Content area
In light of the importance of legal translation in the context of Saudi Arabia, this paper attempts to propose a genre task-based syllabus for teaching legal translation in translator training programs in higher education institutions. The proposed syllabus integrates task-based teaching and genre-based teaching due to the relevance of both approaches to translation teaching. Borrowed from the field of language teaching, task-based teaching naturally lends itself to teaching translation since language tasks and translation tasks have several aspects in common; they both perform communicative functions, have clear outcomes, and require linguistic and non-linguistic knowledge and skills. Furthermore, the role of genre in translation and translator training is also significant due to the linguistic and communicative features unique to different types of texts that require training and experience. For this reason, developing genre awareness among trainee translators is necessary to equip them with the knowledge that enables them to navigate the translation decision-making process. The objective of the proposed syllabus was to implement a genre-based translator training model using a task cycle that is suitable for translation teaching. Upon implementation, it is anticipated that the proposed syllabus will achieve the intended learning outcomes by developing the trainees' translation competence and raising their awareness of the features of the legal genre.
Abstract-In light of the importance of legal translation in the context of Saudi Arabia, this paper attempts to propose a genre task-based syllabus for teaching legal translation in translator training programs in higher education institutions. The proposed syllabus integrates task-based teaching and genre-based teaching due to the relevance of both approaches to translation teaching. Borrowed from the field of language teaching, taskbased teaching naturally lends itself to teaching translation since language tasks and translation tasks have several aspects in common; they both perform communicative functions, have clear outcomes, and require linguistic and non-linguistic knowledge and skills. Furthermore, the role of genre in translation and translator training is also significant due to the linguistic and communicative features unique to different types of texts that require training and experience. For this reason, developing genre awareness among trainee translators is necessary to equip them with the knowledge that enables them to navigate the translation decision-making process. The objective of the proposed syllabus was to implement a genre-based translator training model using a task cycle that is suitable for translation teaching. Upon implementation, it is anticipated that the proposed syllabus will achieve the intended learning outcomes by developing the trainees' translation competence and raising their awareness of the features of the legal genre.
Index Terms-genre-based teaching, legal translation, task-based teaching, translation pedagogy, translation teaching
1. INTRODUCTION
Translation is a practical skill that requires training and practice. This is emphasized by translation instructors in translation training programs as they typically encourage students to sharpen their skills and develop their competence through continuous practice. It is also supported by the numerous publications examining translation pedagogy and experimenting with different teaching methods and approaches (e.g., Alotaibi & Salamah, 2023; Baer & Koby, 2003; Bogucki, 2010; Colina, 2003; Сие, 2009; Kiraly, 1995; Malmkjær, 2004; Schaffner, 2000). As a result, several approaches have been proposed to translation teaching, such as project-based learning (e.g., Kiraly, 2005, 2012), taskbased learning (e.g., Da Silva & Fernandes, 2016; González-Davies, 2004; Li, 2013; Liu & Ma, 2015; Rezvani & Bigdeli, 2012), collaborative learning (e.g., Al-Shehari, 2017), and subject-translation integrated learning (e.g., Huang, 2023).
This paper attempts to propose a genre task-based approach to teaching legal translation in undergraduate translation programs in higher education institutions in Saudi Arabia. The researcher chose legal translation due to its significance in the Saudi context. Both the significance of legal translation as well as the relationship between genre and task-based teaching to translator training are discussed next.
A. Significance of Legal Translation
The current paper proposes a genre task-based approach to teaching legal translation. Due to its specialized and unique nature, legal translation has been examined by many translation scholars and researchers with some studies investigating different approaches to teaching legal translation (e.g., Biel, 2010, 2012, 2017a; Monzó Nebot, 2015), while others examined the features of legal discourse from the perspective of translation (e.g., Biel, 2015). In fact, some journals, such as The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, have designated special issues to research relating to the training of legal translators and interpreters (Training Legal Interpreters and Translators, 2015). In addition, legal translation is emphasized in translator training programs as evidenced by the undergraduate and graduate legal translation courses as well as the graduate legal translation diplomas in universities across the world, such as King Saud University in Saudi Arabia (College of Language Sciences, 2023), New York University in the United States (School of Professional Studies, n.d.), and the University of London in the United Kingdom (School of Advanced Studies, n.d.), to name just a few.
In the Saudi context, there is a high demand for legal translation in the translation job market as detected by a recently published needs analysis (Alkatheery et al., 2024) that aimed to identify the professional needs of undergraduate trainee translators in Saudi Arabia. The results of the needs analysis study indicated that legal translation was among the most frequent types of translation required in the Saudi job market. In addition, the importance of legal translation in Saudi Arabia has grown significantly in light of a recently issued resolution by the Saudi Council of Ministers (Council of Ministers, 2024) that mandates the translation of draft laws and legal documents issued by government agencies which are of relevance to the field of investment. This resolution will increase the demand for qualified legal translators in the country as well as the demand for high quality translations.
B. Genre and Task-Based Teaching in Translator Training
Since the proposed syllabus is based on integrating genre-based teaching and task-based teaching, a discussion of both approaches and their relevance to translator training is presented in this section.
(a). Genre in Translator Training
Genre is defined as a distinctive category of spoken or written text that is associated with salient linguistic features (Swales, 1990, p. 33). It is also defined as "recurrent configurations of meanings [that] enact the social practices of a given culture" (Martin & Rose, 2008, p. 6). These definitions feed into the importance of promoting genre awareness among language learners in general and trainee translators in particular, since "the danger of ignoring genre is precisely the danger of ignoring communicative purpose" (Swales, 2009, p. 45). Translators especially are required not only to understand a given text, but also to render the meaning and communicative function of the text into another language. For this reason, genre awareness is an important constituent of translation competence (PACTE Group, 2003; Schäffner, 2000); trainee translators should be educated on the functions fulfilled by different text types in different communicative situations (Scháffner, 2000). According to Hatim, "Different text types place different sets of demands on the translator, With certain types being obviously more demanding than others" (1997, p. 13). Thus, raising genre awareness among trainee translators is a crucial component of developing their translation competence since they ought to be aware of the salient textual features associated with different communicative functions. Developing this awareness is necessary in both source and target languages since the textual features associated with a certain communicative function in one language are not necessarily mirrored in other languages. For example, official letters in Arabic in the context of Saudi Arabia are typically introduced with the Islamic greeting which is generally not translated if such letters are translated into English because the genre of official letters in English does not start with such a greeting, but rather with other forms of salutation. Genre awareness enables a translator to make these decisions.
Furthermore, the reality of translator training in universities and schools around the world testifies to the prevalence of genre-based translation teaching. Course descriptions and specifications in translator training programs at higher education institutions in different countries demonstrate that these programs include courses that deal with certain fields, such as the fields of medicine, law, or business. These fields may be dealt with separately in independent courses (e.g., College of Language Sciences, 2023; Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, 2006-2024) or together in a single course (e.g., Kent State University, 2024-2025; London Metropolitan University, n.d.). The rationale behind this approach is that cach field is characterized by certain terminological, linguistic, and discursive features which are factors that affect the translation process and the decisions taken by the translator during such process (Biel, 2017b; Molnar, 2019; Unger, 2001). The approach also aids in exposing trainee translators to different fields which contributes to preparing them to become professional translators in the job market.
Due to the importance of developing genre and text type awareness among trainee translators, several approaches to translation have been built on models of discourse or text analyses. For instance, Halliday 's systemic functional linguistics (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014) has been employed by several translation studies scholars such as Baker (1992), Hatim and Mason (1997), and House (2015). According to systemic functional linguistics, any instance of language use performs multiple functions simultaneously (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014); namely, ideational, interpersonal, and textual. In systemic functional linguistics, genre is a realization of the context of culture (Eggins, 2004); it is "the conventional text type that is associated with a specific communicative function" (Munday, 2016, p. 144).
Reiss (2000) and Nord (2005) also developed approaches which adopted text type as a basis. Reiss (2000) argued that different text types require different translation methods. Her approach is based on the functional categorization of text types into informative, expressive, and operative. Each of the three text types corresponds to a different language function with informative texts focusing on content and performing an informative function, expressive texts focusing on form and having an expressive function, and operative texts having an appellative focus and performing an appellative function. Like Reiss (2000), Nord (2005) argued that different text types need different translation approaches. She believed that the communicative function of the source text needs to be taken into consideration and should guide translation strategy decisions (Munday, 2016). Her model focuses on analyzing the source text's extratextual and intratextual factors.
(b). Task-Based Teaching in Translator Training
Task-based teaching has also been adopted and adapted in translation teaching (e.g., Gonzalez-Davies, 2004; Li, 2013; Liu & Ma, 2015; Rezvani & Bigdeli, 2012). Task-based translation teaching models were built on existing task-based language teaching frameworks (e.g., Skehan, 2009; Willis, 1996), since translation tasks share some of the main characteristics of language tasks. Language tasks fulfill a communicative need, have a clear outcome, and perform the function of meaning making; in addition, learners are required to draw on their linguistic and non-linguistic resources to complete them (Ellis, 2009). Similarly, translation tasks emphasize the transfer of meaning, have clear outcomes, and perform communicative functions. The completion of translation tasks also requires trainee translators to draw on their linguistic and non-linguistic resources.
Researchers in the field of translation pedagogy have proposed task cycles for translation teaching. While some have proposed translation task cycles corresponding to existing task-based language teaching frameworks that include the stages of pre-task, task, and post-task (e.g., Liu & Ma, 2015; Rezvani & Bigdeli, 2012), others have built upon typical task-based language teaching cycles and added stages that better suit the translation process. For example, Li (2013) proposed a model that supplements the basic stages of task-based language teaching with three stages for analysis, revision, and reflection. He claims that his proposed six-stage cycle emphasizes the translation process, in addition to enhancing and developing translation competence. Li's (2013) model incorporates essential aspects of the translation process since the nature of translation tasks requires translators to analyze, revise, and reflect on their work. Li adapted Willis" (1996) task cycle and proposed a six-stage cycle for teaching translation (See Figure 1).
Li (2013) explained each of the six stages detailing the roles of instructors and students. The first three stages in the six-stage cycle correspond to typical task-based language teaching cycles. In the pre-task stage, the instructor sets the stage for the students by revising translation methods and strategies and providing relevant resources. Students, on the other hand, go over the task, brainstorm with their colleagues, and read about the topic in both source and target languages. In the task stage, the instructor acts as a monitor, while the students work on the task together (i.e., in pairs or groups). They may do further research if necessary. The following stage is the reporting stage. In this stage, the instructor works as the coordinator of the reporting session. The instructor may also briefly comment on the translated tasks and the translation process. Students reflect on the translation process and summarize it by reporting on the obstacles they faced and how they overcame them. They may also comment on the translations of their colleagues. In the analysis stage, the instructor draws the students' attention to the learning objectives of the task (i.e., the structures or strategies they need to acquire). Students carry out a detailed analysis of the translated text or part of it. The fifth stage is the revision stage. In the revision stage, the instructor is more involved helping students revise and edit their work based on the feedback they received from their peers and the instructor. Afterwards, they finalize and submit the final product. The final stage is the reflection stage. In the reflection stage, the instructor reflects on the previous stages from a pedagogical point of view. The instructor may also make personal notes that may help improve future task cycles. Students also reflect on their work including the way they managed the task, edited and revised their work, and handled problems or difficulties.
Drawing on the importance of genre awareness in translator training as well as the intersection of translation teaching and task-based language teaching due to the nature of the translation task, the researcher proposes a genre task-based approach to the teaching of legal translation. The unique nature of legal texts presents an ideal opportunity for the proposed syllabus which draws on the importance of genre awareness to trainee translators and the similarities between language tasks and translation tasks. By presenting the proposed syllabus, the researcher seeks to add to the extant literature on translation pedagogy in general and the teaching of legal translation in particular.
II. BUILDING THE SYLLABUS
This section presents the proposed genre task-based legal translation syllabus. The researcher begins by formulating the intended learning outcomes of the legal translation course based on the accreditation standards adopted in the Saudi context. After the learning outcomes are formulated, a discussion of the recommended genres or text types to be included in the course follows, along with suggested sources for obtaining material. The researcher then formulates the assessment criteria and describes pedagogical activities and classroom practices. It is worth noting at this point that legal translation courses are considered advanced courses that are usually located in the higher levels of a program's academic plan. This naturally plays a role in the selection of tasks and their difficulty level and the formulation of evaluation criteria.
It is necessary to indicate that the proposed syllabus was designed with the undergraduate higher education context of Saudi Arabia in mind. Therefore, it was designed to span a typical academic semester at a Saudi university comprising approximately 15 weeks. Furthermore, learning outcomes were formulated in accordance with the standards adopted by the National Center for Academic Accreditation and Evaluation (NCAAA), which is the national accreditation authority responsible for accrediting higher education programs and institutions in Saudi Arabia. In addition, the selection of texts and the formulation of evaluation criteria for the proposed syllabus were strongly influenced by the findings of the needs analysis study conducted by Alkatheery et al. (2024) as well as the anticipated needs of the translation industry in Saudi Arabia discussed in Section 1.A. Nevertheless, the syllabus and its components may easily be modified to suit other educational contexts.
A. Formulating Learning Outcomes
Since the syllabus was designed for legal translation courses in undergraduate translator training programs in higher education institutions in Saudi Arabia, the learning outcomes were based on the domains adopted by the NCAAA. According to the NCAAA's bachelor's degree course specifications (NCAAA, 2024), there are three domains for learning outcomes: (1) knowledge and understanding, (2) skills, and (3) values, autonomy, and responsibility. See Table 1 for the proposed learning outcomes according to the NCAAA's domains.
Table 1 displays the learning outcomes for the proposed syllabus under the three learning domains in addition to the teaching strategies and assessment methods to be employed for each learning outcome. A brief discussion of each domain is presented next.
The knowledge and understanding domain targets the learner's ability to recognize and process information. Under this domain, learners should be able to explain the history of English legal language and how it developed to the legal language used today (LO 1.1). They should also be able to explain the different types of legal translation based on the functions of each type (LO 1.2). In addition, learners should be able to recognize the features of legal language (LO 1.3) and identify different types of legal texts (LO 1.4). These learning outcomes may be achieved through lectures to explain the relevant information (LOs 1.1 and 1.2) as well as through the analysis of legal texts to familiarize learners with different types of legal texts and their features (LOs 1.3 and 1.4). The learning outcomes in the knowledge and understanding domain may be assessed through examinations, assignments, and classroom discussions.
The skills domain targets the translation process; learners should be able to translate different types of legal texts from Arabic into English, and vice versa (LOs 2.1 and 2.2); use legal terminology appropriately (LO 2.3); and use relevant resources and translation technologies to produce their translations (LO 2.4). These learning outcomes are best achieved through translation tasks that utilize different types of legal texts and that are in both directions (i.e., Arabic into English and English into Arabic). The tasks help learners develop their translation competence, including their ability to use appropriate legal terminology. They also develop learners' instrumental competence through their use of resources and translation technologies. The learning outcomes in the skills domain may be assessed through examinations, assignments, and classroom discussions.
The final domain of values, autonomy, and responsibility aims to develop learners' ability to work independently as well as developing other values and their sense of responsibility. Thus, learners should be able to work both independently (LO 3.1) and in groups or teams (LO 3.2) because both modes exist in the translation job market. Working independently develops their autonomy and sense of responsibility, while working in groups or teams promotes their ability to cooperate and collaborate. In addition to these two learning outcomes, learners should respect and meet deadlines (LO 3.3). These three learning outcomes combined promote values such as respect, dependability, adaptability, teamwork, tolerance, and responsibility. The learning outcomes under this domain are unique in nature since they are not merely pedagogical. Therefore, they are assessed indirectly through other tasks unlike the learning outcomes under the first and second domains.
В. Selecting Texts
Based on the results of the needs analysis (Alkatheery et al., 2024), the most frequent text types in the field of legal translation were found to be contracts and agreements, policies, terms and conditions, and reports. In addition, the Council of Ministers Resolution discussed in Section 1.A. predicts a growing demand for translations of legislative and regulatory texts, such as laws, regulations, rules, controls, and other similar documents. Therefore, the researcher emphasized these text types while building the syllabus. Material may be obtained from books that specialize in teaching legal translation as well as the Internet. Relevant texts may also be obtained from translation service providers. Each source is discussed below.
Books which include texts in specialized fields and their translations and which target the training of translators are a very good source of material for translation courses. It is recommended to choose books that address the translation of texts in the relevant language pair; for the purpose of the proposed syllabus, the books should target English/Arabic translators and translation students (e.g., Al-Hait, 2012; Sabrah, 1995, 1998). Choosing material from such books has several advantages. First of all, these types of books are typically authored by professional translators and legal practitioners. Therefore, the material is reflective of the target discourse community. This is important because legal language varies from one legal system to another (Cao, 2007), which makes it more relevant to train translation students to deal with material that is closer to their professional target context. Another advantage of using such books is that they usually provide source texts and their corresponding target texts. This helps translation students and instructors easily identify and analyze corresponding segments in both source and target languages.
Material may also be obtained from the Internet. Like books, the Internet has several advantages. The most significant advantage is finding authentic texts. For example, terms and conditions, policies, laws, and regulations are easily accessible on the websites of private and public entities or on official government websites. Further, some websites provide documents that have both English and Arabic versions. Sample contracts and agreements-especially as templates-may also be found online. Another advantage is that online material may help expose trainee translators to the legal conventions of other legal systems and communities since material may be obtained from any English or Arabic speaking country.
The last source of material is translation service providers (i.c., translation offices). Translation service providers may be sought to provide templates or samples of legal documents that have been redacted in order to maintain confidentiality and privacy. Such templates and documents may include contracts, powers of attorney, bylaws (i.e., rules and regulations), forms (i.e., commercial records), official notice letters, board of directors' resolutions, and meeting minutes. Such material is considered very valuable due to its authenticity. It also represents the type of work that is actually being requested from translation service providers in Saudi Arabia.
C. Formulating Evaluation Criteria
As for the evaluation criteria, the researcher created a rubric to limit potential subjectivity which is-unfortunately- a major issue when it comes to translation quality assessment (Saldanha & O'Brien, 2013). Using rubrics is claimed to play a significant role in maintaining the objectivity of translation quality assessment, and recent studies have found that translation instructors prefer to use rubrics to ensure the reliable assessment of their students' translations (e.g., Abanomey & Almossa, 2023).
To formulate the rubric, the researcher included the evaluation criteria that was reported by the participants of the needs analysis study (Alkatheery et al., 2024), namely, grammatical and structural accuracy, meaningfulness, and vocabulary use. Grammatical and structural accuracy involve several aspects. Translations are evaluated based on their grammatical accuracy which means their correctness in terms of grammar and spelling. Structural accuracy, on the other hand, entails a number of elements including maintaining cohesion throughout the translated text, using the features of legal language appropriately, and observing the structural conventions of the target language. Meaningfulness is related to the accurate transfer of the content and ideas of the source text. Vocabulary use includes the use of general vocabulary items as well as specialized legal terminology. It is evaluated based on the trainee's ability to select the general and specialized vocabulary items suitable both to the context and to the genre of legal text. Legal terminology poses a unique challenge since it may involve single vocabulary items or multi-word phrases or units of language that have fixed meanings, functions, and corresponding target language expressions.
Although the findings of the needs analysis study (Alkatheery et al., 2024) did not emphasize time management as an evaluation criterion, the literature supports the need to incorporate this particular skill into translator training (e.g., AbuGhararah, 2017; Alkhatnai, 2022; Hussein et al., 2022). For this reason, in the proposed criteria, time management is measured indirectly as translation tasks may take several forms: take-home assignments, classwork assignments, and examinations. Time management skills are automatically incorporated into examination settings; when students are given a translation task as an exam, a certain amount of time is allotted for the completion of the task. Unsuccessful time management may result in failure to complete the translation task and/or the submission of unrevised or unedited work. Both cases have undesirable consequences for translation quality. Time management may also be incorporated into classwork tasks by setting a certain amount of time during which the task should be completed. However, the researcher maintains that time management is a secondary criterion because translation students at the undergraduate level are still developing their translation skills. Fluency and speed in translation will eventually develop over time with more practice and experience (Tassini, 2012). Table 2 below summarizes the evaluation criteria and their corresponding rubrics.
The rubric proposed by the researcher suggests deducting 0.25 points for any grammar or spelling mistake, or any inappropriate use of vocabulary. Further, at least 0.25 points is also deducted for any error relating to the categories of structural accuracy and meaningfulness. Time management does not have a designated rubric, since-as explained earlier-it is indirectly evaluated when students fail to complete a task or when they submit tasks that have not been edited or revised. This means that students have to learn to manage their time, which is a skill that is acquired through practice.
D. The Syllabus
Table 3 below shows the weekly distribution of material over the academic semester. It is worth noting that the first few weeks of the semester are devoted to introducing the students to legal language and its features. This step is essential due to the unique nature of legal discourse (Cao, 2007).
E. Pedagogical Activities and Classroom Practices
After proposing text types and evaluation criteria, the researcher also addresses issues related to pedagogical activities and classroom practices. The activities are divided into classwork activities, take-home assignments, and examinations. Translation students are required to complete classwork tasks and examinations within a specific amount of time. Exams are allocated one to two hours depending on the weight of the exam relative to the overall assessment which determines the number of tasks included in the exam and their length. In classwork activities, however, students are given shorter tasks to be completed in less time to allow for the implementation of the task cycle. Take-home assignments are given to students on a weekly basis, and they are to be submitted each week.
Students are assessed on their performance on exams, in addition to their performance and submission of take-home assignments. While completing classwork activities and take-home assignments, students may be divided into groups or pairs, or they may be required to work individually. Furthermore, they may consult reference materials (e.g., dictionaries, websites, and other resources) and their classmates and use translation technologies. Relevant experts in the field may also be consulted.
The main issue in translation teaching is feedback. It is usually the instructor's role to provide feedback on translated work. In order to transform the teacher-fronted tradition, which dominates much of translation teaching, students may be encouraged to verify their work by comparing their work to authentic documents of the same genre. They may also provide feedback on each other's work. However, at the end of the day, the instructor should assess their work and give them detailed feedback.
Е. The Task Cycle
The researcher adopted Li's (2013) six-stage task cycle. However, in Li's discussion, the translation task involved a translation commission with a real client. Unfortunately, this may not always be feasible due to the nature of legal documents and legal translation. It is unlikely that undergraduate translation students will be sought for legal translation services since this type of translation requires impeccable linguistic proficiency, experience in professional translation, and knowledge of the relevant legal system (Cao, 2007). Needless to say, legal documents perform serious communicative functions entailing rights, commitments, and obligations. They may also be confidential, which makes it difficult to collaborate with translation service providers in this regard. Nevertheless, the instructor may construct translation tasks for the students assuming the role of the client. Accordingly, the instructor would implement Li's (2013) six-stage cycle on classwork activities as indicated in Table 4.
III. CONCLUSION
The present paper set out to propose a genre task-based legal translation syllabus. To do so, the researcher relied on Li's (2013) six-stage task cycle and the results of a needs analysis study (Alkatheery et al., 2024). The task cycle was applied to the classwork component of the syllabus with a description of the roles and responsibilities of the instructor and the students. The needs analysis study provided valuable information that guided the selection of text types and the formulation of evaluation criteria.
In the researcher's point of view, genre task-based teaching naturally lends itself to translation teaching because of the nature of the act of translation and the importance of developing genre awareness among trainee translators. To examine the efficacy of the suggested approach using the proposed syllabus, the researcher recommends conducting an experimental study to measure the development of translation competence among students who are trained using the proposed approach. The perceptions of instructors and students may also be investigated to determine their attitudes towards the approach. The proposed approach may be modified to teach other fields of translation (e.g., business or medical translation) or translation-related skills (e.g., using translation technologies). Such studies may provide useful insights that may be used to improve and refine the syllabus.
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