1. Introduction
In the second half of the twentieth century, many Japanese cartoons and manga sprung up. Among them, a series of cartoons and manga named Doraemon was very popular during that era, and its influence continues to this day. With a large number of episodes, Doraemon not only was widespread in Japan but also enjoyed high popularity in countries in East Asia and Southeast Asia. As a sci-fi cartoon for children, Doraemon was created by two Japanese manga artists under the same pen name, which is Fujiko F. Fujio. The cartoon tells stories of how a 22nd-century robot cat named Doraemon assists a boy named Nobita with his daily life. By utilising advanced technology products from his treasure pocket, Doraemon can always solve the problem for Nobita. Entrusted by Nobita’s grandson, who hopes to improve the family situation of his descendants by changing his ancestor Nobita, Doraemon travels through the time tunnel and arrives in Nobita’s primary school era. Additionally, the content of this artwork also reflects part of the social problems of that era (Ling, 2004).
A previous study pointed out that Doraemon is a cartoon with educational purposes; what is more, Lin also found that the author intended to convey his education concepts through entertainment and made the cartoon as another textbook (Lin, 2004). Although cartoon characters do not have direct contact with young children, when images and patterns appear repeatedly in life, cartoon characters can also become another kind of virtual identity object in addition to the identity provided by family, school and society (Hu, 2007). Additionally, Wu (1994) found that the boys’ and girls’ favourite programmes to watch were cartoons.
According to an analysis of the cartoon by Dohrmann (1975), television often establishes gender roles; television presents distorted and stereotyped gender roles like other mass media. Moreover, some relevant studies have proposed a possible relationship between children’s TV watching behaviour and children’s perceptions of gender roles. Frueh and McGhee (1975) tested this hypothesis, which suggests a significant relationship exists in boys and girls between the amount of time spent watching television and the intensity of traditional sex role development. Their study shows that this relationship is equal for boys and girls, and the pattern does not change with age. They also found in another study that children who watched more television had more gender stereotypes held by adults than children who watched less television (McGhee & Frueh, 1980). Children and adults have perceptions of the gender images they are exposed to, especially those of physical attraction and strength, and children may identify with and want to be same-sex television characters (Signorielli, 1990). It can be seen that the content of TV programmes has a certain influence on children’s perceptions of gender roles and stereotypes.
Moreover, previous studies on the gender qualities of Doraemon’s characters were mainly quantitative rather than qualitative. Rather than examining the characters’ gender ratios, colours of dressing, occupations, personalities and leisure activities (Lin, 2004), this study explores the origin of the cartoon’s masculinities from a deeper level, providing a new interpretation and differentiating this study itself from previous studies of gender stereotypes in Doraemon. In addition, so far there is not much research on the masculinities in Doraemon using Critical Discourse Analysis as a framework, so this study can be a supplement to this and pave the way for future gender research on Doraemon.
In order to unpack how gender traits are shaped in this cartoon, for what reasons the author shaped the male characters in this way and which part of Japanese social culture has potential influence on the artwork during its production process, this study adopts Norman Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis as a research framework to analyse and discuss the masculinities of male characters in Doraemon from the perspectives of text analysis, process analysis and social analysis. And this research hopes to explore the meaning of gender roles behind animation and what kind of gender concept it brings to the audience, so as to arouse reflection among the audience and animation creators.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Related Research on Doraemon
Around the globe, previous research related to the characters of Doraemon included gender traits and gender stereotypes. Masculinities especially were explored in cultural, psychological, sociological and other perspectives.
The cultural context in which Doraemon is situated further complicates the discourse surrounding masculinity. Furthermore, Vietnamese viewers were influenced by the viewing of Doraemon, including the fusion of Japanese and Vietnamese cultural elements and the critical engagement of Vietnamese children in Nobita’s character through observation and learning. And Nobita had a role in cultivating empathy and understanding (Le, 2023). Abdullah (2023) found that Doraemon when viewed by preschool children can be entertaining and educational at the same time, which could broaden horizons and convey the meaningful concepts within them regarding the heritage and culture of Japan.
In mainland China and Taiwan, studies on Doraemon mainly involve the background of the artwork and the author, concepts of creation, character settings, relationships between characters, gender stereotypes, educational significance, technology development and so on. For instance, Lin (2004) analysed the academic record of main characters and also calculated the number going bathing by Shizuka Minamoto and being spied on, the violent behaviours of Takeshi Goda, the number of stories with educational significance, problem solving skills, the counter effect of using advanced technology and shortcuts and self-growing development, apart from studying the background of the author, creation concepts and main characters in Doraemon. In another study, Su (2014) analysed the peer relationship between Nobita, Suneo and Goda. Moreover, Huang et al. (2010) adopted content analysis to discuss gender stereotypes in Doraemon, and they discovered that most of the characters in the cartoon matched popular gender stereotypes, and only a few deviated from them. In addition, Sun (2012) believed that Doraemon reflects the Japanese people’s pursuit of happiness in life and the need for a metaphysical spiritual support to change their world-weary attitude when they encounter difficulties in reality. Liu and Ma (2016) came to the conclusion that Doraemon is the unity of the alienation of science, technology and humanization.
In terms of overseas research, Japanese scholar Hashimoto (2015) studied the episodes about World War II in Doraemon and found that this content presented the Manchurian Incident, escalation of war and social oppression at that time to the readers. They also found out that the military and enterprises of the time participated in the war in order to profit from it, while common people were dragged into the war and hurt as a result, and they did not trust the authorities who hurt them. Another Japanese scholar Tsukamoto (2015) found that the plots and characters of foreign versions were different from those of the Japanese version. Due to cultural differences, Japanese producers had to carefully edit animation content, especially those involving sex and violence, before bringing it to the United States. Moreover, Japanese producers paid attention to American broadcasting and television standards and tried to incorporate elements of American culture into the adaptation. Additionally, by addressing the different reputation of Doraemon in the USA and Japan, the vital roles of intercultural communication between the United States and Japan were discovered by Podsatiangool (2017), which are power relations, concepts of Young Adult Literature and the Iceberg Model of Culture.
2.2. Related Research on Characters in Doraemon
Previous research on characters in Doraemon mainly included the settings of characters, the status of women, gender stereotypes, the relationships between characters and the potential political meaning behind the characters.
For example, Lin (2004) found that the main female characters in Doraemon are mostly housewives who take care of their husbands and children, with the style of traditional Japanese women. In particular, Nobita’s mother appears as a dutiful and strict mother every time she appears. Her number of appearances is far more than that of Nobita’s father, which reflects the high status of mothers in the family and the social and cultural norms reckoning that family is the best stage for traditional women in Japan.
Moreover, Huang et al. (2010) revealed that the dress, occupations and types and duration of leisure activities are in line with the characteristics of gender stereotypes. Among the main characters, Nobita is the most successful protagonist to escape from male gender stereotypes, while other male characters fit most of the male gender stereotypes.
In addition, a study of Doraemon’s peer relationships was carried out by Su (2014). By selecting “Bottle Cap Collection” and “The Ignorant Insect” as research subjects and performing Critical Discourse Analysis as a research framework, this study showed the interactions among Nobita, Suneo and Goda and the reason why their friendship could be maintained under bullying. Also, the author used conflict theories and social exchange theories to describe peer relations, and many of the pictures and much of the language in the manga present scenes of negative emotions, aggression, directing others and money-oriented ideas; by having strength, people have all the power.
Moreover, the interactions between male characters in Doraemon reveal underlying power dynamics that are critical to understanding masculinity in this context. The relationships among Nobita, Gian and Suneo often reflect a hierarchy where physical strength and social dominance are prioritized. This hierarchy not only reinforces traditional masculine ideals but also perpetuates a cycle of bullying and social exclusion, which can have detrimental effects on young viewers’ perceptions of gender roles (Setyaningsih, 2023). Also, animated movies construct the characters of males and females as sources for the socialization of their audiences by representing and emphasizing certain specific gender-related attributes. While females are usually related to domestic duties, sex commodities, beauty- and weight-conscious, delicate, feeble and independent, the men are constructed as determined, bold, courageous, carrier-oriented, independent, strong and brave (Batool et al., 2017).
In terms of the political meaning represented by the characters, Nakagawa and Yang (2015) proposed that Goda and Suneo were actually the Democratic Party of Japan and that the pattern of Goda and Suneo bullying Nobita was equivalent to a typical international political model in which a superpower attacks a weak and poor country while rich countries provide support.
2.3. Research Related to Masculinities in Japanese Animation and Manga
Napier (2005) studied masculinity in many Japanese cartoons and found a wide variety of symbols of masculinity in the world of Japanese anime, which range from reflections of contemporary society to forms of dreams coming true, and to dilemmas of gender anxiety. As an example, in the cartoon InuYasha, the sword is actually the presentation of potential masculinity, yet InuYasha himself does not like it at the beginning and thinks it is old and rusty. However, in Wolf’s Rain, male characters are often viewed as divided, confused by the past and struggling with their present identities. Apart from that, in Howl’s Moving Castle, Howl is portrayed as an emotional person, and he shows an excessively high opinion of himself. With Howl having the ability of changing into a huge bird and being able to remove the weapons in the sky on his own, these characteristics reveal a stronger and darker masculinity in this cartoon.
In conclusion, the literature on masculinities, gender traits and gender stereotypes in Doraemon reveals a multifaceted portrayal of gender that reflects both traditional ideas and contemporary changes. However, there is still a lack of specific research on the masculinities of male characters in Doraemon analysed by using Critical Discourse Analysis, and this study will fill in this gap. Therefore, exploring the male figures in the anime and manga of Doraemon is significant.
3. Research Method
3.1. Research Subject
Among the oldest and most popular Japanese children’s manga series, Doraemon by Fujio F. Fujiko reveals an intriguing insight into Japanese culture. In Japan, Doraemon is ubiquitous in its numerous media. Doraemon’s role as Japan’s mascot at the 2020 Winter Olympics is also a testament to its status as one of Japan’s representative works and symbols. Doraemon has been shown in many East Asian and Southeast Asian countries and has a wide influence; therefore, it is valuable to choose it as the research subject. The scope of this study is Doraemon’s series from 1970 to 1996, including TV cartoons and manga, which were originally created by its first author, Fujiko F. Fujio. And this study will mainly focus on five male characters in Doraemon, including Doraemon himself, Nobita, Suneo, Goda and Nobita’s father. And the masculinities of male characters in Doraemon will be discussed by using Norman Fairclough’s model of Critical Discourse Analysis.
The main research subject is masculinity. Masculinity is a segment of institutions and is generated in institutional life as much as it is an aspect of personality or produced in interpersonal interactions (Connell, 1993). In Masculinities, R.W. Connell (1995) proposed the hierarchy of masculinities, which includes hegemonic masculinity. Associated traits include heterosexuality, skin tone fairness, physical strength and the suppression of emotions such as sadness. Since the late 1990s, the number of studies devoted to Japanese masculinity has grown considerably; one of the characteristics of these more recent studies is a shift in focus from “men” to “masculinity”, the adoption of a social constructionist position and the increased use of qualitative methods such as representative analysis and ethnography (Taga, 2005).
3.2. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is a critical theory derived from language that regards the use of language as a form of social practice. All social practices are connected with certain contexts and are the approaches by which existing social relations are duplicated and serve different interest groups. Answering questions relating discourse to relations of power such as how the text is positioned, whose interests are served, whose interests are denied and what the consequences of such positioning are, Critical Discourse Analysis is carried out (Janks, 1997; Fairclough, 1989, 1995). Originally, CDA was developed in classical Rhetoric, Textlinguistics and Sociolinguistics and also in Applied Linguistics and Pragmatics. The interpretation or explanation of text was related to the concepts of ideology, power, hierarchy and gender together with sociological variables (Wodak, 2002). In addition, discursive practice may have significant ideological influence to help to produce and reproduce unequal power relations, for instance, between social classes, women and men and ethnic/cultural majorities and minorities, through the way they represent people in things and places (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997).
The main feature of Fairclough’s critical discourse analysis is the fusion of some key issues of linguistics and critical social studies (Peräkylä, 2005). The analysis consisted of three interrelated analytical processes linked to the three interrelated dimensions of discourse. Each of these dimensions require a different analysis (Fairclough, 1989, 1995), as shown in Figure 1 below. The first dimension is text analysis, for which descriptions of verbal, visual or verbal and visual texts are needed. And the second dimension is processing analysis, which is an interpretation of the process of producing and receiving objects by human beings, such as writing, speaking, listening, reading, viewing, etc. Finally, social analysis is the third dimension, which is the explanation of the socio-historical contexts in which these events take place (Janks, 1997; Fairclough, 1989, 1995).
Moreover, the recognition of the contribution of all aspects of the communication context to the meaning of the text, as well as the increasing recognition in the field of media studies of the importance of the non-linguistic aspects of texts, has directed attention away from linguistic devices alone to symbolic devices in texts and discourse. Theo van Leeuwen has conducted pioneering research on the interaction between language and visuals in texts and discourse, as well as the meaning of images (Kress & van Leeuwen, 1996).
Later, Wodak (2014) pointed out that CDA investigates ideologies and power through semiotic data (written, spoken or visual). The research objects of CDA are not a linguistic unit per se, but rather social phenomena that are necessarily complex and therefore require a multi/interdisciplinary and multimethodological logical approach (Wodak, 2014). Additionally, according to existing research, the visual signs of text analysis could be divided into narrative scenes, the physical appearances of characters, the costumes of characters, the weapons or devices of characters and the abilities of characters, while the linguistic signs are classified as narrations, the names of characters, the dialogues of characters, the names of weapons or devices of characters and the names of abilities of characters (Podsatiangool & Phornprapha, n.d.).
Moreover, this area is also related to a semiotic analysis conducted by Theo Van Leeuwen (2014), who suggests that communication is multimodal and actual spoken language cannot be fully understood without considering non-verbal communication; people cannot fully understand many forms of written language without considering images, layout, typography and colour. Meanwhile, another relevant field is symbolic communication, which involves language, including verbal communication and non-verbal communication (Buck & Arthur VanLear, 2002). In contrast to merely linguistic language, non-verbal text is also related to symbolic communication, for which communicative behaviour is socially learned and shared by sender and receiver (Buck & Arthur VanLear, 2002).
Above all, apart from the traditional textual languages, this research will also focus on non-verbal languages and text in text analysis, instead of merely analysing the linguistic language.
4. Discussion
This research explores Doraemon at the three levels of CDA, including text analysis of the visual, verbal and any other signs of anime and manga, process analysis for revealing the process and origin of production of manga by the author and social analysis, which analyses the history and phenomena of Japanese society at the time of the author’s creation.
4.1. Text Analysis
The text analysis focuses on analysing both visual signs and verbal signs, which include the appearance, speech, behaviour, personality, value, etc., of the main male characters in Doraemon, including Doraemon, Takeshi Goda, Suneo Honekawa, Nobita and Nobita’s father.
4.1.1. Masculinities of Doraemon
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Settings of Sex
First, the author portrays Doraemon (ドラえもん), the protagonist who owns a lot of high-tech products and is proficient in using them, as a male, which is more in line with the general public’s stereotype of high-tech users (such as the so-called “IT man”) being young men. Second, rather than defining women as high-tech users, young men are more reliable than women in the role of high-tech users. Nass et al. (1997) examined whether there are gender stereotypes in the dubbing of “sex-less” computers, and the study showed that people’s inclination towards gender stereotypes is very strong, even extending to stereotypes about machines. Third, as a male child, Nobita’s friend who could accompany him at home day and night should be more in line with the general public’s gender view.
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Designs of Appearance
When comparing Doraemon’s appearance with that of his sister, Dorami, Doraemon’s masculinity in design becomes apparent. Doraemon has a simple design, with his main colour being blue, a cool colour, and his obtaining bag being pure white. He has no long eyelashes but has whiskers on his face. When laughing, his mouth becomes quite wide, and the shape of his mouth is almost semi-round, creating a bold and generous image. In contrast, Dorami is designed in warm colours such as yellow, red and pink. She has more feminine factors, such as a pink and white chequered pattern on her obtaining bag, long eyelashes and a flushed face. When she laughs, her mouth is much smaller than her brother’s, and the shape of her mouth is similar to a small triangle, showing her restrained and self-commanding personality traits. Such appearances cater to traditional gender stereotypes of men and women.
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Setting of Superhero Character with Mortal Personality
Early superheroes were male-dominated, so setting the role of a superhero would enhance their masculinity. Doraemon’s body is made of metal, and there are almost always technological products in his treasure bag that can save the day, and with his wit, he can solve Nobita’s problems and provide entertainment, encouragement and education. When necessary, he has the role of saving people from fire and water. However, Doraemon’s mortal personality, such as his preference for dorayaki and fear of mice, somewhat diminishes the robot’s cold, flawless and almighty competence. This does not diminish Doraemon’s brilliance but makes his image more approachable.
4.1.2. Masculinities of Takeshi Goda
Takeshi Goda (ごうだ たけし) is rich in the Japanese Bushido spirit and good at sports such as baseball. However, he has a bad temper, and he often bullies his classmates and beats them out of anger (Lin, 2004).
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Competitiveness
The signs of competitiveness in Takeshi Goda include overestimating his own abilities and believing that he is capable of doing what he wants to do. As an example, in Nobita’s Dorabian Nights, Goda and Suneo climb on a vine inside the storybook Jack and the Beanstalk. Goda asks Suneo: “Is the giant even huger than I am?” Suneo laughs and answers, “At least he is a hundred times bigger than you are”. At that moment, Goda folds his sleeves and prepares to fight: “It’s very interesting, let me have a showdown with him”. Suneo says: “Don’t mess around, you are definitely not a giant’s opponent”. Goda answers: “You haven’t seen it before, how do you know that I will definitely lose?” Although Goda does not know the actual size of the giant, he still insists that his body is strong enough to compete with the giant. At the same time, physical strength is the pride of Goda as a male; he does not allow others to underestimate his strength; otherwise, he would lose his inner balance, even if that person were a good friend who had been with him all the time. Unyielding is the performance of Goda to maintain mental balance.
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Confidence
Confidence in Goda includes dominating his peers and extremely defending his status. For example, Goda and Suneo are playing at the location where they used to be. While Goda is sitting on the higher water pipe with his legs outstretched, Suneo stands on the ground, leaning against the lower water pipe that Goda has stepped on. However, Goda is bored and wants to have fun. At this time, Suneo looks up at Goda with a pleasing smile on his face and proposes to play a game of beating Goda. After that, Goda is very angry and punches Suneo (Nobita’s Dorabian Nights, 1991).
From this, the following can be seen: Firstly, Goda’s sitting posture and body position indicate that he likes to be on top and thinks that he is far superior to Suneo. In Goda’s mind, people lower than him could not be on an equal footing with him. Secondly, Goda values power very much. After knowing Suneo’s plan for the game, he attacks Suneo until Suneo shows fear and stops talking about it. By attacking Suneo, Goda controls Suneo’s words and behaviours within the acceptable range of Goda’s situation, and he does not allow Suneo to do anything against his will.
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Aggression
The specific manifestation of aggression in Goda is that he often beats his companions. Goda’s behaviour of beating up weak companions could strengthen his masculinity, vent his anger and consolidate his dominant position among his companions. The companion he often beats is Nobita. Nobita is kind and cowardly, and he does not bully others; he is looked down upon by Goda and Suneo. In order to avoid being bullied, Goda builds a terrifying reputation by bullying his peers in exchange for his own safety, which is an act of self-preservation. At the same time, Goda gains recognition for his masculinity by bullying his less masculine peers. Feder et al. (2007) pointed out that traditional masculine socialization distances many boys from their true selves and alienates them from others, increasing their risk of engaging in violent behaviour. Also, Rodkin et al. (2000) found that boys with higher levels of aggression can form groups of the most popular and socially connected children in elementary classrooms.
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Power and Strength
Among the main figures, Goda is the one who most excels at playing sports. Previous studies have well explained that being good at sports is also proof of possessing masculinity. According to Manzenreiter (2013), the perseverance of male domination is outstanding in sports that value mental and physical characteristics that are closely related to traditional notions of masculinities, such as fighting spirit, leadership skills, willpower, aggressiveness and strength.
4.1.3. Masculinities of Suneo Honekawa
Suneo Honekawa (骨川 スネ夫) is a main figure in the social network of Goda and Nobita. He is smart and good at bargaining. Also, he loves to praise himself and show off what he has, and he is good at flattering others (Lin, 2004).
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Analytical Skills
The characteristic of being good at analysis is reflected in Suneo, who first analyses the situation and then makes reasonable actions. Every time he encounters danger, such as when Goda is about to beat him and Nobita, Suneo can often change Goda’s attitude and mind instantly through words. In the end, only Nobita is beaten. Here, Suneo’s behaviour is not only adaptable but based on what he knows about Goda, especially when Goda angers easily and tends to deal with things using violence, as well as the things that Goda hates the most. By saying these words, Suneo can drag himself out of Goda’s threat range and successfully turn Goda’s contradictory attention to Nobita. In this case, Suneo is able to think calmly and take himself out of danger, which shows that he has a strong analytical ability.
4.1.4. Masculinities of Nobita Nobi
Nobita Nobi (野比 のび太) is the only child in his family, a fourth-grader in elementary school. He is kind-hearted, compassionate, helpful and timid, and he is not good at sports (Lin, 2004). In Doraemon, Nobita is the least masculine male character (Huang et al., 2010). In particular, Sekii (1989) pointed out that if the personalities of individual males did not match the social norms they were supposed to follow, this gap could bring a sense of oppression for these men. Men were thought to behave straightforwardly at all times; society could accept that women behave like men but could not tolerate men behaving like women (Kokubu & Ji, 2000). Likewise, as the least manly boy, Nobita is often bullied by Goda and Suneo, suffering from both mental and physical pain.
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Toughness
The author Fujimoto Hiroshi once mentioned that Nobita, who seems to be full of shortcomings, has advantages that ordinary people do not discover: no matter how many setbacks he suffers, he still wants to become a better person; Nobita often re-thinks his behaviours. Although he reverts back to the original after rethinking, even if it was just a little bit, he wants to become better than he was; in this point, Nobita is amazing (NHK, 2004). From here, we can see Nobita’s strength and toughness. Scholars believe that masculine men are strong and can show gentleness according to their needs (Kokubu & Ji, 2000), and it turns out that Nobita is a good interpretation of this phrase.
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Defence of Patriarchy and Pursuit and Yearning for Fame and Wealth
In the episode “Ancestors, Come On!” (1979), Nobita is disappointed with his father’s ancestor. He was neither from a famous family nor a brave general, but a hunter who barely survived by hunting in the deep mountains. His ancestor usually hunted gentle animals such as birds and would run away when encountering ferocious animals such as wild boars. In contrast, the ancestor of Suneo’s father was a brave general, who was rewarded and held high posts. By any comparison, Nobita feels that his ancestor is inferior to others’.
It can be seen that Nobita wants his ancestors to be people with amazing accomplishments so that he can reduce the arrogance of Suneo on this topic and overturn the negative stereotypes and biases of Goda about Nobita himself and his ancestor. Although the three boys are still young, they have a clear awareness of pursuing the good deeds of their male ancestors and defending the patriarchy.
In addition, the ancestors they mention are all in the line of male ancestors. Whether it is Suneo, Nobita or Goda, none of them ever trace or mention the history of female ancestors, which shows the lack of female presence under the patriarchy. It can also be revealed that they are defending patriarchy; one day, they will also become the male ancestors of their future generations, and they will also be the representatives of patriarchy in future society. Therefore, to defend the status of male ancestors is to defend their own interests.
4.1.5. Masculinities of Nobita’s Father
The name of Nobita’s father is Nobisuke Nobi (野比のび助), and he is gentler with Nobita than his wife in daily life. Nobisuke did not study well when he was a child, yet he loved painting and was good at it. Instead of growing into a painter, he became an office worker (Lin, 2004).
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Ambition
Nobita’s father has loved drawing since his childhood, and he wanted to become a painter. To be a painter meant to gain popularity in the field of painting, as opposed to being an artist of average ability. Thus, Nobita’s father had great ambitions when he was young.
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Morality
Nobisuke grew up in a poor family. He wanted to engage in painting, yet his family could not afford to do so due to financial problems. In spite of this situation, he refused a rich man’s financial support and marriage to a rich man’s daughter because he wanted to rely on his own efforts for success, not money and power. He firmly believed that the ideal of becoming a painter could not be exchanged by money. From this, it could reflect the high integrity of Nobita’s father.
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High expectations for future generations
Nobisuke has high expectations for Nobita, and he hopes that Nobita will pursue his dreams bravely. In the episode “Helping Dad Fulfill His Wishes”, Nobisuke discovers that his son is living in a state of life without learning but with laziness. After that, Nobisuke teaches Nobita and hopes that Nobita can fight for his aims as Nobisuke did in his young age. Since Nobisuke is regretful that he did not firmly embark on the road of a painter, he does not want the same tragedy for Nobita in the future. Therefore, Nobisuke hopes his son can cherish his good living conditions and make good use of his youth to enrich his life, rather than feeling regretful when his life is fixed. From above, Nobisuke’s strong sense of responsibility to educate the future generation and his love and expectations for future generations are shown.
To summarize, masculinities such as aggression, competitiveness, confidence, sportiness, analytical skills, toughness, ambition, morality, high expectations for the future generation, defence of patriarchy and pursuit and yearning for fame and wealth can be found in the male characters in Doraemon.
4.2. Process Analysis
In the process analysis, we explore the influence of personal experience and characteristics of the artist on the creation of the work, the reasons why he integrated masculinity into the artwork and the potential understanding of the masculinity of anime characters by readers. To start the processing analysis, perspectives such as childhood experiences, study, personality, hobbies and creation concepts of Fujimoto will be discussed.
4.2.1. Author’s Own Masculinity and His Understanding of Masculinity
Fujimoto Hiroshi (ふじもとひろし), whose pen name was Fujiko F. Fujio, was the cartoonist of Doraemon. He was born on 1 December 1933 in Japan. The Doraemon manga was first published in December 1969, and the cartoon was first aired in April 1973. After that, more and more episodes and films of Doraemon were produced, and they gained popularity in Japan (Lin, 2004).
4.2.2. Childhood Experiences
In addition, Fujimoto Hiroshi’s childhood experience is also the source of his creation of Doraemon.
When he was a child, he used a slide projector to display pictures. One of the pictures was a true reflection of his childhood. It showed three boys standing in a tall tree, which was their popular visiting spot. Fujimoto said that the children he painted, whether they were Nobita, Suneo or Goda, were the true reflection of his childhood (NHK, 2004). It can be seen that part of Fujimoto’s masculinity was subtly constructed from real childhood life, especially with male companions.
4.2.3. Study
Fujimoto achieved outstanding results in science and related subjects during his secondary school years, and after further studying, he chose to study electrical engineering at the College of Technology (Ling, 2004). In people’s stereotypes, men are more likely to study engineering than women, and engineering has always been considered a profession that men are more competent at than women. Such a professional background could give people the impression of a strong masculinity.
4.2.4. Personality
Fujimoto Hiroshi was kind and had a sense of justice. He hated classmates who bullied or looked down on others (Ling, 2004). With a high sense of responsibility and caring for his family, no matter how busy he was, he would try his best to rest on holidays to spend time with his family, which was the most important thing (NHK, 2004). His actions were in line with Confucian values of devotion to family and hard work.
Also, the traits of leadership and analytical ability were also reflected in Fujimoto. Fujimoto’s leadership ability was reflected in the fact that to realize his bigger dreams, a group of young cartoonists, led by Fujimoto, assembled a team at Studio Zero in Tokyo. In addition to drawing comic strips for magazines, they also produced animations. Apart from that, in his career, Fujimoto realized that it was necessary to avoid producing similar stories all the time and he should try to tell new stories within limited pages and figures. Moreover, he reckoned that fantasy should be bound with reality to avoid being boring (NHK, 2004). The characteristics above show Fujimoto’s analytical mind.
4.2.5. Hobby
As a child, Fujimoto was often immersed in the world of science fantasy, and he loved to read comic books, draw comics and explore. Among them, “the Father of Manga” in Japan, Osamu Tezuka (手塚 治蟲), had a profound influence on Fujimoto’s creation.
Fujimoto Hiroshi and Motoo Abiko (安孫子 素雄) (whose pen name was Fujiko A. Fujio) had admired Osamu Tezuka from the time they came across and exchanged Osamu Tezuka’s comic book New Treasure Island. The storyboard and ambitious story of Osamu Tezuka’s manga deeply attracted the two manga fans, and the two fans aspired to become manga artists. Later, the shared pen name taken by the two, “Fujiko Fujio”, which was a male name, was also inspired by Osamu Tezuka.
After visiting Osamu Tezuka, Fujimoto Hiroshi was encouraged by Osamu Tezuka and learned about Osamu Tezuka’s creation concept. Fujimoto was touched at Osamu Tezuka’s concept of creating manga for children, and after that, Fujimoto was determined to take the road of manga (Ling, 2004).
It can be known that Osamu Tezuka’s artworks, creation concepts and encouragements were key factors in leading Fujimoto to become a successful manga artist. Also, Osamu Tezuka’s male identity caused a resonance between Fujimoto and Motoo, especially inadvertently establishing a positive and professional presence in the heart of Fujimoto in his youth. However, Fujimoto’s intense admiration for Osamu Tezuka because of Fujimoto’s love of drawing and reading Osamu’s manga made Fujimoto unconsciously learn and imitate the personality of Osamu Tezuka, whether it was the pen name, the style and technique of creating manga or the personality traits of Osamu Tezuka, which contained the masculinity of male manga artist.
4.2.6. Concept of Creation
“It has always been my dream to draw manga that makes me happy and readers happy,” Fujimoto said. He also wrote in his notebook about the significance of drawing cartoons for children: “Children are longing for adventure, and this irresistible impulse, this irresistible energy, may be driving the development of human society. With the growth of children, they will gradually surround by daily life, and they have to adapt to the development of society. But their feel of yearning for adventure and chasing the dreams, I hope…they will never lose it” (NHK, 2004). Fujimoto Hiroshi’s concepts fully reflected his strong humanistic care for children and young people, which was transmitted through page after page of manga and frame-by-frame animation, and also reflected his wishes to benefit human society.
In terms of creating the gender traits of the characters, the author put forth a serious effort. He ingeniously chose to use Nobita, who was relatively lacking masculinity in the social recognition of the time, as the protagonist. In addition, in the eighth volume of the manga, episode 18, “Male and Female Personality Changer”, Nobita is scolded by his father for playing the Cat’s Cradle Game. “You should play the game of boys. Last time I bought you a soccer ball, it turned out to be just lent to someone else to play… Dad is ashamed of you!” His father says so, while Nobita questions such gender arrangements: “What are the games play by boys and girls, who prescribes these? Is there a law that prohibits boys from playing Cat’s Cradle Game? If there are boys who get together to play Cat’s Cradle Game, isn’t that a game for boys?” In order to realize Nobita’s wishes, Doraemon takes out a male and female personality changer and spreads it in the air so that the people around him have a gender interchange effect in personality.
After the use of the male and female personality changer, the male group led by Goda and Suneo changes from playing soccer to playing with dolls and jumping rubber bands, while the female group led by Shizuka loses interest in the Cat’s Cradle Game and plays soccer instead. However, to the surprise of Nobita and Doraemon, after using the male and female personality changer, Nobita is still teased by the boys: “Why does Nobita sound like a girl, haha!” And when Nobita is accidentally hit by the soccer ball while watching the girls playing football, he cannot help but cry. At this time, the girls comment: “I hate it most when boys cry easily”. “It is”. At the same time, Nobita’s father also blames Nobita: “How dare a boy play football!” Nobita, who is accepted by neither the male group nor the female group, finally decides to restore the male and female personalities to their original state. From these examples, the author believes that even if people switch gender stereotypes for men and women, they still cannot eliminate them. Gender stereotypes still exist, yet they were swapped between the sexes. The result of changing gender traits not only is awkward but also does not help to eliminate gender stereotypes. Therefore, the author might also want to express a layer of meaning, that is, if people want to eliminate gender stereotypes, they cannot merely rely on the method of transforming the personalities of men and women but also need to explore other possibilities.
From this story, it can be concluded that in the values of the society in which the author lived, boys were encouraged to play more intense and heavy activities such as football, but such sports were not encouraged to be played by girls; girls were encouraged to take part in more static activities such as the Cats’ Cradle Game and playing with dolls, and they were not encouraged to play barbaric games such as football. Also, girls were more likely to cry and vent their emotions when they felt pain, and this behaviour was not liked by boys. The author might have wanted to use this comic to provoke readers to reflect on the impact and even constraints of gender stereotypes on people’s lives.
Generally speaking, some of Fujimoto Hiroshi’s characteristics were consistent with the traditional concept of masculinity in terms of his childhood experience, studies, character, hobbies and creation concepts. However, he had the consciousness of introspection and jumping out of the existing gender stereotypes to create characters so that readers could see that a person like Nobita, who is not so manly, could also be the protagonist, as well as the author’s wild imagination: if the personalities of men and women switch with each other, what kind of a society would it become?
4.2.7. Reasons for Conveying Masculinities Through Artwork
In Doraemon, Fujimoto organized his own childhood events into comic stories, which made the figures more vivid to audiences and close to children’s daily lives. From there, stories could increase the opportunity for readers to have a sense of empathy, so as to create the resonance between the author and readers. Creating this resonance is the philosophy of Fujimoto: “I am so delighted to paint Doraemon, and it would be great if people love reading it… What makes a large number of people happy is that the manga artist can resonate with the reader (NHK, 2004, 2013)”.
4.2.8. Readers’ Perception of Masculinities of Male Characters
Lin (2004) pointed out that the background of Doraemon tells the story of the essential stage of life, namely, primary school life. In normally assigned classes, both talented students and students with learning disabilities make up a tiny percentage of the total, while mediocre students make up the majority. In this context, Nobita, the symbol of mediocre students, stands for most ordinary people in real life, which makes readers feel more empathy for Nobita’s story.
Also, from the aspects of Nobita’s dependence, cowardness and poor learning response, readers can hide their unpleasant memories of the past, while Nobita can re-enact and experience the bad feelings on behalf of readers, which can also relieve responsibility on behalf of readers (Lin, 2004). Overall, although readers are not fond of Nobita, they do not hate Nobita, as Nobita is the reflection of the majority.
Apart from that, in order to enable Nobita to stand on his own feet, whenever Nobita encounters difficulties and asks for help, Doraemon takes out scientific devices to help Nobita. However, sometimes Nobita misuses these devices and causes adverse consequences. This interactive relationship reminds the readers of their parents and teachers, who are tired of running for their lives to take care of children but still do not give up (Lin, 2004). After all, readers may prefer to watch Doraemon out of sympathy.
However, Nakagawa and Yang (2015) propose that the names, appearances and personalities of manga characters usually have overall consistency. For instance, Goda is tall and strong, and his nickname is “giant”. The meaning of the literal translation of the Japanese proverb of Suneo’s name is “biting the shins of parents’ calves”, which indicates people who merely rely on parents instead of depending on themselves.
4.3. Social Analysis
Social analysis aims to analyse the influence of the Japanese social environment and culture on Fujimoto and to reveal the factors that affected his construction of male figures in Doraemon. This section will discuss four pillars: the salaryman, Confucianism, androcentrism and Bushido spirit.
4.3.1. The Culture of the Salaryman
Nobita’s father is a representative of the salaryman in Japan. In the episodes, he usually appears as an office worker coming home late from the office, with an exhausted look on his face. As the bread earner in this house, it is his responsibility and obligation to work outside so that he can afford the expense of the whole family, including the living costs of three people and the tuition fees of Nobita, since Nobita’s mother is a housewife and does not have any income. In Japan, the salaryman stands for a social symbol (Takeuchi, 1996) and social–cultural construction (Kelly, 1986, 1993). On one hand, the salaryman is a dominant (self-)image, model and representation of men and masculinity in Japan, especially in the context of gender, sexuality, class and nation, and represents the middle-class, heterosexual, married salaryman (Roberson & Suzuki, 2003). On the other hand, the description of the nightwork of the salaryman indicates that masculinity should involve work-related issues and is constructed by a pervasive corporate ideology (Allison, 1994). By working overtime and coming home late and have a female companion at home and with a child, Nobta’s father is indirectly showing his social status, which is not the lower level in the society.
4.3.2. Influences of Confucianism
Japan is a highly hierarchical society in which relationships are defined by subordination, especially for men who work in companies. The strong root of Confucianism ethics might also influence their personality development, since Confucianism puts great value on rules and loyalty for power. This could also be interpreted as obedience to parents, teachers, bosses and companies (Sugihara & Emiko, 2000). Reischauer and Craig (1973) also pointed out that Confucianism was an idea originating from China, which emphasized the hierarchy of society, assumed male dominance and advocated the intrinsic qualities of man, such as integrity and justice.
The influence of Confucianism could be easily traced in Doraemon. Regarding obedience to parents, Fujimoto was too obsessed with drawing manga as a child, and after his family dissuaded him, he gave up. In the episode “Helping Dad Fulfill His Wishes”, when Nobita’s father is making life decisions, Nobita’s grandpa says to his grandma privately, “Nobisuke is still a child, in short, he must first listen to his father, that is, my opinion”. The older generations think that they have a higher status than the younger ones and should take the responsibility of taking care of the younger generations. On the other hand, although the younger generation has personal opinions, they are afraid of the seniors and believe that the final decision is in the hands of seniors.
The obedience to the boss among Japanese individuals could be seen in the third episode of volume 11, “Driving Away the Annoying Guest”, in that even in private occasions and after work hours, Nobita’s father is very obedient to the president of his company. In this episode, the president comes to Nobita’s house to avoid a large number of visitors during the New Year. Although Nobita’s father is reluctant to allow this, he is hindered by his status as a subordinate of a lower rank, and he has to accept the leader’s request (generally speaking, the relationship between official duties) in his own residence (in which he originally has a certain degree of rights). Two main points can be concluded from this. Firstly, due to the inequality of power and status, Nobita’s father is in a weak position, and he feels a deep fear of rejecting the president, whose status is higher than his own, and does not dare to overstep even in his own house. Secondly, as the only bread earner of the family, if he refuses the leader’s temporary residence request, it would affect his career, and the consequences would be unimaginable in the end.
Meanwhile, Sugihara and Emiko (2000) proposed that boys may possess more feminine characteristics and less masculine characteristics than expected, while girls may embrace more masculine characteristics and less feminine characteristics than socially expected. Also, the ethics of diligence and high responsibility were also incorporated into post-industrial society in Japan. As the main labourers, men should work outside for long hours, while women should remain at home carrying out housework and looking after children. Therefore, mothers and children were left behind without males, and the mother was the custodian of the child and had the authority to discipline the child, thus showing a feminine image with both feminine and masculine qualities. Arima (2000) found that Japanese audiences prefer male characters to be office workers or specialists and women to be housewives.
Furthermore, Japanese women expect males to present masculinities and femininities at the same time so that children might also learn and internalize the various expectations towards men from their mothers. The condition of Nobita’s family could well reflect this phenomenon, with a father only coming home at night and working long hours during daytime at the company and a mother in charge of cooking, washing, any other housework and looking after Nobita. To some extent, Nobita might internalize his mother’s expectation towards men through staying with his mother day and night. In Doraemon, Nobita is a typical character who combines femininity and masculinity, and he has both feminine traits, such as shyness, gentleness, submissiveness, less dominance and less harsh words, as well as masculine traits, such as loyalty, integrity, tenacity and morality.
4.3.3. The Influence of Androcentrism
Androcentrism refers to theories and practices based entirely on males’ experience. Gilman (1914) pointed out that male life patterns and masculine mindsets are considered universal, while female life patterns and feminine mindsets are seen as biased.
Japanese society was not exempt from androcentrism in its culture. Through acculturation, both men and women internalized cultural expectations of each gender and androcentrism in society (Sugihara & Emiko, 2000). By learning a gender-polarizing approach of viewing reality, boys and girls were shaped as gendered males and gendered females (Bem, 1993). Males were expected to be aggressive, independent, objective, dominant, competitive, confident and analytical. They were expected to become leaders, risk-takers and decision-makers. Women, on the other hand, were expected to be intelligent, gentle, affectionate, sensitive to others’ feelings and quiet and to not use harsh words (Azuma, 1979). These gender-related personality traits were considered the normal, healthy and adjusted personality reflection of Japanese society. Healthy and adjusted mature women were considered less dominant, less independent and less adventurous, and they were more subjective, conceited and weaker than men (Azuma, 1979).
Unlike Nobita, Suneo and Goda embody more masculinities accepted by Japanese society, such as confidence, analytical skills, aggression and competitiveness. They represent the expectations towards men held by society universally, as “qualified” men. Although they bully Nobita and other peers quite often and solve problems with violence, which presents a negative image of them to readers, Suneo and Goda still go their own way after making mistakes. In comparison, Nobita possesses fewer masculinities. For example, he feels upset about what others say, he self-examines himself, he is less dominant, and he is bullied by Suneo and Goda very often. Born as a boy yet lacking the masculinities expected by society, Nobita deviates from male life patterns and thinking patterns. Therefore, androcentrism in society has caused men like Nobita to be frequently frustrated and not welcomed by people like Suneo and Goda.
4.3.4. The Influence of Bushido
Bushido can be translated as the principles and disciplines that soldiers, knights, and samurai must observe in their daily lives and professions; in short, “the precepts of the samurai,” the aristocratic obligations of the samurai class. As an ethical system in Japan, Bushido was not a written law. More often than not, it was a code without verbal and non-verbal words, showing a strong binding force through practical actions and inscribed laws. It was neither original to a talented person nor based on the life of a prominent figure but was the result of decades and centuries of samurai’s life (Inazō et al., 2019).
The history of Bushido dates to the period of the establishment of feudalism in Japan; when professional-level samurai began to emerge, they were called “samurai” (侍), meaning “escort” or “retinue”. As a privileged class and a brave race that fought, the samurai class absorbed the bravest and most adventurous warriors in the war-torn years, and the author described them as people who were full of manliness and beastly strong. While samurai had great honour, privilege and responsibility, they found that a common code of conduct to restrain their group’s misconduct behaviours was necessary. Elements like rectitude or justice, courage (the spirit of daring and bearing), benevolence (the feeling of distress), politeness, veracity and sincerity, honour and the duty of loyalty are contained in Bushido (Inazō et al., 2019). Also, Bushido draws heavily on Zen Buddhism and Confucianism (Lagasse & Columbia University, 2018).
In Doraemon, the most athletic, strong and brave Goda might represent the spirit of Bushido. Lin (2004) directly pointed out that the advantage of Goda is that he has a strong spirit of Bushido. However, due to his frequent use of violence to solve problems, the character of the Goda is less popular in real life (Lin, 2004), which might also hint at a change in the perception and status of the Bushido spirit in modern Japanese society.
In addition, it was widely believed that people like rugby players, baseball players or martial artists are driven by responsibility, loyalty and self-control. Miyamoto Musashi (みやもと むさし, 宮本武藏), a famous 16th-century samurai in Japan, once stood under a frozen waterfall to cool his feelings about women; young athletes in Japan should also not be distracted by their feelings for girls, as falling in love or showing affection for girls will expose weaknesses. However, such values are falling out of favour among contemporary Japanese youth (Louie & Low, 2003).
In Doraemon, the more athletic Goda pays less attention to Shizuka than the less athletic Nobita. And Bushido believes that people who are engaged in sports should not pay too much attention to women, which may also reflect from the side that the Bushido is an element that influences the author to shape the role of Goda.
In summary, a social analysis of Doraemon reveals that the culture of the salaryman, Confucianism, androcentrism and Bushido had a most profound impact on the Japanese view of gender at the time.
First, the culture of the salaryman in Japan is reflected in Doraemon by presenting Nobita’s father as a white-collar worker. He is always busy and coming home late, spending the least time at home, which also indicates the culture of working overtime in Japan. From Nobita’s father, audiences could also find that the salaryman played an important part in ordinary people’s daily lives, since they were the main bread earners at that time. However, this phenomenon has gradually changed in contemporary Japan.
Second, the author shows masculinity in his creation concepts, personality, hobbies, studies, etc., and part of his own temperament is consistent with the traditional concept of masculinity. The author’s social influences include the salarymen, Confucianism, androcentrism, and Bushido spirit.
Third, Japanese society was influenced by male-centrism, which had expectations for men’s lifestyles and thinking patterns. As the saying goes, “Those who submit will prosper, and those who resist will perish”. Suneo and Goda, who meet society’s general expectations, have carried out many bad things and have not corrected their mistakes, and they still survive in the social circle. Nobita, who deviates from society’s general expectations, often suffers.
Fourth, Bushido, as an ethical system, had a strong binding and leading role on people and even required men engaged in sports activities to weaken their feelings for women. Goda, who has the spirit of Bushido, does not pay much attention to Shizuka. In addition, Goda’s excessive violence, despite his Bushido spirit, might indicate that the original noble spirit of Bushido has declined in status in modern Japan.
5. Conclusions
This study conducted a text analysis of Doraemon and found that the male characters in the series exhibit characteristics such as aggression, competitiveness, confidence, sportiness, analytical skills, toughness, ambition, morality, high expectations for future generations, defences of patriarchy and pursuit and yearning for fame and wealth. Although the characters in the comics are fictional, in fact, these characters are the author’s reflection and processing of reality. For teenagers and children, especially when the characters in the comics are of the same age as themselves, they will have a greater sense of substitution. Children may imitate the behaviour of cartoon characters in real life and accept the ideas conveyed by cartoon characters, including gender traits and gender stereotypes. These characters are the role models for children and adolescents, including the masculinities revealed in them. Analysing these masculinities can help remind audiences and consumers (including parents and TV stations) to be cautious about works that seemingly do not convey gender stereotypes to viewers.
This study also analysed the author Fujimoto’s childhood experiences, study, personality, hobbies and creation concepts, which showed that some of his traits are consistent with traditional masculinity. However, out of his gender consciousness and scepticism, he presented readers with a less masculine character, Nobita, and made him the main character. Although the author was born and raised in a relatively traditional Japanese society, his habit of constant reflection and innovative spirit led him to create characters and manga that could both reflect and confront social reality and promote new gender concepts and ideas that were different from the mainstream at the time.
Finally, this study explored the social influences on the author’s understanding of masculinity and the shaping of male characters, including the culture of salaryman, Confucianism, androcentrism and Bushido. Although ancient ideas such as Confucianism and Bushido were less widely promoted in modern society, Japanese society was influenced by these ideas throughout history, and they had more or less continued since then. In Japanese society at the time when the author was born and created the work, these ideas still existed, so these ideas and concepts also indirectly influenced the author and his creation. For audiences in Japan, anime is a way of spreading and consolidating traditional Japanese cultural ideas, at the same time provoking reflection on whether these inherent gender roles are reasonable and should be perpetuated in the contemporary era. For audiences outside of Japan, the mainstream ideas of Japanese society have also been imperceptibly brought to countries and regions where anime and manga are sold and then interpreted and disseminated by audiences from different cultural backgrounds, which is equivalent to a typical case of the export and recreation of Japanese culture to the world.
This study provides valuable insights into the gender characteristics of Doraemon comics and animation works, from the text to the process and social context. By understanding how authors shape characters and masculinities and the influence of authors on their personal understanding of gender, this study hopes to draw more attention to the setting of gender traits in comics and animations for children. This awareness can then be applied to real-life situations outside of comics and animation. Moreover, this study can deepen the understanding of creators of children’s animation and comics about gender role settings. This study hopes to inspire comic creators to think more about gender when designing characters for children and create more characters that are free from gender stereotypes in a society that is increasingly calling for gender equality. Television stations can also choose to play animations that promote gender equality.
6. Limitations and Prospects
Firstly, due to the issues of length and the existing framework of this study, the manga New Treasure Island, which influenced the author Fujimoto considerably, is not discussed in this article. Secondly, in the very beginning of creating the manga, two authors worked together on the manga, but one of them later withdrew. In order to maintain the coherence of the research and the continuity of the context, this paper selects the authors who worked on Doraemon for many years, from the beginning to the end. Thirdly, this article only explores the masculinity of some male characters, and later research can further explore the femininity, other personalities and behaviours of the characters in the future. Finally, apart from using CDA as the research framework, other frameworks and qualitative methods such as in-depth interviews or focus group interviews could also be used to carry out the research, and quantitative methods such as surveys can also be used to fill gaps and embrace more insightful opinions from audiences.
Conceptualization, Z.W. and Z.S.; methodology, Z.W. and Z.S.; validation, Z.W.; formal analysis, Z.W.; investigation, Z.W.; resources, Z.W.; data curation, Z.W.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.W.; writing—review and editing, Z.W. and Z.S.; supervision, Z.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
Doraemon’s series from 1970 to 1996, including TV cartoons and manga.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Footnotes
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Enlarge this image.Figure 1. Norman Fairclough’s model of Critical Discourse Analysis.
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; Song, Zhaoxun 1 1 School of Communication, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China; School of Communication, The Hang Seng University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China