A Simultaneous Approach to Improve Progress Payments System Using a Common Data Environment

Abstract

The success of a construction project depends on the efficiency in the processing, management, and payment of contractor progress claims regarding the activities that have been executed. The payments are made at intervals during the construction works of a project. These payments made to the contractor upon completion of a section of work, usually on a monthly basis, are known as progress payments. However, these progress payments are poorly managed, resulting in the contractor receiving monies late and, therefore, affecting the contractor’s cash flow. This poor management of payments is caused mainly by inadequate information management, poor communication, lack of collaboration, failure to agree on measurements of work done, and corruption. Thus, this study proposes a framework based on the common data environment (CDE) to effectively process and manage contractors’ progress payments. The study adopted a bibliometric and systematic literature review to identify current trends, scope, screen, select, and qualify prior knowledge on the subject. The findings reveal that implementing an effective CDE framework can promote efficient information management, communication, collaboration, and transparency. However, an effective CDE framework is dependent on training, policies, having a quality assurance team, and the adoption of appropriate digital tools to ensure the contractors’ progress payments are professionally managed. This study adds to the body of knowledge on the development of the CDE framework to manage progress payments and improve project success. The paper suggests that the implementation of a CDE is critical, but it is only effective if the suggested framework is applied.

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

1. Introduction

Construction projects globally rarely perform well in terms of delivery times, budget, quality, and safety [1]. These performance factors are affected in part or to a large extent by the cash flow issues that contractors face in developing countries, especially small and medium contractors [2]. Financial resource is a crucial factor of success in construction projects, and delays in releasing payments during the project results in time extension, cost overrun, disputes, poor safety performance, quality issues, and legislations [3]. Clients’ delays to releasing payments for progress work done affect the contractors [4]. Abusafiya and Suliman [5] emphasized that any moment a payment of completed works toward the project is delayed, the project is deemed to experience cost overrun. According to Bekker and Mashaba [6], the causes of cost overruns can also be attributed to challenges associated with poor communication, lack of monitoring and evaluation, lack of client involvement, contractor’s financial difficulties, and poor project planning.

These challenges affect the efficient processing of progress payments to contractors, leading to late payments [7]. These late payments in the construction sector projects results mainly from defaults by the client, consultant, and contractors, which include poor financial management, variation orders, and errors in filing claims [8]. Furthermore, Perera and Dewagoda [9] concluded that late payments are the outcomes of faults made in budgetary allocations, slow processing of contractor progress claims, inadequate supporting materials, and information details needed for valuations and legislative protocols.

According to Yunianto and Rarasati [10], other factors of late payments include the contractor’s delay in preparing payment documents, delay in the consultant’s assessment of invoice value, disagreements on the valuation of work done, lack of communication, clients deliberate delay for their financial advantages, and dispute over quality of works. On the other hand, the client representatives do, at times, require a payment from the contractor to facilitate speedy payments [11]. Thus, bribes and unethical practices are easily implemented because of the lack of transparency in the current traditional method of progress payments in construction projects, especially for small and medium contractors based in developing countries. More efficient and effective management of information and communication in a common environment is needed.

According to Matthei and Klemt-Albert [12], a common data environment (CDE) is an effective tool for project information management in a centralized system that is used by all relevant parties aimed at enhancing collaboration, communication, and transparency. A CDE, which must be set up right at the beginning of the project, as per ISO 19650, can support project management by providing superior information management capabilities and insights related to the project performance [13, 14]. According to Özkan and Seyis [15], a centralized communication network and information repository for the collection, exchange, and management of generated data throughout the project life cycle is necessary. In this study, we, therefore, propose the implementation of a CDE for projects in developing countries to enhance the efficient processing and management of contractors’ progress payments.

2. Theoretical Background

Progress payments refer to monies paid at intervals for works completed and agreed on for a certain period of time during the project, which is due to the contractor [16]. However, these monies are often paid late to the contractors in the public sector [2]. There are reasons for late payments; for example, Badroldin et al. [17] emphasized that the main causes of late payments arise from improper transmitting and management of project information during claims. Additionally, Azman et al. [18] concluded that late payments develop from a lack of information management and communication during the claim process. Moreover, Ramachandra and Rotimi [19] discovered that in overall payments claimed during project progress and final payment, 80% are delayed because of a lack of collaboration among team players. Further, Duanet al. [20] stressed that states that have a high rate of corruption encounter a lot of payment delays. These problems derive from ineffective payment management practices in the industry during the construction phase [21].

The construction phase involves claiming progress payments issued at intervals according to the adopted contract, evaluation, and approval of work done by the principal agent [22]. The most often utilized payment method in South African construction is the progress payment system, which aims to accelerate the completion of a particular contract section and meet the planned practical completion date [23]. The contractor is obligated to finish the whole work on which progress payment will be eligible for claims [24]. Payment claims are made at predetermined intervals and submitted by the contractor to the client through a consultant on the basis that the periodic work is completed [25]. The consultant acts as the client’s representative who handles all the notices, invoices, monies claims, extension of time claims, plants and labor documents, and all supporting documents needed for progress payments [26]. Further, the consultant presents all the appropriate costs of work done, including alterations and materials on site, as agreed with the contractor in the form of a payment certificate [24]. The contractor submits payment claims as set in the contract used for the project at intervals, which also comprehends additional works and variation orders [27].

The payment claim will also include variations, instructions, changes in information and specification, and changes in site design or conditions [28]. The amount of extras and variations are allocated according to the amount set aside in the bid amount during the progress payment claim [29]. However, Cumberlege et al. [30] asserted that payments claim to contractors during this phase are complicated, late, or nonpaid, which has been a grief to many contractors for a long time. The processes of progress payments have been poorly managed, facing many challenges, creating an opportunity for public officials to manipulate contractor payments within government departments for their personal gain [31]. Additionally, time and again, contractors are faced with conflicts with other parties resulting from the claimed work being disapproved due to disagreements caused by a lack of collaboration during operations [32]. According to Abdul-Rahman et al. [33], clients have introduced a practice to themselves of holding progress payments to favor the maintenance of their cash flow. However, in an effective approach, payments must not be late, encounter conflicts, and should be transparent among team players.

On-time: The client should manage the cashflow properly to ensure that the contractor’s progress payments are paid on time to avoid a backlog of claims [34]. The progress payment should be paid on time to allow a smooth operation of the contractor’s cashflow and activities in projects [35]. The client should ensure that the cashflow of the project is managed adequately by processing progress payments on time to maintain effectiveness in the operations [36].

Free of conflicts: The participants should understand the information needed in the processes of the progress payment and manage the procedure properly to avoid conflicts [37]. The management of information and communication among the participants should be according to the adopted contract to ensure a smooth process of progress payment [38]. The certification of progress payment should be in good standing that the information submitted on the works completed by the contractor is true and correct [39].

Transparent: The sharing of information regarding progress payments should be transparent to avoid corruption among participants [40]. It is important to provide information in a transparent manner to improve and process payments on time [41]. The sharing of payment information in a transparent manner should be contacted to prevent monies paid to participants not on the set date [35].

However, projects in the construction industry do not maintain a payment process that is on time, free of conflicts, and transparent [10, 31, 32]. Thus, the implementation of CDE is proposed in this study to improve the current problems. A CDE can focus on integrating databases that use a common language to allow all parties to collect and present data that can be transformed in an agreed manner, which leads to a cost-effective system [42].

Preidel et al. [43] describe CDE as a shared digital project space with well-defined access areas, status definitions, and strong workflows for collecting, evaluating, sharing, and approval procedures. A well-set common environment includes the incorporation of hardware and software that are able to gather data without having to duplicate information for better collaborative and communication management [44]. The idea of CDE has frequently been portrayed in BIM processes as being essential to effective communication and cooperation among relevant stakeholders [45]. According to Özkan and Seyis [15], in a BIM-based construction project, CDE is essential to create a centralized information system because of its capacity to make sure that all relevant parties have access to data and are able to gather and maintain documents properly. The CDE platform becomes the primary application for all procedures related to communication and decision-making when implemented effectively, which yields a positive impact to all team members across all stages of the project life cycle [12].

The CDE is a development of a strategy to ensure proper information sharing among parties involved, enhancing consistency in policy implementation and decision-making [46]. Rajamäki and Simola [47] asserted that a well-developed common information-sharing environment, which includes the integration of current technologies and allows the involvement of relevant parties, will ease exchanging of data. This collaborative system attempts to enable parties concerned to exchange data, information, simplify resources, and increase communication while eliminating funds duplications [48]. Thus, the study adopts the use of a CDE that brings together the team players in one place to share project information as agreed, ease communication and collaboration and updates process, and ease progress payment automatically. However, despite the important benefits of this platform in managing projects within the construction industry, participants are not embracing the full potentials of current technologies [49]. Thus, this study aims at developing a framework to maximize the full potential of using CDE by addressing the following objectives:

• To examine current knowledge and practice on BIMbased CDE.

• To identify opportunities in utilizing BIMbased CDE.

• To identify challenges in using BIMbased CDE.

• To develop a framework to enable the adoption and implementation of CDE to its full potential.

3. Material and Methods

The study evaluated the employment of building information modeling in a CDE using a two-phase approach. The contingency theory was adopted to ensure that suitable methods are used in selecting the right approaches for a proper review. This was to ensure that the gap for this study is clear so that a possible best solution is conceptualized. Phase 1 employed a bibliometric review to identify the contributors in the field and map the current themes. Phase 2 employed a systematic literature review with the aim of scoping, planning, screening, and selecting previous articles to draw conclusions on various viewpoints from different authors [50]. These articles were sourced primarily from Scopus and Web of Science databases as they are mainly used in information science and management [51]. The sourced articles were from the year 2019 to 2024.

Phase 1: A bibliometric review was contacted as an important tool in analyzing current trends, themes, and contributions toward a research field [52]. The review started with the identification of journal articles, conference papers, and books within the study field. These articles, papers, and books were sourced from Scopus and Web of Science. The database results were exported in a .csv file format for easy upload to the analyzing tools. The combination of Scopus and Web of Science database was recorded to be a comprehensive approach that covers a wide range of studies [53]. The results retrieved from the two databases were compared in order to identify duplicates. The duplicates included a comparison of study titles and study contents. The duplicates were removed, which left the Web of Science database with zero studies. The Scopus data were used to analyze the papers in one .csv file. The analysis for database is best done with analytical tools; thus, for this study, VOSviewer and ScienceScape were employed. The analysis presented descriptive graphics of the main contributors, keywords, and sources.

Phase 2: A systematic review was conducted for a rigorous analysis of the identified studies that adopted Prisma steps. The exclusion and inclusion criteria were adopted to ensure that only relevant studies were used [54]. This study included only articles that were written in English language. Moreover, the abstract of the included articles was read to ensure the paper suits the study field. Further, the introduction and conclusions were examined to confirm that the particular paper merges with the area of the study. The study used only the included papers for this review within the construction engineering industry. The review was conducted with the purpose of identifying the current themes and methods described in the studies. These themes and methods helped in identifying the existing challenges of utilizing BIM technology and proposing a possible solution for the maximum use of the model. Figure 1 presents the prism approach and analysis method used in this study.

[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]

Further, additional data for the challenges faced during BIM adoption and implementation in a real-time case study period was extended. The data included articles from 2013 to 2024 to explore any changes in the types of challenges and establish improvements. This was important in forecasting the possible best solutions for eliminating the challenges.

3.1. Retrieval and Screening of Data

The Scopus and Web of Science databases were used to retrieve journal articles, conference papers, and book chapters. The keywords BIM and CDE were used to search both databases. The results presented 306 documents from Scopus and 207 documents from the Web of Science. The search was defined to documents written in English in the construction engineering sector published between the years 2019 and 2024. The outcomes yielded 165 documents in Scopus and 83 in Web of Science. The data from both databases were exported to a .csv for further analysis. The data were compared to identify duplicates, and 83 documents were found to have similarities in their titles. The articles were further accessed, and their titles, authors, and affiliations were compared, as presented in Table 1. Additionally, the abstracts of the remaining articles were screened, and 165 articles were suitable and used for the bibliometric analysis.

Table 1

Comparing duplicates in Scopus and Web of Science databases.

Title Scopus	Authors	Affiliations	Title WoS	Authors	Affiliations
Coupling BIM and detailed Modelica simulations of HVAC systems in a common data environment	Visby Fjerbæk, Esbena, bSend mail to Visby Fjerbæk E.; Seidenschnur Mikkia, b; Kücükavci, Alia, c;Michael Smith, Kevina;Anker Hviid, Christiana	a Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmarkb Rambøll, Copenhagen, Denmarkc COWI, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark	Coupling BIM and detailed Modelica simulations of HVAC systems in a common data environment	Fjerbaek EV (Visby Fjerbaek, Esben) [1,2]; Seidenschnur M (Seidenschnur Mikki) [1,2],; Kuecuekavci A (Kuecuekavci Ali) [1,3]; Smith KM (Michael Smith, Kevin) [1]; Hviid, CA (Anker Hviid, Christian) [1]	1 Tech Univ Denmark, Dept Civil and Mech Engn, Lyngby, Denmark2 Ramboll, Copenhagen, Denmark arrow_drop_down3 COWI, Lyngby, Denmark
Distributed common data environment using blockchain and Interplanetary File System for secure BIM-based collaborative design	Tao, Xingyu;Das MoumitaSend mail to Das M.;Liu, Yuhan;Cheng, Jack C.P.	a Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong	Distributed common data environment using blockchain and Interplanetary File System for secure BIM-based collaborative design	Tao, XY (Tao, Xingyu) [1]; Das M (Das Moumita) [1]; Liu, YH (Liu, Yuhan) [1]; Cheng, JCP (Cheng, Jack C. P.) [1]	1 Hong Kong Univ Sci and Technol, Dept Civil and Environm Engn, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong, Peoples R China

3.2. Tools for Bibliometric Review

The graphics presentations and analysis of the bibliometric data were conducted using VOSviewer and ScienceScape. These two softwares are known for their accurate creation and visualization of networks in bibliometric mappings [53]. The 165 articles that were included for bibliometric analysis were uploaded into the two softwares. The outcomes of the graphics of the contributors and networks were created and presented in the results section of the study.

The study further adopted the three-step method for the development of the framework (empathy building, problem definition, and ideation) as introduced in the study of Wu et al. [55].

Step 1: Empathy building—this was developed by identifying the key performers involved in project progress payments, which are the client, consultant, and contractor. The processes and issues that are involved during the progress of payments among the key performers were discussed using relevant literature from the papers included. A CDE was developed using BIM as a proposed system to solve the underlying matters for progress payments.

Step 2: Problem definition—the first definition was “How can the techniques and processes of CDE fit in the current traditional procedures of processing progress payments.” The second definition was “How to develop an effective CDE framework based on the key features found in the literature reviewed to yield the best performance.”

Step 3: Ideation—the benefits of CDE in the process of progress payments were discussed to present workable solutions, elaborating on how this will eliminate the critical issues faced during the procedures of progress payments. The CDE framework was developed featuring the facilitators identified using the contingency theory of applying suitable inputs for an effective system to yield best-performing outputs.

4. Results

4.1. Bibliometric Review

This section presents the analysis and mapping of co-contributors and trends within the context of BIM CDE. The most commonly used keywords for BIM CDE are presented in Figure 2. The most used word is bim abbreviation in small letters and CDE.

[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]

4.1.1. Publications by Year

Building information modeling is known for its ability to bring teams together in a transparent common data platform. Analyzing the publications from 2019 to 2024 revealed a steadily increasing interest in the topic. Figure 3 shows that the topic of BIM CDE had 15 publications in 2019, 34 in 2021, and 37 in 2023. This increasing interest has drawn this study to investigate the current trends and challenges of maximizing BIM CDE adoption.

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4.1.2. The Relationship Between Authors, Keywords, and Journals

The relationship between authors, keywords, and journals is presented in Figure 4. Figure 4 displays the main authors, main keywords, and main journals from left to right, respectively. The 165 articles included in the study were retrieved from 30 sources. The top five sources with the most publications were Buildings (15 papers), Automation in Construction (11 papers), Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering (nine papers), and Applied Sciences (Switzerland).

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4.1.3. Network of Coauthor

The network of coauthors presents the main authors in the subject area and their connections. In this network, the occurrence of authors was set to one but only those who are connected to each other were included. The results yielded a threshold of 37 links among different authors, as demonstrated in Figure 5. The sizes of the bubbles beside the authors represent the volume of articles the authors published. The bubbles show that Pavan Alberto, Mirarchi Claudio, Daniotti Bruno, and Lupica Spagnolo Sonia are the leading contributors in the field.

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4.1.4. Network of Cocountry

Figure 6 shows the collaboration between countries in the subject area. The occurrence was set to one and included countries that are linked to one another only. The results yield 42 connected countries. The size of the bubble represents the volume of articles per country. The years the articles were published are differentiated in colors. The diagram shows that the United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, China, and Spain are the countries with the most articles and the main leaders in terms of number of publications in their networks.

[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]

4.1.5. Network of Keywords

The keywords give a representation of the emerging topics and themes in the area of BIM CDE. The keywords are mostly retrieved from articles’ keywords as written by the scholars and within the articles. The study included keywords that are closely related to BIM, CDE, and technology. This was to ensure a lot of unnecessary words do not appear in the network. The network in Figure 7 shows that BIM and CDE are currently used with digital twins and blockchain.

[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]

5. Discussions

5.1. Current Knowledge and Practice on the Use of CDE to Manage Contractors’ Progress Payments

The current knowledge has developed from different themes on the topic of BIM CDE. The first theme discusses the use of BIM in the construction engineering industry. The second theme is on the adoption of BIM in construction engineering projects. The third theme is establishing the opportunities of BIM in a CDE. The fourth theme accesses the challenges faced in the adoption and implementation of BIMbased CDE. The fifth theme developed a framework on the uses of BIMbased CDE.

5.2. The Uses of BIM

BIM is a model that works well in designing and creating a workflow for a particular project from the design phase to closeout while providing a platform for information sharing that can be accessed by multiple stakeholders in a CDE system [56]. There are existing efforts of BIM implementation that standardize the CDE processes to enhance its full functionality of maintaining cost, quality, and time [57]. BIM designs a plan that enhances digital communication, which governs the kind and amount of information shared among team members [58]. The technique of commencing information management in the early phase using BIM has become a partial solution to collecting information challenges during the design and implementation stages [59]. BIM is a method of bringing all the project’s information together, from the client’s initial concept through the architectural, structural, and detailed design phases, and finally to the construction phase [60].

Seyis and Özkan [61] emphasized that implementing BIM during the design stage enhances the projects during the construction phase by promoting a smooth data transfer and creating an easy platform to use throughout the operations. De Sa and Alfaro [58] asserted that the system can generate bill of quantities, bid estimates, and bid submissions using the BIMbased model. Furthermore, the client’s agent imports BIM models that include the attributes of the building items explicitly specified and technical requirements at the initial phase [62]. Banerjee and Nayaka [63] concurred that any project can employ a BIMbased system for the management of cost, scheduling, inventory, and quality control. Furthermore, BIM has the ability to provide information transparently between parties to improve collaboration [64].

BIM can create a platform that enables multiple disciples to collaborate within the same ecosystem, meeting clients’ expectations by integrating inputs [58]. In addition to that, BIM enables diverse project team members to work together on a single integrated model to enhance knowledge sharing [65]. According to Li and Kassem [66], in a BIMbased project, actual construction operations data can be linked to the payment system to update the progress of the next transaction automatically. Furthermore, the BIM model for information management allows clients to manage inspections, modification, and confirmation of data at closeout [67]. The immutable payment data can be presented at this phase that was accumulated throughout the project of progress payments processed, which avoids the difficulties of gathering historical cost data manually [68].

The management of information, communication, and collaboration using BIM is demonstrated in Figure 8. BIM CDE can start the planning of the project activities from the design stage to the project closeout.

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Planning phase: the client and consultant work together to transform the client’s idea or proposal into designs, produce a project estimate, plan the entire project, and appoint a contractor. The employment of BIM automates the designs and planning and creates an information management system. The system then facilitates the automation of project value and sets progress payments in advance. At this stage, the model is established, relevant parties are appointed, and trained under the supervision of the quality assurance team.

Construction phase: the client, consultant, and contractor, including subcontractors, work together to ensure information is managed appropriately. The use of BIM CDE ensures that information is transmitted, received, shared, stored, updates data, data is transparent, communicates, updates progress and changes. These further updates payment dates and amounts and automates progress payments transactions.

Close-out phase: BIM retrieves data, steers the compilation, and inspection of information and documents for final project approval. Then, retrieve the immutable payment transactions and estimate the final payment upon project approval.

5.3. The Adoption of BIM Technologies

To ensure the adoption and utilization of BIMbased CDE technology adoption models (TAMs) should be in place, namely, TAM and innovation diffusion theory (IDT).

The TAM has perceived several factors to influence and drive the adoption of technology in the construction industry. The most perceived factor is developing and providing policies. The policy sets the grounds that create the perceived possibility to adopt as it provides clear descriptions, standards, and guidelines [69]. Training has been seen as a second important factor that should be made compulsory to propel the adoption of technology [70]. The third perceived important factor is support from the government, clients, top management, and technical team. The support from upper authorities will push the adoption and use of technology as it brings the inputs needed to motivate participants [69, 71]. The fourth factor that was perceived as the least to propel the adoption of technology is ensuring good quality in the technology. It is important to make sure the technology is built to its full potential to perform the set work [72].

The IDT has perceived a few factors as important in considering adopting and utilizing technology in the construction industry. The theory believes that training and policy development can easily drive the use of technology. The most perceived important factor is training as it is believed that it drives behavior and attitude positively, helps in overcoming complexity, and encourages collaboration. Moreover, the implementation of training is an important activity that simplifies the use of technology and eases the perceived complexity [73]. According to Pinho et al. [74], to change the participants’ behavior toward the use of technology, training should be provided to stimulate the ease of use and eliminate resistance, which will improve collaboration. Moreover, training has been perceived as a tool of behavior control toward adoption among participants as it drives ease of use and collaboration [75]. In addition, adoption of technology can be measured by training availabilities which makes the tools usable by participants [76].

The second perceived factor is policy, as it is believed that it provides strategies, ideas, guidelines, and structures in using technology. Government policy should be provided and presents regulations to strengthen and guide the adoption of technology that is competitive [77]. Further, technology adoption can be improved by providing policy that will aid in influencing implementation [78]. Additionally, the perceived use of technology can be increased by initiating policies that will bring ideas to ease the use of the applications [79]. Xiang and Guo [75] asserted that it is crucial to promote policy in technology adoption that will develop a structure that will influence attitude and collaboration. Roy et al. [76] concluded that policy provision improves participation toward technology adoption by presenting strategies and motivating factors.

5.4. The Opportunities of a CDE

The CDE provides the realtime status of a project through managing information, communication, collaboration, and updating data, including additional orders that push the process of progress payment [15]. The following subsection discusses the opportunities of a BIMbased CDE in information management, communication, collaboration, quality information, transparency, and payment.

5.4.1. Information Management

CDE system for information management enhances asset management, data and document transmission, and visualization throughout the whole project cycle [80]. CDE can manage information by gathering, organizing, and disseminating data through a predetermined structure [81]. The CDE is essential to project information management because it facilitates information sharing and management procedures that guarantee the timely and economical completion of projects [82]. CDE information management methods develop data formats and standards to promote the reduction of time and costs from collaborating data [57]. Senthilvel and Beetz [83] opined that through the connection of information and documents, the CDE operates as a set of open data exchange between various parties to efficiently solve practical elements of data management.

5.4.2. Communication Management

The development of the CDE allows for flexibility in the structure of a communication plan, making it easier for parties to communicate with one another [56]. CDE platform is an environment in which parties involved can coordinate and communicate together in order to prevent data or document duplication [84]. The idea of CDE has frequently been portrayed in BIM processes as being essential to effective communication and cooperation among relevant stakeholders [45]. The CDE platform enhances the communication between clients, consultants, and contractors according to the planned format [85]. Vlasák and Čerbák [85] asserted that in a common environment, the client, consultant, and the contactor work in a three-way communication system where performance is determined by the inputs. According to Özkan and Seyis [15], by offering centralized communication that facilitates correct information sharing and management among all stakeholders, the CDE improves effective collaboration.

5.4.3. Collaboration

The foundation of the BIMbased information management process in CDE presents all needed data in a sole source of truth, that promotes smooth data sharing, and enables ongoing collaboration [86]. The CDE allows for the appropriate and effective collaboration of collective project information in a common platform while avoiding redundancies [82]. CDE offers a chance to improve collaboration and productivity when managing project information, facilitating data sharing, and performance [87]. The platform was established as a set of data for any type of project that demands collaboration and information sharing among different participants [45]. The CDE system connects project data to monitor work progress, validate incoming data, and record all activities undertaken by the participants to improve collaboration [84].

5.4.4. Quality Information

CDE enhances the reliability, integrity, and quality of data on materials used, the work completed, and other validated information [88]. The BIMbased CDE creates safe digital partnerships to guarantee information quality control in construction projects [89]. The environment can act as a generator of data that is trusted with the potential to facilitate the performance of a payment process that is immutable [41]. The platform authorizes traceable, high-quality information regarding the ongoing work elements’ procedures [90].

5.4.5. Transparency

CDE is a reliable platform that connects parties of the same interest who shares appropriate data, which is distributed transparently [86]. The CDE platform is developed to enhance the automation of payment claim processes that are traceable and transparent [12]. According to Abegaz [91], using the CDE is crucial for fostering confidence and guaranteeing strong data protection in a safe way that promotes transparency. Jaskula et al. [86] asserted that through the provision of an unchangeable and visible project history, the CDE mitigates disagreements and guarantees a fair and impartial environment for all parties concerned. Seyis and Özkan [61] emphasized that the platform encourages data transfer transparency since it enhances the efficacy of information management, which raises client satisfaction.

5.4.6. Payment

CDE is a tool for managing contracts that evaluates requests, modifications, variations, claims, progress payments, tenders, bids, and offers [15]. CDE makes it possible to follow recorded data, which allows payment transactions to be communicated through the platform with all parties [92]. The CDE system provides immutable data storage, encouraging a trustworthy collaborative environment in which parties can share information that drives payments and proofs for disputes [89]. According to Parn and Edwards [93], sensitive digital data can be shared in the CDE environment to validate and sustain a competitive payment process that results in transactions that can be tracked. The BIMbased CDE creates a system that uses data monitoring to automate the payment process for interim claims management [89]. Ye et al. [94] emphasized that automation of the claim acceptance process between the contractor and the client is facilitated by CDE, which manages and maintains all payment-related files and documentation. The CDE enhances the speed, security, traceability, and immutability of payment execution [41]. The system is a shared data environment that is used to automate payments between the contractor and the client [90].

5.5. Challenges in Implementing CDE for Managing Contractors’ Progress Payment

The recent case studies have presented the current challenges in the implementation of BIMbased CDE projects in the construction industry. Migilinskas et al. [95] found that participants were not interested in using BIM as they were not competent in using the model due to a lack of training. Furthermore, Kassem et al. [96] discovered that the participants were not trained on the model and assumed that they can use the knowledge of the tools they were using to operate the model, which did not yield positive results. Additionally, since there was no training, the participants were not aware of the need to migrate from the current method to utilizing the BIM model [97]. The set project managers lack skills in BIM management and collaboration, thus fail to persuade the participants in using the system [98]. The design team failed to design and work together due to the fact that they were not trained and did not know how to use the platform [99]. Lin et al. [100] reported that the participants were having difficulties in operating the model and were not updating construction information; thus, missing nongeometric information in the BIM models, and no hardcopy documents were transferred to the model.

Additionally, in this project the participants were not sure of how to conduct the implementation as rules and standards were not provided [95]. The interference of the mediator was not available; thus, the different groups will work on their own data and update it on the system once completed, and this created an opportunity for inadequate collaboration and communication, thus increasing production cost [101]. Lin et al. [100] reported that the system was failing to operate because there was no BIM manager employed in this project, and a facility manager engineer was appointed to help with BIM management but did not have the time to do so. Kerosuo et al. [99] emphasized that due to the absence of mediating managers, the participants could not receive communication and progress from the site because the contractor and sub-contractor could not operate the model and end up doing some work without the designs. On another project, the models have shown that there might be errors in it as it was failing to work properly, and designers were not willing to share information with the contractors, this was because there were no facilitators [102].

Project managers were having difficulties to manage the process according to the model as they were not fully equipped, and the client focused on relying on the BIM managers who were not serving in the knowledge of the construction operations [103]. This indicates a lack of support for the participants to persuade them in utilizing the system [98]. Thus, participants were having difficulties in collaborating and communicating because of a lack of training and facilitation from the BIM manager and project manager [96]. There is a lack of interface communication, and it is not clear who is responsible for what and there was no guidance [104]. Thus, it became hard for the participants to operate the model because they were not sure on how to operate the model, and there was no facilitation from the BIM manager and the project manager [95].

Furthermore, in this project, the model was not developed in such a way that it will accomplish the desired objectives [96]. The platform struggled to work as it was not compatible with the technical system needed for mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems, and it was comparatively hard to manage within the BIM environment due to their type of deliverables, high coordination interdependencies, and scales in the design and construction phase [98]. The model was having problems in sending information, maybe because the BIM manager did not ensure that the tool worked effectively after building it and was absent during operations [104]. Sattineni and Macdonald [102] asserted that the model was not accurately built and was not sufficient to extract accurate quantities for cost estimates. Since the platform was not developed properly, and some project elements were missing, there was incompetency when developing the bill of quantities for the project [105]. A BIM manager was employed, but he was not competent and still strangled to get the tools to work together which consumed time [99].

5.6. Developing a CDE Framework

The CDE serves as the foundation for the methodology, which is derived from its concept of using technologies to promote connection among relevant team members across the project’s lifecycle [106]. The CDE encourages stakeholders to work together to manage, share, and transform information all-round the project lifecycle [93]. According to Wysel et al. [107], data-sharing platforms, which explain the process of taking information as an input and producing value as an output, are common data management techniques that create value from data.

Several studies have developed frameworks on how to use CDE for progress payments. Tao et al. [89] designed a BIM model integrating blockchain to create immutable transactions while using IPFS (Interplanetary File System) as data storage. The study demonstrated that the platform would let parties work together to ensure the quality of data is shared, which cannot be manipulated by a certain party. By doing so, the data shared will automatically update the process for progress payments. Nguyen et al. [108] demonstrated the use of BIM QTO (Quantity Take-Off), proving bill of quantities, setting progress payments at the design stage, and updating information during the process of a project. The framework was built to enhance automated cost estimation through the extraction of bill of quantities from the information inserted during the design stage. The model is developed in a way that will maintain accurate and reliable information to update the project process in the system. Doing so, the amount of progress payment can be set using the percentage agreed upon.

Sigalov et al. [41] designed a collaborative system using BIMcontracts in a CDE to automate progress payments. The system is developed in a way that all data needed can be collected and approved in the model and transferred to smart contracts to update payments at intervals. This creates security regarding transactions and presents transparency on the payments. Ye et al. [94] demonstrated how the system works in providing bill of quantities, set and automate payments using BIM and blockchain in a collaborative CDE. The information needed for payments is collected from the BIM model extracted from the bill of quantities to create a billing model. The billing model is then connected to a smart contract to automatically update and set the next payment. Sarkar et al. [109] designed an integration of BIM-IoT (Internet of Things) and blockchain to receive information from sites and automate contactors’ payments through Smart Contracts. Project data can be collected in a logical manner in realtime to BIM using IoT. Then, the data can be extracted from BIM to blockchain to create a transparent payment system. Ye and König [110] linked the BIM Contract Container with Smart Contract using Blockchain technology to ensure automated payment management. Data drop is used to link BIM Contract Container data as an information container. BIM Contract Container, billing unit, and Smart Contract connect together to tricker the automation of payments.

5.6.1. Limitations of the Study

The implementation of CDE is affected by challenges faced during adoption and improper use of its technologies in real-time projects [86]. Soman and Whyte [111] concluded that users circumvent procedures in order to hasten work when they find it difficult to use the CDE for organized information sharing. Though several studies have developed frameworks on the processes and use of CDE, there are still issues in maximizing the full implementation. From the literature reviewed, two conclusions were drawn on the limitations of this study, as presented below:

Conclusion 1: To address the issues preventing a successful adoption and implementation of the technologies, training, policy, facilitators, and quality technology should be ensured for both events to ensure the system can work effectively to produce the best results.

Conclusion 2: To develop an effective CDE that will ensure adequate information management, proper communication, collaboration, and transparency, which will ease decision-making and update the payment process timely, without conflict, the following factors should be employed: training, policy, quality assurance team, and quality in technology.

From these conclusions, contingency theory has been merged as the most suitable in developing factors that will enhance the adoption and implementation of CDE effectively. Thus, the study adopts the utilization of contingency theory to ensure that an effective system is implemented.

5.6.2. Contingency Theory

The developing environment of contingency theory describes open systems that interact with their surroundings, including tools, knowledge, and activities that transform project information inputs into desired outputs [112]. The contingency theory provides explanations for how external elements like technology, culture, and environment influence the structure and operations of an organization [113]. The systems that make up the structure have relationships between two variables, and the impact of one variable on the other depends on a third variable, such as communication, facilitator, or mediator [112]. Shao et al. [114] asserted that in contingency theory, there is no ideal method to execute a system that results in optimum performance; rather, system efficiency is attained through a variety of internal and external conditions and settings. Contingency theory identifies particular features of a system that are connected to predetermined situations and shows a suitable fit [115].

The degree to which the organization’s information system, type of technology, and structure align with one another determines how effective the organization will be [113]. Loukis et al. [116] asserted that maximum performance results from adopting proper values of some structural factors that match the situation. Lin and Wang [117] emphasized that using contingency theory facilitates the categorization of both internal and external elements that may have an impact on the effectiveness of an information system. According to contingency theory, for a system to function effectively, information processing, context, and structure need to be reasonably compatible [118].

The following factors are proposed in relation to drive the implementation of BIMbased CDE applying influencing variables: proving training, policy development, employing quality assurance team, and the use of tools to achieve quality. These factors were identified from the case studies discussed under challenges for implementing CDE.

5.6.2.1. Providing Training

Training on technology at fundamental and advanced levels creates a curriculum that has been designed to strengthen digital competencies in the real world [119]. Technology training forms teamwork skills and eases interaction among participants which makes it easy for team members to exchange information [120]. Through training on technology, individuals are encouraged to learn more and are inclined to share their expertise with coworkers [121]. The training programs implemented can be used to measure and compare the difference between traditional and integrating tools performance [122]. The attitudes of parties toward the use of technology successfully can be ensured through training [123].

From the above, it may be observed that training develops skills among parties, builds teamwork, and the habit of sharing information among coworkers is strengthened. Further, training strengthens digital competencies and creates an attitude to perceive technology as useful.

5.6.2.2. Policy Development

Technology policy planning is viewed as a miscellaneous occurrence aimed at influencing team members to integrate the tools [124]. The policies offer a justification, a vision, and guidance for integrating technology into activities, which motivates team players to use the tools efficiently [125]. Metfula and Chigona [126] asserted that technology-based policy demonstrates comprehension of the idea of a development that is compatible with modernity and enhances competitiveness. Further, policy on technology analysis can be carried out by using appropriate standards and techniques that support the tool’s efficient use and result in notable advancements [127]. According to Helberger et al. [128], to be effective, policies ought to be provided that give the parties a framework for understanding their respective roles.

The above shows that policy development influences and provides guidance on technology adoption, enhances competitiveness, presents standards for the tools, and provides parties’ responsibilities.

5.6.2.3. Employment of Quality Assurance Team

The quality assurance team should include both the project manager—to ensure that all participants can do their work using the technology and the BIM manager—to ensure that the model is installed and the parties are trained and can use the system [129]. The project manager endures the responsibility of guaranteeing the implementation of innovative technologies to sustain its usefulness [130]. Team players are more motivated to participate in significant context activities and improve collaboration when quality is assured through training and the use of the latest technologies [131]. Technology innovation can be achieved through the process of implementing technologies into procedures through quality management principles to perform the tasks [132]. The quality assurance team ensures automation without losing control on technology operations to closely collaborate and achieve the continuous process, monitoring, and performance of the application [133].

The above revealed that employment of a quality assurance team in the use of technology sustains competitive advantage through the involvement of a project manager and BIM manager to ensure the model performs best. Additionally, the managers will ensure that all parties are participating accordingly and build the technology to its full potential.

5.6.2.4. Quality Technologies

The promotion of quality in technology innovation projects serves as solutions to maintain system efficiency and high quality despite growing demands [134]. The perceived usefulness of technologies enhances the models’ quality and speed in terms of implementing computing infrastructure, which can solve difficulties [135]. The use of technology can enhance the adoption of collective tools, counting on the opportunities they present when built to perform the work according to its abilities [136]. The use of various simulation technologies has been stated to raise the quality of construction and decrease the complexity of information sharing and communication between relevant team players, thus driving adoption [137].

From the above, it can be discovered that ensuring quality in technologies can be done by building the technology to its ability to perform the works and continuously maintained to sustain the tool’s efficiency. Further, the system should be able to make informed decisions among team members and decrease the complexity in information sharing and communication management.

Figure 9 demonstrates the effectiveness of including facilitation when building a CDE platform to enhance the best performance. The demonstration shows that when training, policy, quality assurance team, and quality technologies are implemented, the best-expected outputs can be achieved. By doing these, an effective, efficient payment system can be ensured. An effective, efficient payment system must be smooth, delivered on time, sharing information without conflict, and in a transparent manner.

[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]

According to Figure 9, a BIMbased CDE will make project information management central to all members involved. Table 2 presents the variables describing the codes used in Figure 9. The members, which include client, consultant, contractor, and subcontractor, will work together in a collaborative platform. The collaboration between the members involved will improve information and communication management. This system will be efficient and effective when factors such as training, policy, quality assurance teams, and quality in technology are employed. These factors will help the information management to flow smoothly, which will propel the payment process. Thus, making the process of progress payments transparent, secured, immutable, and automated. Furthermore, to ensure that the CDE is used in projects by small and medium enterprises, clients should make it an initiative from the design stage and throughout the construction process that CDE is used by providing the tools needed [138]. According to Lindblad and Guerrero [139], the client is an important influencer in driving innovation in construction projects to promote the adoption of technology among consultants and contractors. This will give the contractors the benefit of acquiring experience in implementing CDE and increase their interest in adopting the system. Ahankoob et al. [140] found that implementing BIM CDE in projects increased the knowledge of the potentials of the model and improved the willingness to use the technology.

Table 2

Factors of the CDE implementation.

Factors	Codes	Variables	Sources
Training	TNG001	Enhance CDE-based skills	[120]
	TNG002	Strengthens team players’ competency in CDE	[119]
	TNG003	Encourages a habit for skills sharing among other workers	[121]
	TNG004	Build teamwork on implementing CDE	[123]
	TNG005	Build the attitude to perceive CDE useful	[122]
Policy	PLC001	Provides standards on the use of CDE	[127]
	PLC002	Provides guidelines on implementing CDE	[125]
	PLC003	Presents the CDE’s usefulness	[126]
	PLC004	Provide clarity on the parties’ responsibilities	[128]
Quality assurance team	QAT001	Involves a project manager for the CDE project	[129]
	QAT002	Appoints CDE-based manager for activities	[130]
	QAT003	Ensures the involvement of all parties selected	[131]
	QAT004	Ensure the CDE adopted can perform the required job	[132]
	QAT005	Ensure the CDE is built to its full potential	[133]
Quality in technology	QTG001	Built to its full ability to perform the job	[136]
	QTG002	Regularly maintained as required to ensure its efficiency	[134]
	QTG003	Reduces the complexity in information management	[137]
	QTG004	Build adequacy in communication management	[137]

6. Conclusion

The management of monies is important to ensure that the project can be completed within budget. When money is managed well, the funds to make progress payments will be available as needed. The process of progress payment is often delayed due to difficulties in information and communication management, encounter conflicts resulting from lack of collaboration, and corruption activities. The progress payments process will be effective and efficient when information is shared on time and the communication path is clear and easy. Moreover, the process will be smooth when there is no conflict, and there is a transparent collaboration. Nevertheless, an opportunity has been presented by a BIMbased environment that creates a transparent common data management platform that smoothens information sharing, eases communication and collaboration, and thus makes the process of progress payment effective. That is because CDE is a well-set-up digital space with defined areas, procedures, and workflows and can update information as inserted in the system. This environment creates a platform that includes hardware and software that can collect, evaluate, share, and make decisions. The platform can easily avoid data duplication through its capacity to conduct proper and relevant investigations, and thus, this creates a transparent environment that allows every party involved to see the latest project updates. The CDE further creates a centralized system that ensures all parties can input and access information as per set protocols. The inputs can include project documents, drawings, variation orders, instructions, material invoices, and any changes agreed on as needed.

A bibliometric review conducted in this study showed a growing interest of BIM CDE in the construction engineering industry. The studies have shown the abilities of BIM in managing information, communication, collaboration, and payments process in a transparent platform. It was observed that the main countries with the highest publications and linked to one another were the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, China, and Spain. The studies integrated the topics of digital twin and blockchain in the BIMbased CDE. Furthermore, a systematic review was conducted and found that the studies presented frameworks to show that when BIMbased CDE is implemented, the progress payment system can be automated and smooth. Additionally, it has been observed that TAMs such as TAM and IDT have been recommended for the adoption of BIM platforms. However, realtime case studies in a span of 10 years have been evaluated, and there were continuous challenges that are similar. The challenges pertain to a lack of training and policies, the absence of facilitators for the model and the participants, and the model was often not built properly to perform the work. This study has conceptualized a framework showing the process of using BIM in a CDE platform and propelling the participants to utilize the system. The study further demonstrated with a diagram that to successfully adopt and implement the system, factors such as providing training, policy, appointing a quality assurance team and ensuring quality technology should be employed. In doing so, the participants will operate smoothly together within the CDE platform, and thus, this will yield an effective and efficient payment system.

7. Study Implications

From the literature review, it has been observed that the use of current tools like BIM is essential in easing the management and sharing of project information and communication. Additionally, BIM can be used by professionals in the construction engineering industry to create a CDE platform to ease collaboration, build trust among participants, and automate the progress payment process in a transparent manner. Further, the employment of training, policy, quality assurance team, and quality technology make the system work properly. A proper working CDE will drive the sharing of quality information and timely updates of progress payment data within a process that is transparent and free of conflict. This will make the payment system effective and efficient, which will eliminate late transactions of progress payments. This study is important to the construction industry, scholars, and policymakers in maximizing the utilization of BIMbased CDE. Further, the study is paramount to clients in propelling and promoting CDE innovation among small and medium contractors.

8. Recommendations

This study has identified a gap in the adoption and implementation of BIMbased platforms. Several frameworks have been developed on the uses and processes of BIMbased CDE. However, there are challenges in the implementation of BIM CDE. From the literature review, it can be observed that training develops skills among stakeholders, builds teamwork and a habit of sharing information. Further, the training strengthens digital competencies and encourages the trained team to train other workers in the industry. Further, policy development influences and provides guidance on CDE adoption, enhances competitiveness, presents the efficiency of technologies, and stimulates financial resource allocation for CDE adoption. Moreover, the employment of a quality assurance team in CDE sustains competitive advantage; team members discover the significance in using the tools and improve collaboration, enhance communication, and maintain control in operations. Lastly, it can be discovered that technologies can be used to achieve quality in operations as they provide solutions that maintain system efficiency, solve difficult challenges, make informed decisions among team members, and decrease the complexity of information sharing and communication. This study has developed a conceptual framework demonstrating ways to maximize the full potential of CDE. These ways include the provision of training, policy, quality assurance teams, and quality technology. Thus, this study suggests further research in realtime case studies to validate the following:

Training has a significant effect on CDE adoption.

Policy development has a significant effect on CDE adoption.

The employment of a quality assurance team has a significant effect on CDE adoption.

The use of quality technology has a significant effect on CDE performance.

Acknowledgments

The work is supported and part of collaborative research at the Centre of Applied Research and Innovation in the Built Environment (CARINBE).

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