another essential topic most teachers teach (5 out of 22). Teachers nurture environmental citizenship (T#21). It is a good example showing what global issues, global responsibility and sustainability (Evans et al., 2017; Ely, 2018) are. In environmental education (Georgiou et al., 2021), students learn to be global citizens. For example, they learn that both environmental education and global warming are global issues (T#8) and everyone shares the resources (#9), and it is our responsibility to protect the environment (T#6).
Followings are teachers' perceptions of globalisation and their understanding of the learning needs on relations of nations in GCE. They teach students not only about their nations but also international relations (T#11), national politics, economics, culture (T#15) and history (T#18). News, US–China trade disputes and the South China Sea disputes are topics to be taught (T#15). One important understanding for students is that we are part of this world and have similarities and differences (T#16).
We are not just learning our national history but also world history in citizenship. When students compare Chinese and world history, they will find something similar and different. (T#18)
Knowledge of levels of citizenship and identity is also a core topic in GCE. Civic education guidelines stated that there are three levels of citizenship, personal, nation-state and world (T#21). Each global citizen embodies multiple identities (Myers, 2010): national identity and global identity (T#11) and local identity (T#18). Knowing the existence of these levels of identity and the differences helps one position themselves and “develop a sense of global identity”, as well as making “sensible comments based on their global identity” (T#8). Similarly, teacher also thinks that students need to learn the concepts of national citizenship and global citizenship (T#14, #17) in this world. By identifying themselves as global citizens, students are more motivated to promote world peace (T#16).
To develop students’ perspectives, teachers encourage students to consider different stakeholders’ views (T#6, #12, #20) and listen to multiple views (T#11, #14, #16, #22). Teachers balance students' views (T#6), steer or re-direct their thinking if they are too negative and guide students to different views (T#12).
Teachers also ask students to listen to other’s views for making informed judgements (T#11). Teachers often bear in mind the different values and views hold by others on an issue and give student multiple angles. (T#14). This is manifested in teachers' intention to maintain a neutral position when teaching, offering different arguments and emphasising global perspectives (T#11), multiple perspectives or stakeholders' views (T#6, #20).
I will give them some worldwide information to read, which contains multiple sides of analysis or arguments. I will let students share their views first and tell them what I think later. (T#22)
5.2.2 Skills
Skills training, along with knowledge, are emphasised by teachers. Students should be equipped with the necessary skills to be able to act and speak sensibly with others for their future.
Judgement skills, analytical and reasoning skills are critical for surviving in this “complex” world (T#2). Analytical skills can help students to analyse and answer global issues properly (T#4) with capabilities and to discern what is right or wrong. This has become a focus since the Internet has opened up access to all sorts of information (T#14). Other views obtained are:
Through the internet, students can get access to abundant information. However, students may not be able to discern what is right or wrong and be affected by dominant views. Therefore, teachers should guide them know about causes and developments, and their position. (T#14)
Judgements and standpoints should be made with sound reasoning (T#6).
When facing such a complex world, a teacher has a responsibility to teach judgement skills. I cannot tell them directly about what is right and wrong, should or shouldn't, but developing their reasoning. (T#2)
My main concern is how they develop judgement. Students shall examine whether they just think of their standpoint without reasoning. (T#6)
Teachers also indicated that they equip students with the knowledge and skills that will enable them to contribute to the sustainable development (Chiba et al., 2021) of the world. Cultivating a future-oriented mind-set, developing critical thinking skills (Nakaya et al., 2024) so that students can make positive changes and benefit the world (T#11), and learning their part for maintaining world peace as members of the world (T#16) (UNESCO, 2014, 2024) are goals.
My students are not just making criticism but to understand something for making positive changes, which aim at our society and benefiting the world. (T#11)
Teaching must be open and objective to enable students learn from history. I teach identity from a historic angle to let them understand they are members of this world. They shall be motivated for peace in this conflicting world. (T#16)
5.2.3 Fostering students' attitudes
Nurturing global citizens has been a school’s aim (T#3). Teachers also try to develop students' understanding and respect for other ethnicity and minority in society (T#14) and appreciation of different cultures (T#15). This response to the growing interactions among people of different cultures, values and ethnicities in this world (T#20). In addition, civic characteristics including respecting the truth, truth-seeking and independent thinking are being taught (T#22).
There is a multiplicity of essential knowledge and values to be taught in GCE as perceived by the interviewees. Arnold (2016) and Dill (2013) highlight how equipping students with the necessary knowledge, skills and competencies to succeed in an increasingly global market is an intention of GCE programs. Similarly, several teachers (T#4, T#8, T#7, T#9, T#13, T#16, T#18, T#21) mentioned teaching human rights (Veugelers, 2021), identity, ethnic minorities and respect cultural diversity (UNESCO, 2014). Hong Kong’s education had a liberal tradition of teaching human rights when the Guidelines on Civic Education 1996 were introduced among understanding of government, national identity, human rights, the rule of law and promoting global perspectives (Davies et al., 2018; Leung and Ng, 2004). Lee (2008) indicated that liberal democracy is broadly how the 1996 guidelines should be interpreted. But then civic education has been linked up with moral education and nationalistic concerns after 2020. Environmental concerns also come up in interviewee’s responses (#6, #7, #8). It looks like the interviewees attach importance to various civic ideas in the current era.
5.3 Pedagogical approaches to GCE
In answering research question 3. What pedagogical approaches to GCE do educators employ in their teaching? Pedagogies adopted most often by teachers are experiential learning and discussion, which simultaneously support training students' skills and developing students' perspectives and attitudes. They are also in tune with teachers' beliefs in staying neutral when teaching GCE.
The pedagogical approaches for teaching GCE can be varied, as participants mentioned being professionally neutral (T#5, T#9, T#11, T#12, T#14, T#16, T#17, T#22), discussion (T#9, T#10, T#11, T#15), stakeholders views (T#6, T#11, T#12), experiential learning and study tours (T#2, T#4, T#5, T#8, T#10, T#20), accepting different students’ views (T#20), etc. Interviewees also favour different skills needed for GCE such as analytical (T#4, T#14) and judgement skills (T#2, T#6). Regarding future possibilities, the interviewees educate students on a broadened sense of identity (T#8), understanding the world so that they can make some positive change (T#11), and teaching students to understand they are part of this world and so they shall be motivated for making world peace (T#16). Indeed, being professionally neutral as teachers have been one of the most critical topics in the discussion of educational neutrality (Gardner, 1989). To be neutral, indoctrination should be avoided in class (T#16) (Lau, 2019). Besides, teachers ought to present all sides of an issue fairly (Yamane, 1983). Our findings (T#10, T#11, T#22) agree that although a neutral teacher should not indoctrinate students with their personal viewpoints, teachers can express their views among ideas so that students consider different standpoints (Leung, 2011; Wong et al., 2022).
5.3.1 Experiential learning
Experiential learning (6 of 22) by the teachers in respect of the pedagogies adopted. Experiential learning can expand students' views and broaden their perspectives. It is important for students to experience and explore the world (T#4, T#5) and experiential learning offers the chance for students to develop a sense of being a “global citizen”. Teachers show students documentary films or TV programs and arrange student tours (T#4, T#20). Experiential learning can reduce misconceptions (T#4), while living overseas can expand students' understanding (T#5) to explore the world.
It is important to have an overseas study tour, because this would give them a sense of being a “global citizen”. (T#2)
Giving students a chance to explore the world is important. If they have lived in overseas, their understanding would be expanded. If they know someone from the overseas, they can even change their thinking. (T#5)
One teacher mentioned teaching environmental citizenship through experiential learning.
I take my students to visit some farmlands to learn about green farming and the development of agriculture. I teach environmental citizenship. (T#21)
Experiential learning is recommended to understand their lives in connection with the world since having field experience together with their peers can help facilitate deeper learning (Quay et al., 2002), and learning through experience enables students to become active responsible and informed global citizens (UNESCO, 2024) who apply their knowledge, skills and understanding to the society (Arthur and Wright, 2001; Staeheli et al., 2013). Kolb (1984) defines experiential learning theory as a cognitive and psychological tradition, whereby effective learning is “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 41). Experiential approaches tend to be those taken outside the classroom and through which children engage actively in a learning experience (Coates and Pimlott-Wilson, 2019). This article recommends teachers take up active citizenship to include a spectrum of practices that expand opportunities for young people to broaden their personal horizons (Wong et al., 2022) and those which lead to more pivotal engagements for young people (Robinson et al., 2019), boosting engagement and reducing inequalities (Mudler, 2021) in the post-pandemic era.
5.3.2 Discussion method
Discussion is used as the main method for teaching GCE. Teachers set out the discussion session by providing background information or asking students to collect information to share information with their peers. Discussion allows students to gain a full picture and exchange their views. Students learn to apply multiple perspectives (T#9) in this information era, and through the processes, diversify their viewpoints and avoid imposition (T#10). Teachers may guide students as appropriate (T#15).
There must be discussion time. Teachers can let students know some background information, and then pose a question for them to discuss and share their views. Teachers can facilitate their analysis by applying multiple perspectives. (T#9)
Teachers ask students collect information to share with others in discussion. This can diversify their viewpoints and avoid any imposition. (T#10)
I will use relevant news or videos to guide them learning about overseas societies. Then, they can express their viewpoints and discuss whether they can change the world. (T#11)
In group discussion, we ask students to write down notes. Sometimes, they need guidance. (T#15)
Teachers' remarks indicate that during student discussions, teachers play the role of facilitators who provide guidance, and discussions take place in an open classroom which allows students to express and share their views. These findings also confirm other studies on using group discussion, which argue engaging students in mutual interaction to freely discuss an issue or question of common concern (Bahar, 2003) and thus benefitting student learning (Hidayah et al., 2022). Group discussion provides opportunities for students to communicate with each other, share individual views, assess ideas from different perspectives and examine their views for bias (Yang and Chung, 2009). This not only fosters their teamwork and communication skills but also nurtures their capacity for analysis and critical thinking (Hepburn, 2000; Nakaya et al., 2024). Teachers can also encourage students to talk through issues, reach consensus, consider different ideas and opinions and compromise and negotiate conflicts in discussion (Chawla and Cushing, 2007).
5.3.3 Assessment
Two teachers spoke of assessment which they think has limited use in GCE with its openness nature. One thinks that examination is not applicable in GCE while the other one thinks that assessment should be made carefully and should there be any assessment, it should be made on students' application of concepts and knowledge. Standardisation should be avoided.
I will assess whether students can apply concepts and knowledge in their assignments. About global values, since students have their thinking, the assessment should be made carefully and ethically. (T#8)
I don't think there should be any examination or assessment for GCE. GCE aims at giving opportunities for students to discuss some themes or knowledge. (T#10)
Our interviewees integrate and negotiate their ideas and practices between local, national and global levels on the rationales, aims, knowledge and values and pedagogies of GCE. The above findings and discussion, however, should also be considered limitations. The findings here represented views largely from perspectives of western liberal and Chinese nationalistic, but views of the Global South are always needed (Grotlüschen, 2018; UNESCO, 2024) in the world after the global pandemic. Also, this sample is also somewhat limited to those teaching either moral, civic or national education. Hence, we should be cautious about making generalisations to teachers of other educational areas.
5.4 Towards a framework for current GCE
Teachers believe that GCE is necessary in today’s globalized world and that students should learn about the meaning of a global citizen, the identity of a global citizen and the rights and responsibilities that come with the role. They also believe that universal values such as human rights, freedom, democracy, climate change, world peace, security, sustainable development and the interplay and dynamics between nations should be taught. Teachers aim to develop students' perspectives and maintain a neutral position too. They consider developing knowledge, skills and attitudes as essential in GCE. The knowledge teachers aim to teach their students includes universal values such as human rights, democracy, rule of law, environmental education and knowledge of international relations. In terms of skills, teachers emphasise the importance of judgement, analytical and reasoning skills and future projection skills. The teachers adopted experiential learning, discussion and assessment in teaching GCE. These pedagogies effectively broaden students' perspectives and develop their global competencies (OECD, 2018), which is an outcome but having mediating or moderating influence on other factor such as well-being.
Figure 1 illustrates an updated framework to articulate teachers' values and beliefs in cultivating global citizens, their selected pedagogies for achieving the goals and intended student learning outcomes and GCE. The teachers consider every student a global citizen who should be instilled with a set of universal values as we found in the essential knowledge and values. While living in the age of post-pandemic transformation impacted by both technological developments and divergent views, students should learn about the national and the world. To accomplish this goal, the teachers select discussion, experiential learning and assessment approaches to develop their students' knowledge, skills and attitudes.
6. Implications and conclusion
This study has attempted to answer an array of questions related to GCE. While our findings underscore the conclusions of most of the existing citizenship education literature, the findings also reveal integrative answers to the rationales, scope, aims, essential knowledge and values, skills and pedagogical methods, thus mediating national and global citizenship. It is recommended to develop an active, participative, professionally neutral, experiential and sustainability framework that can capture GCE’s varied understandings and conceptions (see Figure 1).
The framework of teachers' values and beliefs on GCE shall give insights to school leadership, curriculum planners and teacher training providers. This framework recommends that teachers adopt discussion, experiential learning and assessment when teaching GCE, while student learning outcomes and knowledge, skills and attitudes shall be accessed. For school leaders, as our finding shows teachers think GCE is necessary and a prerequisite for cultivating a global citizen no matter the socio-political environment, so school leaders shall plan the whole school curriculum to facilitate the teaching of GCE. School curriculum planners shall plan their curriculum incorporating the aims, knowledge, values and skills found to be essential for GCE, including sustainability. From our study, teachers shall plan to teach universal values, environmental and sustainability education, citizenship and identity and multiple views. Skills such as judgement, analytical and reasoning skills and future projection skills shall also be incorporated. Teaching methods such as discussion and experiential learning (Wong et al., 2022) can be effective pedagogies too. Therefore, together with a global competency framework (OECD, 2018), educators and other stakeholders cultivate global citizens who are knowledgeable, skilful and have the necessary attitudes (UNESCO, 2024).
Promoting GCE in Hong Kong’s school curriculum has significant implications for the government, schools and teachers. The findings underscore the importance of GCE for preparing students to navigate and contribute to an interconnected world. The government should provide teacher training, relevant teaching resources and adopt a non-political, neutral approach. Adequate resources are necessary to develop textbooks, lesson plans and multimedia materials. Collaboration between the government and educators is crucial for formulating teaching guidelines and organizing professional learning communities to enhance teachers' skills in GCE. Schools should offer experiential learning opportunities to broaden students' perspectives on global issues. Partnerships with local and international organizations can promote cross-cultural understanding. Teachers should integrate universal values like human rights, democracy and sustainable development into their teaching, maintaining a neutral stance to help students form informed opinions. Appropriate assessment tools focusing on critical thinking rather than standardized testing can keep GCE meaningful. A comprehensive approach, including experiential learning and open discussions, is essential to prepare students for a globalized world. By fostering informed, responsible and active global citizens, Hong Kong’s education system can effectively equip students to thrive in an increasingly interconnected environment.
The current study focuses primarily on teachers of moral, civic or national education. To gain a more comprehensive understanding of how GCE principles are integrated across the curriculum, future research should include teachers from a broader range of subjects. Investigating how science educators incorporate GCE principles like environmental sustainability and global health issues, how literature teachers use diverse narratives to foster empathy and cultural awareness and how arts educators address global themes can provide a holistic view of GCE’s integration across disciplines. Additionally, capturing students' perspectives on their understanding of global citizenship, their attitudes towards global issues and their willingness to engage in civic activities is essential. Longitudinal studies tracking changes in students' attitudes, behaviors and competencies over time can determine the long-term effectiveness of GCE. By including diverse subjects and student perspectives, future research can offer a nuanced understanding of GCE, helping educators and policymakers enhance its design and implementation to prepare students for a globalized world effectively.
The data collection is funded by General Research Fund No: 18604317.
Figure 1
Teachers' values and beliefs on cultivating global citizens
[Figure omitted. See PDF]
Table 1
Demographic information of interviewees
| Teacher # | School sponsor | Subsidy type | Gender | Age group | Nationality |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Protestant | Public funded | M | 20–29 | Chinese |
| 2 | Social charity | Public funded | F | 30–39 | Chinese |
| 3 | Christian | Public funded | M | 30–39 | Chinese |
| 4 | Educational association | Public funded | M | 50–60 | Chinese |
| 5 | Catholic | Public funded | M | 20–29 | Chinese |
| 6 | Native place association | Public funded | M | 30–39 | Chinese |
| 7 | Caritas | Public funded | M | 40–49 | Chinese |
| 8 | Social charity | Public funded | M | 50–60 | Chinese |
| 9 | Catholic | Public funded | F | 30–39 | Chinese |
| 10 | Protestant | Public funded | M | 30–39 | Chinese |
| 11 | Catholic | Public funded | F | 30–39 | Chinese |
| 12 | Protestant | Direct-Subsidy | F | 20–29 | British |
| 13 | Protestant | Public funded | F | 30–39 | Chinese |
| 14 | Protestant | Public funded | M | 30–39 | Chinese |
| 15 | Protestant | Public funded | F | 40–49 | Chinese |
| 16 | Catholic | Public funded | F | 30–39 | Chinese |
| 17 | Protestant | Public funded | M | 30–39 | Chinese |
| 18 | Protestant | Direct-Subsidy | M | 40–49 | Canadian |
| 19 | Catholic | Public funded | F | 20–29 | Chinese |
| 20 | Protestant | Public funded | M | 40–49 | Chinese |
| 21 | Educational association | Public funded | M | 50–60 | Chinese |
| 22 | Educational association | Public funded | F | 40–49 | Chinese |
Source(s): Created by author
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