School Climate and Sense of Coherence Among Vocational and General Education Teachers in a Nursing School Context

Abstract

This study explores the relationship between teachers’ Sense of Coherence (SOC) and their perceptions of school climate, with a particular focus on potential differences between vocational education teachers (VETs) and teachers of general education subjects (GETs). Utilizing a cross-sectional design, the research involved 103 teachers who completed validated measures to assess their SOC and perceptions of school climate. The results reveal a significant positive correlation between SOC and school climate, with a correlation coefficient of r = 0.395 (p < 0.001). Notably, SOC explains 15.6% of the variance in teachers’ perceptions of school climate, as indicated by R² = 0.156 (p < 0.001). The study did not identify any significant differences in SOC (p = 0.612) or school climate ratings (p = 0.372) between VETs and GETs. These findings suggest that teachers who possess a stronger SOC are more inclined to perceive their work environments as supportive and well organized. The implications of this study underscore the importance of psychological resilience in enhancing educators’ professional experiences. In summary, this investigation highlights the critical interplay between teachers’ psychological attributes and their perceptions of the educational environment, emphasizing the need for supportive measures that bolster SOC among educators.

1. Introduction

The construct of school climate is increasingly recognized as a multidimensional phenomenon that significantly influences various educational outcomes, including student achievement, teacher satisfaction, and overall school effectiveness. School climate encompasses the norms, values, interpersonal relationships, teaching practices, and organizational structures within educational institutions (Cohen et al., 2009). A positive school climate is characterized by mutual respect, support, and collaboration among all stakeholders, which contributes to an inclusive and engaging environment conducive to learning (Mailool et al., 2020). Research has consistently demonstrated that a favorable school climate correlates with higher student achievement, reduced teacher burnout, and enhanced overall school performance (Tekin, 2023; Mateos et al., 2020). This aligns with Bronfenbrenner’s theory, which states that individual behaviors are influenced by their broader social environments, indicating that school climate is a vital microsystem affecting both students and staff (Polat & İskender, 2018).

In recent years the importance of school climate has been underscored by studies that highlight its role in promoting student well-being and academic success. For instance, Davis and Warner (2015) found a positive relationship between school climate and student academic progress, suggesting that a supportive school environment can enhance educational outcomes. Their findings emphasize the need for ongoing research to explore how various components of school climate interact and influence student performance over time.

The concept of school climate, which refers to the quality and character of school life, has emerged as a crucial determinant of both student outcomes and teacher satisfaction (Selamat et al., 2013). Research indicates that school climate is a significant predictor of teacher satisfaction, engagement, and retention (Collie et al., 2012). Similarly, the Sense of Coherence (SOC) has been linked to improved coping mechanisms and resilience among educators (Lindström & Eriksson, 2010). SOC framework, introduced by Antonovsky (1987), is a critical psychological construct that plays a significant role in understanding individual resilience and well-being, particularly in challenging environments such as educational settings. SOC is defined as a global orientation that enables individuals to perceive life as comprehensible, manageable, and meaningful. These three components—comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness—interact dynamically, shaping an individual’s ability to adapt and thrive in challenging contexts. Comprehensibility is a cognitive component that reflects an individual’s ability to perceive and understand the events and experiences in their life as structured, predictable, and explicable. It involves the cognitive appraisal of situations, where individuals interpret their experiences in a way that makes sense to them. For instance, in educational settings, teachers with a strong sense of comprehensibility may better understand the dynamics of their classroom and the needs of their students, leading to more effective teaching strategies and improved student outcomes (Tano et al., 2020). Manageability is an instrumental component that pertains to an individual’s perceived ability to cope with the demands and challenges they encounter. It reflects the belief that one has the resources necessary to manage stressors effectively (Antonovsky, 1987). In the context of teaching educators who perceive their workload as manageable are more likely to maintain their motivation and job satisfaction, which can positively impact their interactions with students and colleagues. Meaningfulness is a motivational component and the most crucial aspect of SOC. It refers to the extent to which individuals feel that their life experiences have significance and purpose. When individuals perceive their challenges as worthy of investment and involvement, they are more likely to engage actively in problem-solving and seek out support when needed. In educational contexts, teachers who find meaning in their work are more likely to foster a positive school climate, as they are motivated to create supportive and engaging learning environments for their students.

Within educational settings, SOC has been associated with teachers’ capacity to handle work-related stress, maintain motivation, and foster a supportive learning environment (Eriksson & Lindström, 2006) and healthier behaviors for students (Matić & Vuletić, 2023). The significance of SOC extends beyond individual resilience; it also impacts the broader school climate. Teachers who perceive their work environment as supportive and manageable are more likely to contribute to a positive school climate characterized by collaboration, respect, and engagement (Singh & Townsley, 2020).

Although school climate is widely studied as a factor influencing teacher and student outcomes, there is limited research on the role of SOC in shaping teachers’ perceptions of school climate. SOC may serve as a lens through which teachers interpret their work environment, impacting how they perceive safety, relationships, and institutional support. Furthermore, differences in SOC and climate perceptions between vocational and teachers of general education subjects remain underexplored.

The role of teachers in shaping school climate cannot be overstated. Research indicates that teacher satisfaction and commitment are significantly influenced by school climate. For instance, Boyce and Bowers (2018) found that while school size impacted school climate it did not necessarily affect teacher satisfaction, suggesting that other factors may play a more critical role in influencing educators’ experiences. This highlights the need for targeted interventions that consider the unique challenges faced by different groups of teachers, such as vocational education teachers (VETs) and general education teachers (GETs).

The roles of vocational and teachers of general education subjects differ. Vocational teachers, particularly those in fields such as nursing, often face distinct challenges related to their specialized training and the practical demands of preparing students for specific careers. Research indicates that vocational educators may have different professional requirements and experiences (Moodie & Wheelahan, 2012; Loeb & Gustavsson, 2019). They often transition from the health system to education and engage closely with students in practical settings, emphasizing the application of theoretical knowledge in real-world contexts (Lyon et al., 2018). In contrast, teachers of general education subjects typically focus on general education subjects within traditional classroom settings. This divergence in professional responsibilities not only shapes their interactions with students but may also affect their perceptions of school climate and their SOC (Kratz et al., 2019).

Research indicates that school climate is a significant predictor of teacher satisfaction, engagement, and retention, highlighting the need to explore how these dynamics differ between vocational and high school educators (Weiner et al., 2011).

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between Sense of Coherence (SOC) and teachers’ perceptions of school climate, while also exploring potential differences in these constructs between vocational education teachers (VETs) and teachers of general education subjects (GETs). Using a cross-sectional research design, we investigated how these factors shape perceptions of the educational environment and hypothesized that teachers’ Sense of Coherence (SOC) significantly predicts their perceptions of school climate, with higher SOC associated with more positive perceptions of the school environment and that there are significant differences in SOC or school climate perceptions between vocational education teachers (VETs) and general education teachers (GETs), reflecting the shared nature of these constructs across teaching contexts. By examining these hypotheses, the study aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the dynamics between teachers’ psychological resilience and their perceptions of the educational climate, ultimately informing strategies for enhancing the teaching and learning environment.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design

This prospective cross-sectional study employed a quantitative approach to evaluate teachers’ SOC and perceptions of school climate in the Nursing Schools in Zagreb, Croatia. The study is correlational, as it aims to examine the relationships between SOC and perceptions of school climate, rather than establish causation. This approach is appropriate for identifying patterns and trends that may inform future research and interventions. Data were collected through standardized questionnaires distributed to teachers working in vocational and general education settings.

2.2. Participants

The target population consisted of all teachers employed at Nursing Schools in the Croatian capital city Zagreb comprising a total of 145 teachers. Among them, 103 teachers completed the questionnaire, yielding a response rate of 71%, which is considered high for this type of study. Participants included vocational teachers, who primarily work in clinical and practical settings, and teachers of general education subjects, who focus on pedagogical and theoretical instruction in general education subjects. Data collection took place on 21 and 22 March 2024, via an anonymous online survey. Participants were informed about the study and encouraged to participate during a staff meeting.

2.3. Instruments

The Croatian School Climate Survey for Teachers (HUŠK-N) (Velki & Kuterovac Jagodić, 2023) was used for data collection. The questionnaire was developed based on American School Climate Survey Version 2.0. (Perkins, 2009) for evaluating the school climate among teachers in Croatia. The HUŠK-N evaluates several dimensions of school climate, including relationships between students and teachers; relationships among school staff; sense of belonging to the school; incidence of bullying among students; learning atmosphere; parental involvement in school activities; and teachers’ professional development opportunities. The questionnaire consists of 18 items measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“Strongly disagree”) to 5 (“Strongly agree”). Examples of items include the following: “I have enough opportunities to learn new teaching methods” and “Teachers in this school care about students’ success”. To calculate the total score, the mean of all 18 items was computed, providing a theoretical range from 1 to 5, with higher scores indicating a more positive perception of school climate. HUŠK-N has demonstrated good psychometric properties in previous studies. Satisfactory sensitivity and high internal consistency of the questionnaire α = 0.89 were found. Internal consistency in the present study revealed Cronbach’s α 0.86.

The Sense of Coherence was measured by the short-form version of the Orientation to Life Questionnaire (SOC-13), consisting of 13 items on a seven-point semantic differential scale (Antonovsky, 1987). The total sum ranges from 13 to 91. A higher score indicates stronger SOC. The Sense of Coherence scale shows high internal consistency with a Cronbach’s ranging from 0.70. to 0.92 (Eriksson & Lindström, 2006). Internal consistency in the present study revealed Cronbach’s α 0.86.

Participants were also asked to provide demographic information, including age, gender, and years of experience in teaching.

2.4. Data Analysis

The reliability of the questionnaire was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha. Parametric tests were justified based on the results of skewness and kurtosis coefficients, confirming the normal distribution of the data of SOC-13 (KS = 0.068; p = 0.732) and HUŠK-N (KS = 0.069; p = 0.719). Descriptive and inferential statistical methods were employed to analyze the data, including independent samples t-tests to examine differences between vocational and teachers of general education subjects. Correlational analysis was conducted to explore the relationship between teachers’ Sense of Coherence (SOC) and their perception of school climate. To further explore the predictive value of SOC on school climate a linear regression analysis was employed. All statistical analyses were conducted using Jamovi software (Version 2.4). All tests were two-tailed, with statistical significance set at p < 0.05.

2.5. Ethical Considerations

The study adhered to ethical research guidelines. Participants were informed of the study’s objectives, assured of anonymity, and provided consent to participate voluntarily. Ethical approval was obtained from the School of Nursing Vrapče Ethical Review Board.

2.6. Data Availability

The datasets generated and analyzed during this study are available upon request from the corresponding author and will be made publicly accessible upon publication, ensuring transparency and reproducibility.

3. Results

3.1. Characteristics of the Teachers Enrolled in the Study

Among the eligible teachers, 71% (103/145) chose to participate in the study. The study sample consisted of 69 vocational education teachers (VETs) and 34 general education teachers (GETs). The demographic and professional characteristics of the participating teachers are summarized in Table 1.

3.2. Comparison of School Climate and Sense of Coherence Between Vocational and Teachers of General Education Subjects

The descriptive statistics for the variables of School Climate and Sense of Coherence (SOC) were calculated for the sample of 103 teachers. Participants rated the school climate on a scale from 1 to 5, with a mean score of 3.70 (SD = 0.48), indicating a generally positive perception of the school climate. SOC was measured on a scale ranging from 13 to 91, with a mean score of 64.94 (SD = 11.90), suggesting moderate to high levels of SOC among participants. The results, presented in Table 2, show no statistically significant differences between vocational teachers and general education teachers in their perceptions of school climate or Sense of Coherence.

3.3. Pearson Correlation Analysis for Study Variables

The correlation analysis examined the relationships among school climate, Sense of Coherence, years of experience, and age. A positive and statistically significant correlation was found between school climate and Sense of Coherence (r = 0.395, p < 0.001), suggesting that teachers who perceive a more supportive school climate tend to report a stronger Sense of Coherence (Table 3).

3.4. Impact of SOC on Perceived School Climate

Results from the linear regression analysis indicated that SOC significantly predicts the variance in school climate perceptions, accounting for 15.6% of the total variability (R² = 0.156, Adjusted R² = 0.147). The model was statistically significant (F(1, 101) = 18.648, p < 0.001), highlighting the importance of SOC in shaping educators’ perceptions of their work environment (Table 4).

4. Discussion

The results indicate that SOC is a significant predictor of school climate perceptions emphasizing the importance of teachers’ psychological resilience in creating a positive work environment. At the same time, the absence of differences between vocational and general education teachers highlights the universal nature of these perceptions, regardless of professional role. The results confirmed the hypothesis that SOC significantly predicts school climate perceptions, while the absence of group differences in SOC and school climate highlights the shared nature of these constructs across different teaching contexts.

The finding that SOC positively predicts school climate aligns with prior studies that emphasize the importance of psychological resilience in shaping workplace perceptions. The relationship between a Sense of Coherence (SOC) and school climate is a significant area of research that underscores the importance of psychological resilience in educational settings. Antonovsky’s SOC framework posits that individuals with a strong SOC perceive their environment as comprehensible, manageable, and meaningful, which equips them to navigate complex situations effectively. This resilience is particularly relevant in educational contexts, where teachers’ internal resources can significantly influence their perceptions of the school climate. Research indicates that a positive school climate correlates with various beneficial outcomes for both students and educators, including enhanced academic performance and job satisfaction for teachers (Collie et al., 2012; Graham, 2022).

In the educational sector, teachers’ perceptions of school climate are shaped by multiple factors, including communication, support from colleagues, and the overall emotional environment of the school. For instance, studies have shown that a supportive school climate fosters a sense of belonging among teachers and students alike, which is crucial for their engagement and performance (Harush, 2024; Vang & Nishina, 2022). Furthermore, the findings from Wang and Holcombe highlight that teachers who create a mastery-oriented climate—where effort and improvement are emphasized—can significantly enhance students’ identification with the school and their willingness to engage in academic tasks [2010]. This aligns with the notion that a positive school climate, characterized by supportive relationships and open communication, can lead to better educational outcomes (Saputra et al., 2020; Renick & Reich, 2020).

Moreover, the interplay between SOC and school climate is evident in the way teachers and students adapt to their educational environments. Research indicates that a strong SOC is associated with better adaptation to school demands, as it helps individuals perceive challenges as manageable (Jin et al., 2020). This adaptability is crucial for maintaining a positive school climate, as it encourages resilience in the face of stressors, such as those introduced by the COVID-19 pandemic (Harush, 2024). Additionally, studies have shown that teachers with a strong SOC are more likely to foster a positive climate, which in turn enhances their job satisfaction and efficacy (Tekin, 2023). This study contributes to this literature by demonstrating this relationship in the educational sector, suggesting that teachers’ internal resources play a crucial role in their interpretation of their work environment.

No significant differences in SOC or school climate were observed between vocational and teachers of general education subjects. Previous research has often emphasized the unique challenges faced by vocational educators. For instance, vocational teachers are tasked with not only imparting theoretical knowledge but also equipping students with practical skills necessary for specific careers. This dual responsibility can create a distinct set of pressures, including the need to maintain health system relevance and to navigate partnerships with local hospitals (Collie et al., 2012; Graham, 2022). Studies have indicated that vocational educators may experience higher levels of stress due to these demands, which could potentially influence their perceptions of school climate and their SOC (Harush, 2024).

However, the absence of significant differences in SOC and school climate perceptions between vocational and teachers of general education subjects suggests that the fundamental aspects of teaching are shared across different educational contexts. This aligns with the findings of various studies that emphasize the importance of a positive school climate as a critical factor in teacher well-being and effectiveness, regardless of the specific educational setting (Vang & Nishina, 2022; Wang & Holcombe, 2010). The notion that certain aspects of teaching are universal is supported by research indicating that teachers across various contexts benefit from supportive relationships with colleagues, effective communication, and a sense of belonging within their schools (Saputra et al., 2020; Renick & Reich, 2020). For instance, a study by Collie et al. (2012) found that supportive school climates significantly contribute to teachers’ job satisfaction and resilience, suggesting that these factors are crucial for all educators, whether they teach in vocational or traditional high school settings (Jin et al., 2020). Moreover, the concept of SOC itself may play a role in this universality. Antonovsky’s framework posits that individuals with a strong SOC are better equipped to manage stress and navigate complex environments, which could explain why both vocational and teachers of general education subjects exhibit similar levels of SOC despite differing contextual challenges (Tekin, 2023). The lack of significant differences in SOC and school climate perceptions between vocational and teachers of general education subjects underscores the importance of recognizing the shared experiences of educators across different contexts. By focusing on the universal aspects of teaching, educational stakeholders can better support all teachers in navigating their professional environments, ultimately leading to improved outcomes for both educators and students.

The significant correlation between SOC and school climate emphasizes the role of psychological factors in the educational workplace. Teachers who perceive their environment as supportive and organized are likely to experience a stronger Sense of Coherence, creating a positive feedback loop that benefits both educators and students. The concept of SOC, as articulated by Antonovsky (1987), posits that individuals with a strong SOC are better equipped to manage stress and navigate challenges in their environments. In the context of education, this translates to teachers who feel supported and valued within their schools being more resilient and effective in their roles. Research has consistently shown that a positive school climate—characterized by supportive relationships, effective communication, and a sense of community—contributes significantly to teachers’ job satisfaction and overall mental health (Collie et al., 2012; Graham, 2022). The correlation between SOC and school climate can be understood as a dynamic feedback loop. When teachers perceive their school environment as supportive, they are more likely to develop a strong SOC, which enhances their ability to cope with the demands of their profession. This resilience, in turn, enables them to create a more positive and engaging learning environment for their students. Studies have demonstrated that teachers who report higher levels of SOC are more likely to engage in positive teaching practices, which can lead to improved student outcomes (Harush, 2024; Vang & Nishina, 2022). Conversely, a supportive school climate can reinforce teachers’ SOC by providing them with the necessary resources and relationships to thrive. For instance, collaborative professional development opportunities, mentorship programs, and a culture of open communication can all contribute to a sense of belonging and competence among educators (Wang & Holcombe, 2010). This reciprocal relationship emphasizes the importance of investing in school climate initiatives as a means to enhance both teacher well-being and student achievement.

This study has certain limitations. For instance, the sample of participants was limited to a specific number of schools, which may restrict the generalization of the findings to all educational systems. Additionally, the use of self-assessment methods could have introduced response bias, as participants might have answered in ways they deemed socially desirable. Despite these limitations, the results were consistent with theoretical assumptions and previous studies, which supported the validity of the interpretations. Future research should consider including larger samples and combining quantitative and qualitative methods to gain a more comprehensive understanding.

Future research should consider longitudinal designs to explore causal relationships between SOC and school climate. Additionally, qualitative studies could provide deeper insights into how teachers interpret and experience these constructs in their daily work. Exploring interventions to enhance SOC, such as professional development programs or organizational changes, could further illuminate pathways to improving school climates. Examining these relationships across different cultural and educational contexts could provide a more comprehensive understanding of how SOC and school climate interact globally.

5. Conclusions

A sense of coherence is key to shaping how teachers view the school climate. Also, teachers who perceive their work environment as supportive are likely to develop a stronger SOC, enabling them to navigate the complexities of their roles with resilience and effectiveness. This reciprocal relationship creates a positive feedback loop, where enhanced SOC leads to more constructive teaching practices, which in turn fosters a more positive school climate. Strategies such as professional development, mentorship programs, open communication, and recognition of teachers’ contributions can significantly enhance teachers’ SOC and overall job satisfaction. By investing in these initiatives, schools can create environments that not only support educators but also promote student engagement and achievement. In conclusion, the interplay between SOC and school climate highlights the vital role of psychological factors in education. By fostering supportive environments, educational stakeholders can enhance the well-being of teachers and students alike, ultimately leading to a more effective and resilient educational system.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.M. and I.M.; methodology, N.M.; software, I.M.; validation, N.M., I.M. and Đ.S.; formal analysis, I.M.; investigation, N.M. and Đ.S.; resources, N.M.; data curation, N.M.; writing—original draft preparation, N.M.; writing—review and editing, N.M.; visualization, I.M; supervision, Đ.S.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board of School of Nursing Vrapče (approval code: 251-306/01-23-1; approval date: 2 June 2023).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data have been anonymized but are not publicly available because of the privacy issues related to the qualitative nature of it.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Footnotes

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Tables

Table 1

Characteristics of the teachers enrolled in the study, divided between vocational and teachers of general education subjects.

Variables	VET	GET
Numbers of teachers	69	34
Sex, n (%)
Female	64 (92.7)	30 (88.3)
Male	5 (7.3)	4 (11.7)
Age, mean (SD)	47.07 (9.94)	49.26 (9.50)
Years of teaching experience	13.07 (8.80)	21.58 (10.96)

Table 2

Differences in school climate and Sense of Coherence.

Variable	Group	N	M	SD	t	dF	p
School Climate	VET	69	3.72	0.45	0.898	101	0.372
	GET	34	3.63	0.53
SOC	VET	69	64.52	64.52	−0.508	101	0.612
	GET	34	65.79	65.79

Table 3

Pearson correlations among key study variables.

Variable	1	2	3	4
1. School Climate	-
2. Sence of Coherence	0.395 **	-
3. Years of Experience	0.033	0.173	-
4. Age	0.101	0.152	0.804 **	-

** p < 0.001.

Table 4

SOC as a predictor of school climate.

Statistic	Value
R2	0.156
Adjusted R2	0.147
F-value	18.648
p-value (Model)	<0.001
SOC Coefficient (B)	0.016
Standardized Coefficient (β)	0.395
p-value (SOC)	<0.001
RMSE	0.443

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