Establishing the Authorship of Two Wooden Icons From the Museikon Collection, Alba Iulia

Abstract

This study sought to obtain information regarding the authorship of two old wooden icons from the “Museikon” collection, a museum dedicated to icons located in the historical city of Alba Iulia. The stylistic and theological analyses indicated a possible author; to support this hypothesis, nondestructive physicochemical investigations were carried out, which were compared with those carried out on an icon with a known author (signed icon) located in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum in Cluj-Napoca. The nondestructive physical–chemical analyses performed, using energy-dispersive x-ray fluorescence and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, provided information about the materials used to create the works of art. The results indicated the use of similar materials and techniques for the creation of works of art: gold leaf, cinnabar, copper green, lead white, iron red, umber, carbon black—used as pigments, and egg yolk—used as the binder in the tempera technique (and probably, linseed oil, constituting a variation known as tempera grassa) are the common materials observed. The omnipresence of white lead applied over the ground and the brown lead color suggests the appearance of plattnerite as a degradation product, which strengthens the connection between the icons. Thus, the physical–chemical investigations support the hypothesis of the common author (Grigore Ranite) suggested by the theological and stylistic analysis.

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

1. Introduction

The icon represents a very important spiritual artifact in the Christian Orthodox cult. The word comes from the old Greek language, and it signifies the image or representation of someone (or an event for Christian iconography). It is important to note that the icon importance stems not from its material properties but from its connection with the person or event it depicts. The worshiping is directed toward what it symbolizes and not toward the object itself. The icon is a means to establish a relation with its prototype. A secondary historical role of the icon was to graphically transmit information for people who could not read, depicting scenes important to the Christian Orthodox cult.

The three wooden icons subjected to investigations come from different collections. The icon of the Mother of God with the Child (Figure 1) belongs to the icon collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Cluj and comes from the parish of Tritenii de jos, Cluj county. The icon is signed and dated: “this holy icon was painted by Grigorie the painter [?] Craiova 1764.” The icons Birth of the Mother of God and Resurrection of the Lord belong to the Museikon collection from Alba Iulia (Figures 2 and 3). Based on the stylistic analysis, they are also being considered works of the painter Grigore Ranite from Craiova [1].

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The differences related to the size of the icons and the different decoration are given by the types of icons and their role in the cult. The icon of the Mother of God with the Child is an imperial icon, and the icons of the Birth of the Mother of God and the Resurrection of Christ are icons from the second register of the iconostasis (altarpiece).

The Orthodox altarpiece or iconostasis is a wall that separates the nave—the largest area of the church, where the faithful attend the church service, from the altar—a space reserved for the access of priests and clerical hierarchy. Access can be made through the side doors that are used by the deacons or sometimes laic people—being named deacon’s doors. Access can also be made through the larger central door, used only by the priests, hierarchs, and the emperor—thus being named the imperial doors or gates. The Byzantine emperor was considered to be anointed by God; therefore, he was granted access to the most sacred place of the church.

The altarpiece was usually made from wood in the historical Romanian Orthodox churches from the period the studied icons were manufactured, the same for the imperial doors. The richly decorated imperial doors (with carvings and smaller icons) are flanked by the imperial icons. The imperial icons are larger than other icons and more richly decorated, and are positioned either side to the main entrance doors to the altar. They represent the first level of the iconostasis, and the faithful can approach these icons to worship, being possible to touch them. Because of this, old icons in churches are now being protected behind glass for conservation purposes (and it can also explain the contamination visible before the restoration and the apparent wear of the Mother of God with the Child imperial icon). The Mother of God with the Child imperial icon is canonically positioned to the left of the imperial doors (the central entrance to the Altar) in Orthodox churches.

The icons in the second register above the imperial doors are smaller in size. There are 12 such icons in Orthodox churches and they represent, chronologically from left to right, the most important scenes of the New Testament, at the same time being the biggest Christian holidays. The icons Birth of the Mother of God and Resurrection of Christ belong to this register. More icon registers can be positioned above, having specific themes.

The icon of the Mother of God with the Child is from an iconographic point of view included in the “Hodighitria” (“The Guide”) canon. The Holy Virgin Mary is represented sitting on the throne, holding the Baby Jesus Christ with her left arm and pointing to Him with her right hand. This gesture with the hand slightly raised, held to the chest, also signifies the prayer of the Mother of God to Him. She has her hair tied up in a fine dark cloth and is dressed in a dark himation with golden collar and cuffs, and over the himation, she wears a light red maphorion. The maphorion is richly decorated with plant elements rendered in gold. On his head, she wears a golden crown adorned with precious stones. The Mother of God has golden shoes and rests her feet on a red slab. The baby Jesus is represented dressed in a golden tunic, with the collar bordered with a decorated band. The Savior blesses with his right hand. The faces of the Child and His Mother express peace and kindness. The throne on which the Holy Virgin sits is golden, richly decorated with plant elements, having an intense red pillow and a dark one, both of which are embellished with decorated golden bands. On the throne, two boxes are painted in red, in which the author Grigore Ranite wrote down in gold the text of the icon’s signature and execution date. The golden background of the scene highlights the group of the Holy Virgin Mary with the Child, as well as the presence of the Holy Archangels Michael and Gabriel behind the throne, on one side and on the other.

The icon Birth of the Mother of God (Figure 2) is the illustration of the holiday celebrated on September 8, the first holiday of the church year, starting on September 1, as established by the Church from ancient times. The painter created a composition in three registers, in which he illustrated different episodes of the event of the birth of the Mother of God, the iconographic representation of the scene, thus having an obvious narrative character. In the centered register, which is also the largest, Saint Anne, the mother of the Blessed Virgin Mary is represented seated on a bed, an element indicating that she has recently given birth, and in front of her, a group of two young women and a woman bring dishes with food. St. Anne conducts a gestural dialog with the group of young women. In the register at the base of the stage, next to Saint Anne’s bed, a young woman prepares the crib in which the infant Saint Mary is placed. In the upper register is Saint Joachim, the father of the Mother of God, represented with his right hand hidden under the garment and raised to his mouth as a sign of wonder. In the background of the scene, there are buildings with architecture typical of the Byzantine painting tradition, done in vivid colors, which stand out against the background gilded with gold leaf. The earth is rendered in dark green, in beautiful contrast to the shades of light red with which some garments, draperies, and architectural elements are painted. The bluish gray of some compositional elements is balanced by the contrasting presence of warm ocher, tinted toward orange, in the case of other elements. The colors used by the painter of the icon adequately emphasize the significance of this joyous holiday.

In the Resurrection of Jesus Christ icon (Figure 3), the Savior is represented in a mandorla with light red gradients on the central axis of the scene, in the foreground, at the intersection of the diagonals of the composition. The mandorla is an almond-shaped aureola, which surrounds not only the head but the entire iconographic figure from an icon (in this case Jesus Christ, but in Christian iconography, Virgin Mary can also be represented in a mandorla). The mandorla from this icon is comprised of three concentric red color bands, clearly visible at the top and bottom levels. White lines are crossing the mandorla bands outward as if radiating light from Jesus Christ. The mandorla representation is reserved to depict sacred moments for Christianity like the Resurrection or Transfiguration of Jesus Christ. The Lord Jesus Christ pulls the progenitors of humans Adam and Eve to Him, plucking them from the darkness of hell and placing them next to Himself. Adam and Eve, sitting with one knee on the ground, pointing with their hand to Christ in a sign of glory, look toward Him. The Savior wears a golden mantle (large areas of it being degraded/exfoliated with the surviving parts around the left arm), symbol of His glory, which now covers the dark red garment, symbol of His passion. In the background of the iconographic scene, crowds of people are painted rejoicing and celebrating the resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ. To the right of the Savior, as if withdrawn a little behind the mandorla, is the Holy Prophet John the Baptist, the last of the series of prophets of the Old Testament, and next to him are the Holy Prophets David and Solomon. Numerous other faces are behind them and on the other side of Christ. The upper part of the icon is gilded with gold leaf. The colors used are vivid, but the scene representation is more austere compared to the other two icons. Besides Jesus Christ golden mantle, the only adornments are present on the clothing and crowns of the kings David and Solomon.

In addition to the stylistic and theological analysis of the three icons, the research methodology was enriched by using scientific investigation methods to compare the icons by providing information about the pigments, binders, and technique used for their manufacture. The investigations were performed using nondestructive methods in situ at the Museums hosting these objects of cultural heritage. The aim of this research is to provide evidence regarding the hypothesis that Grigore Ranite, the author who signed one of the icons, might be the author of the two other icons attributed to him.

2. Materials and Methods

Nondestructive analyses were performed using portable devices by approaching them to the paintings. These noninvasive methods were chosen because of restrictions over taking samples and were previously used for investigations [2–8].

2.1. Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)

Nondestructive XRF elemental analysis was performed with a handheld Bruker spectrometer, S1 TITAN series (EDXRF) configured with a silicon diode PIN detector (SiPIN), Rh target x-ray tube with a maximum voltage of 50 kV, 9-μA current intensity, and 60-s analysis time. The software used was Bruker S1 Data Tool.

2.2. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) Reflectance Spectroscopy

FTIR reflectance spectroscopy was performed using a tripod mounted Bruker Alpha II device with a contactless forward-looking reflection unit specialized for paintings, spectral domain 400–4000 cm⁻¹, resolution 2 cm⁻¹, using 100 scans. The software used was OPUS IR software. Basic atmospheric compensation was performed (CO₂ and H₂O peak compensation), and absorbance was selected as the output spectrum type (pseudoabsorbance, automatically converted by the software).

3. Results and Discussion

The investigations were carried out before the restoration process of the “Mother of God with the Child” icon from the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Cluj. They offered valuable information about the materials used by the painter and subsequent interventions made to the work of art, which were later used during the cleaning and restoration process. The other two icons belonging to the Museikon collection from Alba Iulia have already been restored when the investigations were made.

3.1. XRF Investigations

3.1.1. XRF Results for the Mother of God With the Child Icon

The skin color (Area 1, Table 1) was obtained using a consistent layer of white lead. White lead was a common pigment, offering “excellent light fastness and its rapid drying capabilities when used in combination with an oil” (Fortunato, Ritter, and Fabian) [9]. A small quantity of iron and traces of mercury suggest that iron red and mercury red (cinnabar) were used to obtain the skin color visible reddish hue (more pronounced around the cheeks). The traces of copper are surprising and can represent either contamination from the other copper-rich paints or a deliberate use by the painter in the shadow areas that have a slight greenish hue.

Table 1

XRF results for the Mother of God with the Child icon.

Investigated area (see Figure 1)	Description of the investigated paint/pigment and its color	Identified elements ordered decreasingly by concentration
Area 1	Virgin Mary’s skin color	High Pb, low Ca, Fe, traces of Cu, Hg, Sr
Area 2	Virgin Mary’s aura	High Ca, Au, low Fe, traces of Pb, Sr
Area 3	Inscription box red	High Hg, Ca, Au, low Fe, traces of Pb, Sr
Area 4	Dark green throne pillow	High Cu, Pb, Ca, low Fe, traces of Sr
Area 5	Green floor covering	High Pb, Cu, Ca, low Fe, traces of Sr
Area 6	Brown archangel clothing	High Pb, Ca, traces of Fe, Sr
Area 7	Virgin Mary’s red clothing	High Hg, low Ca, Pb, Fe, traces of Au, Sr
Area 8	Dark red from the icon frame	High Ca, Fe, low Au, Pb, traces of Sr
Area 9	Light red from the icon frame edge	High Ca, Hg, low Fe, traces of Sr, Au
Area 10	Baby Jesus dark brown hair	High Ca, low Fe, Pb, Au, traces of Mn, Sr

3.1.2. XRF Results for the Birth of the Mother of God Icon

Gold foil was used for the aura (Area 2, Table 1). The significant iron presence is expected due to the traditional use of bole (a mixture of water, iron rich soft clay, and animal glue) applied over the calcium-based ground as a primer. This technique is known as water gilding, and it enhances the color and facilitates burnishing of the gold foil [10–12].

Cinnabar was used for the red color in the inscription box (Area 3, Table 1). The use of the more expensive cinnabar pigment offers an insight into the economic status of the community that ordered the paintings [13]. The gold presence in the spectrum can be explained by the golden text written inside the small inscription box, within the measuring area spot of the portable XRF device.

The dark green pigment from throne pillow (Area 4, Table 1, spectrum presented in Figure​ 4) is copper based, probably malachite or verdigris. A significant content of lead is present, suggesting white lead was mixed with the green pigment. Mixing lead white with other pigments was a common practice used to impart brightness to the color [12, 14].

[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]

The lighter green color shade from the floor covering (Area 5, Table 1, spectrum presented in Figure 4) is accompanied by a higher ratio of lead white to copper green compared to the previous spectrum, further reinforcing the assumption of color mixing to obtain different brightness levels.

The brown Archangel clothing (Area 6, Table 1, spectrum presented in Figure 5) contained a high lead content and only traces of iron were observed. The surprising find shows that the use of an iron-based pigment, like umber or sienna, was unlikely. This suggests that the original pigment had a different color and decayed; the degradation/darkening of red lead into plattnerite is a known process and fitting the current pigment appearance [15, 16].

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The red pigment used for Virgin’s Mary clothing (Area 7, Table 1) is cinnabar based, and the darker hues (offering a spatial depth by simulating shadows) were obtained adding iron red to the paint mixture. The gold presence was visually apparent upon inspection and visible in Figure 1 and was confirmed by measurements in multiple places. It suggests that Virgin Mary’s red clothing was painted over the gold leaf.

Dark red from icon frame (Area 8, Table 1, Figure 1—measured before the restoration; Figure 6—shows the icon before and after the restoration process). Investigation identifies the red pigment as iron red. The gold peaks suggested that the frame was repainted over the original golden leaf. The restoration work confirmed this hypothesis, and the dark red paint visible in Figure 6 disappeared after the cleaning and restoration process, revealing the gold gilding previously hidden underneath.

[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]

Light red from the icon’s frame edge (Area 9, Table 1). The identified red pigment was cinnabar. Being an exfoliated area, it was hypothesized that this was an original layer, underneath the iron red repainting that became worn around the edges (where the icon was usually handled). After the cleaning and restoration process, this hypothesis was confirmed.

Baby Jesus dark brown hair (Area 10, Table 1, partial spectrum shown in Figure 7). The dark color contains a moderate amount of iron and traces of manganese, suggesting that an intense underlaying carbon black pigment was given tone and a lighter shade by adding a natural earth pigment like umber, containing both iron and traces of manganese, and matching the warmer nuance observed in the icon.

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All the XRF spectra showed a constant small presence of lead where it was not a major pigment component, suggesting that the calcium-based ground was probably improved with the addition of white lead [14].

Golden leaf was used for the upper background (Area A, Table 2), being applied over the calcium-based ground with the help of bole (an iron-rich clay). Traces of strontium (from the calcium natural source ground material) were observed (showing peaks of high intensity relative to its low concentration). Celestine (SrSO₄) is naturally found in small quantities in the calcium deposits, which are the source of the ground material. Peak intensities can vary depending on the natural grain distribution and various thickness and pigment-type layers covering the ground [12, 17].

Table 2

XRF results for the Birth of the Mother of God Icon.

Investigated area (see Figure 2)	Description of the investigated paint/pigment and its color	Identified elements ordered decreasingly by concentration
Area A	Golden background	High Ca, low Au, Fe, traces of Sr, Pb
Area B1	Red vestment bottom left woman	High Hg, low Ca, traces of Fe, Pb, Sr
Area B2	Light red building walls	High Ca, Pb, low Hg, traces of Fe, Sr
Area B3	Red tablecloth	High Pb, Hg, low Ca, traces of Fe, Sr
Area B4	Red bedding	High Ca, Fe, low Hg, traces of Pb, Sr, Mn
Area C	White maphorion	High Pb, low Ca, traces of Fe, Hg, Sr
Area D	Virgin Mary’s green clothing	High Pb, Cu, Ca, traces of Fe, Sr
Area E	Silver-painted vessel	High Ca, low Pb, traces of Fe, Ag, Hg, Sr, Cu
Area F	Brown clothing right woman	High Pb, low Ca, traces of Fe, Sr, Cu
Area G	Yellow walls	High Pb, low Fe, Ca, traces of Sr
Area H	Red frame	High Ca, Pb, low Fe, traces of Ti
Area I	Intense black from the door	High Pb, low Ca, traces of Fe, Sr

The red pigment used for the vestment of the bottom left woman attending for the baby Virgin Mary (Area B1, Table 2, spectrum presented in Figure 8) is dominated by cinnabar and only traces of iron and lead are present, this being an area where a mixture of pigments was not used.

[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]

The red pigment used for the building walls (Area B2, Table 2, spectrum presented in Figure 8) was cinnabar (or the synthetic version known as vermilion—both names referring to the same mercury sulfide chemical compound—HgS). The lighter color is reflected in the higher ratio of lead white to cinnabar. The smaller concentration of both white lead and cinnabar from the paint layer allows for deeper x-ray penetration and a stronger calcium signal emergence from the ground layer.

A mixture of cinnabar and white lead (in an almost equal proportion) was used for the color of the red tablecloth (Area B3, Table 2, spectrum presented in Figure 8). The high lead content suggests that lead white was mixed with the red pigment for the lighter tone areas. These areas are contrasting with the darker ones, giving the depth impression of shading from the cloth folds. The painting layer rich in both lead and mercury allows for a weak calcium peak from the ground layer to be registered.

Contrasting to the previous red colors, the dark red bedding color (Area B4, Table 2, full spectrum presented in Figure 8 and partial spectrum in Figure 7) was obtained using iron red as a dominant pigment with added cinnabar. The relatively small concentrations of iron- and mercury-based pigments, having a limited shielding effect, allow for stronger calcium-specific peaks from the ground layer to manifest (Ca Kα 3.69 keV, Kβ 4.01 keV). The higher energy strontium peaks from the ground layer (Sr Kα 14.16 keV, Kβ 15.81 keV) are very visible. The traces of manganese could be explained by the many streaking lines, the dark pigment used possibly being umber, a natural earth pigment containing iron and manganese oxides/hydroxides.

The white color of the maphorion (head and shoulder covering cloth of the young woman to the right) was obtained using white lead (Area C, Table 2). Traces of mercury from the cinnabar pigment were also observed, since the clothing color is not a pure white but has red streaks.

A copper green pigment (malachite or verdigris) was used for Virgin Mary’s green clothing (Area D, Table 2). The color was obtained by mixing the pigment with white lead, similar to the Mother of God with the Child icon.

Silver foil was applied on the silver-painted vessel (Area E, Table 2, spectrum presented in Figure 9) and decorated with copper green and mercury red motifs. The iron content is due to the traditional use of bole [10–12]. The common calcium and strontium bands from the ground layer are present; also, the lead presence is suggesting its use as a ground-enhancing white lead pigment [14]. The target material from the XRF tube can explain the Rh band. The silver foil use is limited only to this icon due of the specific scene and depicted objects. The additional use of silver foil demonstrates a special care to use chromatically appropriate materials and a very detailed execution (with rich decorations) similar to the larger Mother of God with the Child icon (Figure 2).

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The very low iron content from the brown clothing of the bottom right woman (Area F, Table 2, spectrum presented in Figure 5) suggests that brown ocher was unlikely used. A candidate with a similar color could be plattnerite, a lead-based oxide, which occurs from the degradation process of red lead pigment, similar to the “Mother of God with the Child” icon, suggesting that similar painting techniques were used [15, 16]. The very small traces of copper can be attributed to contamination from the nearby green areas. A spectrum comparison of the brown pigment from the two different icons is shown in Figure 5.

The iron presence from the yellow wall paint (Area G, Table 2) suggests that the pigment used was a yellow iron ocher [18]. The pigment was mixed with a large amount of white lead.

The pigment used for the red frame was iron red mixed with white lead (Area H, Table 2). The paint was applied over a rich calcium-based ground. Due to the low cost, nontoxicity, and resistance to environmental conditions, the red iron pigment was a natural choice to be used in a less important area, which was also subjected to degradation by handling. The traces of titanium suggest either that interventions were made onto the frame at an unknown date (probably similar to the repainting of the Mother of God with the Child icon frame, layer that was later removed during the restoration process) or this is a result of chromatic integration for the paint void areas during restoration.

The intense dark pigment used for the door (Area I, Table 2, Figure 2) was carbon black, as the iron content was very low and there no traces of manganese observed. The high lead content suggests that the door was painted over the white color of the building. The low calcium peaks and traces of strontium from the ground layer were observed.

Similar to the Mother of God with the Child icon, the Birth of the Mother of God icon also shows a constant small presence of lead where it does not represent a major pigment, suggesting the use of white lead applied over the calcium-based ground.

3.1.3. XRF Results for the Resurrection of Christ Icon

The paint used for the white mountain was very rich in lead white (Area I, Table 3, Figure 3), with iron being present only as a trace element. The calcium and strontium signals from the ground layer were also very weak.

Table 3

XRF results for the Resurrection of Christ icon.

Investigated area (see Figure 3)	Description of the investigated paint/pigment and its color	Identified elements ordered decreasingly by concentration
Area I	White mountain	High Pb, low Ca, traces of Fe, Sr
Area II	Middle mandorla red	High Pb, Hg, low traces of Fe
Area III	Eve’s red clothing	High Ca, Fe, Hg, low Pb, traces of Sr
Area IV	Adam’s green clothing	High Ca, Cu, Pb, traces of Fe, Sr
Area V	Yellow mountain	High Pb, Ca, low Fe, traces of Sr
Area VI	Jesus Christ dark brown hair	High Fe, Ca, low Pb, traces of Sr, Mn

The high mercury content for the middle mandorla red (Area II, Table 3, spectrum presented in Figure 10) shows that the pigment used was cinnabar. The pigment was mixed with lead white to obtain lighter shades. The very small iron presence does not suggest its use as a red pigment. High lead and mercury content layers were reported, leading to a peak intensity drop of strontium from the ground material [12]. The low energy peaks of calcium can be expected to be more affected by shielding from the high lead content layer painted above. Calcium bands from the ground layer are not visible due to the combined Hg/Pb paint layer attenuating effect.

[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]

Eve’s red clothing (Area III, Table 3, spectrum presented in Figure 10) shows that the mercury from cinnabar is accompanied by a significant amount of iron, suggesting the mixing of cinnabar with iron red. Cinnabar was rarely used alone in paintings [19]. It was often mixed with red lead or iron red to improve its drying properties and to increase its resistance to decay [20]. The smaller combined concentration of mercury and lead (compared to Area II) allow for the calcium and strontium bands from the ground layer to be visible.

Adam’s green clothing (Area IV, Table 3) shows that a copper green pigment was used (malachite or verdigris). The color was obtained by mixing with white lead, similar to the two other studied icons. The moderate amount of lead and copper (the paint layer looked thin or degraded with exfoliations) allows for a stronger calcium signal from the ground layer.

The iron presence from the background yellow mountains (Area V, Table 3) suggests that a yellow iron ocher was used. The pigment was mixed with lead white. Ocher pigments were derived from sedimentary rocks and have a variable content of iron present in the form of iron oxides and/or hydroxides. [21]. Being a cheap pigment, it lends itself to use on larger surfaces and less important areas as the background.

Jesus Christs dark brown hair (Area VI, Table 3, partial spectrum shown in Figure 7) shows a higher content of iron and accompanying traces of manganese but keeping the proportions between the elements compared to Area 10, where a similar color and application was observed. The intensity of the underlaying dark color and moderate iron content suggests that the brown pigment was applied over a carbon black pigment to give it a lighter shade and color tone. The higher iron/manganese content compared to Area 10 from the first studied icon also visually translates into a warmer tone of the perceived color. The usual presence of calcium, lead, and traces of strontium from the underlaying ground layer was observed.

Summarizing the XRF findings, similarities were observed in the execution method for the three icons. A common execution technique is the omnipresence of white lead applied over the calcium-based ground. The brown lead color suggesting the appearance of plattnerite as a degradation product of red lead (in the “Mother of God with the Child” and “Birth of the Mother of God” icons) strengthens the connection between the compared icons. The mixing of red pigments to obtain different hues and the mixing of colored pigments with various amounts of lead white to obtain different brightness levels was a common practice for the three icons. The presence of a brown umber pigment was also observed for all three icons, the traces of manganese being a common presence. Other common pigments and materials used were: gold leaf, cinnabar, copper green, lead white, iron red, and carbon black. Materials that were not found on all icons were the yellow iron ocher found on the smaller Museikon collection icons (being a cheaper material used for the less important icon register and for the specific scenes showing exterior scenery) and the silver foil only found on one of the Museikon icons, due to the specific scene requiring its use.

3.2. FTIR Investigations

FTIR investigations were conducted to obtain information about the binders used for the paint and to compare the results for the three icons. The three spectra were simultaneously loaded in the software to facilitate their comparison, and the specific peaks were identified (spectra presented in Figure 11). The FTIR spectra comparison was made for the red color (Areas 3, B3, and III of the three studied icons). The image of the “Mother of God with the Child” unrestored icon (Figure 6) shows that it was subjected to a limited cleaning intervention targeting the two small red inscriptions on each side of the throne. The FTIR investigation was made on the small rectangular test area that was cleaned.

[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]

The absorption bands at 2936 cm⁻¹ and 2856 cm⁻¹ C–H can be attributed to stretching bands from CH₂ groups; 2957 cm⁻¹ and 2902 cm⁻¹ to stretching bands from CH₃ groups; 1741 cm⁻¹ esters C = 0 stretching bands of a possible siccative oil [22–24] but also common to tempera paints using egg yolk.

The absorption bands at 1679 cm⁻¹ can be attributed to Amide I (C=O, C–N stretching); 1554 cm⁻¹ (N–H bending and C–N stretching), 1474 cm⁻¹ (C–H bending) to Amide II; and 1331 cm⁻¹ (C–N stretching, N–H bending) to Amide III—suggesting the presence of proteins from egg yolk [22–27].

The general similarities of the spectra show that the binding media were similar for the three icons, being executed in the tempera technique (an ancient technique where the pigments are suspended in a water-soluble medium such as the water–egg yolk mixture, with possible additions including vegetable oils). The relative equal heights of the specific vegetable oil peaks (1741 cm⁻¹, ester stretching bands) [22] and the egg yolk specific peak (1679 cm⁻¹, Amide I) [22] suggest that both egg yolk and siccative oil were used for the paint, representing a variation in the tempera technique, known as tempera grassa due to the addition of the oil (usually linseed oil) to the paint mix. The tempera technique used since Antiquity was superseded by the oil painting around the 15th century [28–30]; however, many paintings contained a combination of both egg yolk and vegetable oil [30]. The traditional Orthodox painting method continued the use of tempera technique in the post-Byzantine era as prescribed by the canons, exemplified by the writings of the Orthodox Greek artist and author Dionysius of Fourna from the first half of the 18th century [31], which is still being regarded as a manual for icon manufacturing, including for the Romania Orthodox icon painting [25].

4. Conclusions

The artistic analysis shows that the painter is a good draughtsman but also a skilled colorist, qualities that could make up for the lack of anatomy studies necessary to render volume and three-dimensionality, aspects that are increasingly present in post-Byzantine art. The style, which is Brancovan, represents a continuation of the Byzantine style and fascinates with the perfection of shapes, colors, and reliefs, as well as with the fact that the whole, as well as every detail, breathes a certain spirit of holiness. We find these things in all three icons (one signed and two unsigned) but made by the same painter.

The theological analysis shows that all three icons have a content determined by the needs and the canon (erminy) of the Orthodox Church. The art of the icon demands objectivity and correctness from the artist at the same time, because it expresses the objective reality of the image in God and not an individual fantasy. The artist, through a true overcoming of his own subjectivity, submits to the canons that allow the work to remain faithful to its object. The painter remained within the canonicity of Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition regarding the characters present, their role, and compositional importance. According to the theological and stylistic analyses, the icons “The Birth of the Mother of God” and “The Resurrection of the Lord” were made by Grigore Ranite.

The results of the EDXRF and FTIR investigations show the use of similar materials and technique for the creation of works of art. The common materials used for painting were gold leaf, cinnabar, copper green, lead white, iron red, umber, and carbon black—used as pigments. Silver foil was present in only one of the icons (Birth of the Mother of God), as required by the scene. Iron yellow ocher was only used for the two smaller icons from the Museikon collection (being a cheap pigment, its use in the second register icons and not the first one is expected). Similarities were observed in the execution method, the omnipresence of white lead suggesting that it was used to improve the ground layer properties. The mixing of colors and the use of white lead to impart brightness was also common. The probable presence of plattnerite as a degradation product also reinforced the connection between the icons.

As the binder for the paint, the artist used the tempera technique using egg yolk and probably linseed oil (the addition of oil known as the tempera grassa technique). The FTIR analysis shows common traits and similar spectra for the three icons.

The richness of details, detailed brush touches, and colored adornments are common for the icons, especially visible when comparing Mother of God with the Child and Birth of the Mother of God icons (style and execution parallels can be established between the Mother of God’s crown ornaments and the adornments on the silver vessels; clothing and collar embellishment; furniture object adornments—similar rhomboidal and dotted motifs can be seen on the throne pillow adornments and the tablecloth on the two icons). A few similar clothing adornments can be observed even on the more austere scene from the Resurrection of Christ icon.

The pigment palette used by the painter is historically appropriate for the period, except for the traces of the more modern titanium white observed on the Birth of the Mother of God icon’s frame, which can be attributed to later interventions (the handling areas being subjected to more wear and degradation).

The physicochemical investigations support the hypothesis of the common author (Grigore Ranite) suggested by the theological and stylistic analysis.

Author Contributions

Olivia Florena Nemeș: conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, writing – original draft, validation, and supervision. Constantin Măruțoiu: project administration, methodology, formal analysis, supervision, and validation. Dan Nemeș: investigation, data curation, visualization, and validation. Victor Constantin Măruțoiu: investigation, writing – original draft, interpretation, and validation. Ana Dumitran: resources, interpretation, writing – original draft, and validation. Marin Cotețiu: interpretation, writing – original draft, investigation, and validation. Teofil Tia: writing – original draft, resources, interpretation, and validation. Cristian Tigae: formal analysis, visualization, funding acquisition, writing – review & editing, and validation.

Funding

This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian Ministry of Research and Innovation, CCCDI—UEFISCDI, Project No. PN-III-P1-1.2-PCCDI-2017-0812/53PCCDI, within PNCDI III, and Visual Culture, Piety and Propaganda: Transfer and Reception of Russian Religious Art in the Balkans and the Eastern Mediterranean (16th-early 20th c.)—RICONTRANS, European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (Grant Agreement No. 818791). Open access publishing was facilitated by Anelis Plus (the official name of “Asociatia Universitatilor, a Institutelor de Cercetare – Dezvoltare si a Bibliotecilor Centrale Universitare din Romania”), as part of the Wiley–Anelis Plus agreement.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian Ministry of Research and Innovation, CCCDI—UEFISCDI, Project No.: PN-III-P1-1.2-PCCDI-2017-0812/53PCCDI, within PNCDI III; and Visual Culture, Piety and Propaganda: Transfer and Reception of Russian Religious Art in the Balkans and the Eastern Mediterranean (16th-early 20th c.)—RICONTRANS, European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (Grant Agreement No.: 818791).

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