Content area
This editorial introduces the Special Collection “Grasslands of Asia” in Vegetation Classification and Survey, highlighting the urgent need for systematic vegetation classification across Asia’s diverse grassland ecosystems. Despite their vast ecological, climatic, and cultural significance, Asian grasslands remain underrepresented in global vegetation studies. This gap results from uneven research capacities, methodological fragmentation, limited data accessibility, and complex geopolitical barriers. Grasslands across Asia, which include both natural types like steppes, savannas, and alpine meadows and semi-natural ecosystems, face escalating threats including climate change, overgrazing, land-use changes, habitat fragmentation, and socio-political disruptions. Inspired by discussions at the inaugural Asian Grassland Conference in 2022 and the establishment of the Asian Regional Section of the International Association for Vegetation Science (IAVS), this Special Collection aims to promote standardized vegetation classification methods, enhance cross-regional data sharing, and foster international collaboration. Although only seven contributions from West and Middle Asia were ultimately included, they significantly advance the understanding of grassland typologies in these regions. Moving forward, coordinated efforts at local, regional, and continental scales are essential, supported by platforms such as the Asian Regional Section of IAVS . Strengthening vegetation classification frameworks and regional databases will bridge existing methodological gaps and provide critical support for conservation planning, sustainable management, and biodiversity research in Asia’s grassland ecosystems.
Abbreviations : China-VCS = China Vegetation Classification System; EDGG = Eurasian Dry Grassland Group; GIVD = Global Index of Vegetation-Plot Databases; IAVS = International Association for Vegetation Science; IVC = International Vegetation Classification; TWINSPAN = Two Way Indicator Species Analysis.
Full text
Introduction
Standardizing vegetation classification and adopting harmonized typologies are essential for understanding biodiversity patterns and ecosystem functions, as well as developing conservation strategies (De Cáceres and Wiser 2012; De Cáceres et al. 2015). Consistent typological frameworks enhance communication and data exchange across disciplines and regions (Dixon et al. 2014; Faber-Langendoen et al. 2014) while supporting biodiversity assessment, conservation prioritization, and policy development (Franklin et al. 2016; Janišová et al. 2016). Typologies provide an important basis for integrating ecological data across scales, facilitating ecosystem-specific management, restoration, and conservation policies (Dengler et al. 2008; Franklin et al. 2016; De Cáceres et al. 2018; Keith et al. 2022). Various plot-based (such as Braun-Blanquet approach, Synusial approach and EcoVeg approach) or non-plot-based approaches (e.g. physiognomic-ecological and dominant species approaches) can underpin vegetation classification systems (De Cáceres et al. 2015). Asia, the world’s largest continent, hosts over 60% of the global human population and contributes nearly 40% of global carbon emissions (Zhu et al. 2021). This continent encompasses immense ecological, climatic, and cultural diversity (Zhu et al. 2021), containing 10 of the world’s top 35 global biodiversity hotspots (Mittermeier et al. 2011). Grasslands, characterized by herbaceous vegetation mostly dominated by grasses or graminoids with minimal woody species cover and over 10% herb-layer cover (thresholds for tropical regions are tree cover below 40%) (Dixon et al. 2014; Dengler et al. 2020), are a vital component of Asia’s diverse ecosystems. Based on their origin, Asian grasslands range from natural to semi-natural and anthropogenic grasslands (= secondary grasslands – which originate from human land use such as grazing, mowing, burning, or abandoning arable fields) (Dengler et al. 2014, 2020; Wesche et al. 2016). Natural grasslands include steppes, arctic-alpine grasslands, and tropical/subtropical savannas as zonal grasslands within the Palaearctic, Indo-Malayan, and Afrotropical biogeographic realms (Olson et al. 2001). Moreover, azonal/extrazonal grasslands driven by edaphic peculiarities rather than climate (Wesche et al. 2016; Dengler et al. 2020), such as saline grasslands, coastal dunes, riparian, or wet grasslands, are widespread across Asia (Dudov 2018; Ushimaru et al. 2018). This ecological variability supports rich biodiversity, including numerous endemic species and glacial relicts (Dengler et al. 2020; Li et al. 2020a; Noroozi 2020), and provides critical ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration and soil stabilization (Ushimaru et al. 2018; Zhu et al. 2021). Acting as “green barriers” and “water towers,” these grasslands are indispensable for Asia’s ecological security (Li et al. 2020a). On the other hand, these important ecosystems face significant threats driven by both long-term and short-term impacts imposed by overgrazing, agricultural expansion, rapid land-use changes, and climate change (Wesche et al. 2016; Török and Dengler 2018; Dengler et al. 2020). Habitat fragmentation, open-pit mining, eutrophication, afforestation, and infrastructure development exacerbate biodiversity losses (Ambarlı et al. 2018, 2020; Pfeiffer et al. 2018; Ushimaru et al. 2018). Socio-political shifts, including rural depopulation leading to grassland abandonment and restrictions on traditional pastoral practices, further intensify these pressures (Pfeiffer et al. 2018; Wagner et al. 2020).
Despite their ecological importance and all of these imposing threats and challenges, Asia’s grasslands remain significantly underrepresented in global vegetation classification efforts. While notable advancements have been made in regions such as parts of North Asia (Russia) (see below), Middle Asia (e.g. Nowak et al. 2024b, and references therein), and China (Guo et al. 2018), vast areas are still far from a reasonable vegetation classification. Grasslands in key regions of Asia, particularly South and Southeast Asia, are conspicuously absent from global typologies, highlighting substantial data and classification gaps (Dixon et al. 2014). For example, based on features provided by all plot-based vegetation typology papers published in the last five years in VCS, Asia, Africa, and North America were least represented among the continents (Biurrun et al. 2025).
Recognizing these gaps, the Eurasian Dry Grassland Group (EDGG), supported by the International Association of Vegetation Science (IAVS), organized a virtual event, the Asian Grassland Conference (AGC) in 2022 (https://edgg.org/AGC; Venn 2022a, 2022b) where delegates identified the need for a collaborative approach to grassland ecology, vegetation, and conservation. As a byproduct of the conference, a workshop was organized on vegetation typologies in Asia and their crosswalks to/overlaps with phytosociological syntaxa, aiming to better understand vegetation typologies of Asia from a global point of view. Moreover, another kick-off workshop was organized concerning foundation of an IAVS Regional Section in Asia, moderated by delegates from IAVS and EDGG . The members of the initiative committee for the Asian Regional Section, which was set up a few weeks before, were all in favour of a single Regional Section for the continent (Venn 2022b), and this committee organized all necessary steps regarding membership, the establishment of steering committees, and bylaws. This regional section was finally established in 2022 to promote vegetation ecology activities across the continent (Naqinezhad 2023, see also https://www.iavs.org/general/custom.asp?page=workingroups_asiansection).
The Special Collection “Grasslands of Asia” with a typological view was initiated as part of a broader effort to enhance understanding and collaboration among vegetation ecologists in Asia. It is a joint enterprise between the EDGG and the Asian Regional Section. While this is the first special feature in an international journal for the Asian Regional Section of IAVS, EDGG has a long tradition in this respect, with more than 20 special features in various journals published so far on a wide variety of grassland-related topics. Some of the previous special features had been specifically devoted to grassland classification, namely in Applied Vegetation Science (Dengler et al. 2013), Phytocoenologia (Janišová et al. 2016) and Vegetation Classification and Survey (Nowak et al. 2022a), but these were usually dominated by contributions from the European part of the Palaearctic realm. In any case, these special collections/features are considered crucial for the development of vegetation classification, especially in regions where it is still less developed (Biurrun et al. 2025).
The goal of this Special Collection was to provide a publication venue for classification papers on Asia’s grasslands, improving data accessibility for both basic research and applied fields such as conservation, management, and policy development. The call for contributions encouraged studies that apply or test vegetation classifications, present data-driven insights into grassland ecosystems, or offer new tools in ecoinformatics (Biurrun et al. 2025).
This Special Collection explores the unique characteristics of Asia’s grasslands, providing insights into their typology and the progress of research in this field, particularly in Middle Asia and Southwest Asia. Notably, based on the response to our call for contributions, the review section of this editorial focuses on plot-based classification while encompassing various classification approaches, including Braun-Blanquet, International Vegetation Classification (IVC), and non-formal methods (see Biurrun et al. 2025). In the following, we first present a concise overview of the grasslands of Asia and existing regional to national classification systems, then summarize the contributions to this Special Collection, and finally draw conclusions and provide an outlook.
Overview of the grasslands of Asia
Asia hosts a vast diversity of natural grasslands, spanning temperate steppes, arctic-alpine grasslands, and tropical savannas, along with azonal types such as coastal and saline grasslands. This diversity is shaped by Asia’s participation in all major biomes and three biogeographic realms (Olson et al. 2001; Loidi et al. 2022). The continent’s complex geological and climatic history has significantly influenced the floristic composition and ecological functions of these ecosystems.
Currently, vegetation data from Asia are well represented in several major global vegetation repositories, with some degree of overlap among them. The Global Index of Vegetation-Plot Databases (GIVD) (Dengler et al. 2011) provides metadata on 48 datasets from Asia, encompassing a total of 229,938 plots. Moreover, a total of 179,726 plots from various ecosystem types across 31 Asian countries have been contributed to the global vegetation-plot database sPlot (sPlot v.4.0) (Bruelheide et al. 2019; Sabatini et al. 2021; G. Damasceno, pers. comm. for the latest numbers). For grassland ecosystems specifically, the GrassPlot database contains 6,782 independent plots and 29,520 nested subplots from Asian open habitats, with contributions from countries such as Armenia (119/479), Azerbaijan (408/2033), China (685/2479), India (561/753), Iran (2091/15661), Israel (319/2032), Japan (492/1380), Kazakhstan (364), Kyrgyzstan (7/91), Mongolia (492/786), Nepal (126/252), Russia (967/2459), Tajikistan (20/260), and Turkey (131/491) (Dengler et al. 2018; Biurrun et al. 2019; I. Biurrun, pers. comm. for the latest numbers). Moreover, three major datasets from Asian open and non-forest habitats, “Non-Forest Vegetation Database of Turkey (NFVDT)” (25,102 plots), “Grassland Communities of Anatolia” (3,021 plots), and the “Teberda-Caucasus Vegetation Database” (1,206 plots), have been incorporated into the European Vegetation Archive (EVA) (Chytrý et al. 2016). It is important to note that there might be an overlap between EVA, sPlot and GrassPlot. However, these overlaps are well documented in GrassPlot (Idoia Biurrun, pers. comm.).
Despite the reasonable number of plot-based vegetation data in the above repositories, there are not enough classification systems across the continent. A synthesis of current data (Figure 1; Suppl. material 1) reveals a striking disparity in the prevalence of grassland classification across Asia. According to our survey, only two countries have a comprehensive phytosociological system, and only one has fully adopted the International Vegetation Classification (IVC)/EcoVeg approach, whereas 25 countries rely on partial classifications. Furthermore, 10 countries only have local informal plot‐based systems, 22 depend on coarse, non‐plot-based classifications, and 11 lack any grassland typology altogether, highlighting a critical gap in standardized vegetation documentation.
Figure 1. Methodological approaches applied to grassland classification across 48 Asian countries. Country level information is provided in Suppl. material 1 .
For this synthesis, we have divided Asia into six geographical regions, largely following the framework of Mapping Asia Plants (MAP; Ma 2017), similar to Dengler et al. (2020) for the Palaearctic part of Asia. Given that many comprehensive grassland studies are conducted at the national level, each country has been assigned to a single region, even though some countries exhibit significant biogeographic and climatic diversity.
North Asia
The vegetation of North Asia (i.e., the Asian part of Russia) has been intensively studied in recent decades. However, most of these studies have been published in Russian journals, and only rarely in English. Notable contributions in this field include the journals Vegetation of Russia and Flora and Vegetation of Asian Russia, which have collectively published dozens of papers on the grasslands of Asian Russia. These journals primarily publish articles in Russian, accompanied by abstracts in English. A comprehensive review of publications before 2021 can be found in Nowak et al. (2022a), but the most recent phytosociological publications in these journals include the steppe vegetation of the Southern Urals (Korolyuk et al. 2022a; Zolotareva et al. 2024), Buryatia (Korolyuk et al. 2023), Zabaikalsky Krai (Anenkhonov and Naidanov 2024), and forest meadows of the Novosibirsk Oblast (Tishchenko and Zibzeev 2022). Additional studies have addressed steppes and meadows in Western Siberia (e.g. Tishchenko and Korolyuk 2020; Korolyuk et al. 2022b, 2024; Makunina 2022, 2023; Chupina and Korolyuk 2024) and the Altai Mountains (e.g. Basargin and Zibzeev 2018; Makunina et al. 2019, 2020). A significant development was the publication of a checklist of syntaxa in the Russian Arctic, detailing 241 associations from 20 classes (Matveyeva and Lavrinenko 2021). Since 2022, the journal Flora and Vegetation of Asian Russia has also been publishing syntaxonomic notes (e.g. Lysenko et al. 2022) focusing on the description, validation, and correction of syntaxa names and providing new data on their distribution.
Syntaxonomic studies on North Asian grasslands have also appeared in the English-language journal Botanica Pacifica over the last 13 years. These studies have primarily focused on the low-growing vegetation of the Russian Arctic (e.g. Telyatnikov et al. 2021, 2022, 2023, 2024; Lavrinenko et al. 2022; Teteryuk et al. 2022; Lapina and Lavrinenko 2023; Matveyeva and Lavrinenko 2023) and, to a lesser extent, on tall-forb meadows (Heim and Chepinoga 2019; Korznikov et al. 2024) and steppe vegetation (Golovanov et al. 2017).
It is noteworthy that the number of publications has increased markedly in recent years, primarily due to the initiation of the Russian national vegetation classification programme (Plugatar et al. 2020). A classification (annotated prodromus) of the vegetation of Russia in three volumes has been announced, with the first two volumes scheduled for publication in 2025 (Olga Morozova, pers. comm.).
Middle Asia
Middle Asia, comprising Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, is a region of extraordinary ecological, geographical, and species diversity and plant endemism (Bragina et al. 2017; Li et al. 2020c; Khassanov et al. 2022). Spanning the core of the Eurasian landmass, it stretches from the Caspian Sea and Volga River in the west to northwest China in the east. The region’s temperate continental climate, characterized by extreme temperature fluctuations and limited precipitation (e.g. Wagner et al. 2020), shapes extensive arid and semi-arid zones, including the Karakum and Kyzylkum deserts and mountains which are among the tallest worldwide. Large parts of the area are covered by various types of natural grasslands ranging from vast desert steppes and forest-steppes (e.g. Chibilyov 2002; Egamberdieva and Öztürk 2018) to alpine/nival grassland landscapes in the Tian Shan and Pamir ranges (Khassanov et al. 2022; Nowak et al. 2024c). However, grasslands in the mountain regions of the eastern and southern parts of Kazakhstan and Middle Asia are of complex origins which are likely both natural and anthropogenic (i.e. semi-natural, formed by a long practice of logging, burning, and domestic livestock grazing) (Wagner et al. 2020). Middle Asia harbours a remarkable array of endemic flora adapted to harsh environmental conditions, including ancient plant lineages (Wagner et al. 2020; Kubentayev et al. 2024).
Grassland studies in this region have gained increasing attention, particularly those concerning steppes and associated open habitats. However, plot-based vegetation classification remains underdeveloped apart from notable contributions by A. Nowak and colleagues (see for example Nowak et al. 2022b, 2023 and references therein). Physiognomic classifications have identified distinct steppe types in Kazakhstan, including forb-feathergrass meadow steppes, desert steppes interspersed with dwarf Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae shrubs and forest-steppe (Rachkovskaya and Bragina 2012; Bragina et al. 2017; Wagner et al. 2020).
Korovin (1961, 1962) is among the pioneers publishing the first overviews of vegetation in Middle Asia. A phytosociological study of steppe vegetation in eastern Kazakhstan by Cheng and Nakamura (2007) further enriches the understanding of this region’s steppe ecosystems.
In Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, montane and alpine grasslands as well as chionophilous vegetation in the Tian Shan and Pamir-Alai ranges have been extensively classified, primarily through the efforts of A. Nowak and his team (Swacha et al. 2023; Nowak et al. 2024b). Over nearly two decades, A. Nowak and colleagues compiled the Vegetation of Middle Asia database (Nowak et al. 2017), encompassing over 5,800 relevés from Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan, along with additional records from neighbouring countries such as Iran, Russia, Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, and China. Their synthesis includes 45 classes, 47 orders, 83 alliances, 297 associations, and 237 rankless units, marking a significant step toward a comprehensive classification for Middle Asia (Nowak et al. 2025). In contrast, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan remain underexplored in terms of grassland typology. However, some studies, such as those on the ephemeroid vegetation of the Kulan Plateau in the Badhyz Reserve in Turkmenistan (Polyakova et al. 2023), have contributed important data on specific plant communities.
Central and East Asia
This area includes East Asia, encompassing the Korean Peninsula (North and South Korea) and Japan, and Central Asia, encompassing Mongolia, China, and Taiwan (Wesche et al. 2016). The whole area is considered Northeast Asia in the floristic point of view adopted in MAP (Ma 2017). Grasslands dominate much of its open landscapes, particularly in Mongolia and China (Wesche et al. 2016; Brown 2020; Li et al. 2020b). Both of these countries host the world’s largest continuous grasslands, with the majority of which considered natural (Pfeiffer et al. 2018) and relatively intact, representing what have been called the world’s finest grasslands (Batsaikhan et al. 2014).
The main physiognomic vegetation formations of natural grasslands in China and Mongolia have been recently classified by Pfeiffer et al. (2018), including groups of forest-steppe, grass steppe, desert steppe, alpine steppe, and alpine meadow. Early vegetation studies, influenced by different schools of vegetation science, were predominantly published in Chinese and adopted varied methodologies (Hou 1960; Wang 1988; Zhang 1988; Song 2011). This limited their visibility and integration into global vegetation research frameworks (see also Pfeiffer et al. 2018). However, in recent decades, there was a notable shift toward more standardized approaches and greater alignment with international systems, such as the International Vegetation Classification (IVC) (Guo et al. 2018; Fang et al. 2020). The development of the China Vegetation Classification System (China-VCS) reflects the unique evolution of vegetation science in China. China-VCS is a hierarchical system that integrates physiognomy, floristic composition, ecological attributes, and dynamic processes to classify its diverse vegetation (Guo et al. 2014; Fang et al. 2020). This system distinguishes cultural vegetation from natural and semi-natural vegetation, utilizing eight hierarchical levels: vegetation-type group, vegetation-type, vegetation-subtype, formation group, formation, sub-formation, association group, and association (Guo et al. 2018; Zhu et al. 2019).
Modern studies increasingly adopt frameworks that are accessible to the global community, exemplified by comprehensive classifications like those applied in the Hulunbeier steppe (Zhu et al. 2019) and Stipa -dominated grasslands across China (Liu et al. 2022), both of which use the IVC approach. In the Hulunbeier steppe, one of the best conserved grasslands in northern China (Pan et al. 1992), Zhu et al. (2019) demonstrated the application of this system, incorporating elements of classical phytosociology, and aligning them with the China-VCS framework. Although association and alliance levels are included, formal nomenclature is not yet standardized, and classifications are presented descriptively (Zhu et al. 2019; Yang et al. 2022). For instance, general vegetation types follow the China-VCS nomenclature, while association descriptions incorporate elements of phytosociological practices such as type relevés (Fang et al. 2020; Guo et al. 2020; Wang et al. 2020). By contrast, classical Braun-Blanquetian classification studies were rarely conducted in China, namely by Nakamura et al. (1988 : Xilian river basin in Inner Mongolia), Miehe et al. (2011 : alpine steppes of the Tibetan Plateau), Cheng et al. (2013 : steppes in the Hulunbeier region), and Kim et al. (2019 : alpine vegetation of NE China). All of these were conducted by foreigners.
About 80% of the total area of the Mongolian territory is classified as grasslands and arid rangelands (Pfeiffer et al. 2020), comprising the natural zonal groups of forest-steppes (sensu Dengler et al. 2014, 2020), typical steppes, and desert steppes of the Palaearctic steppe biome (Hilbig 1995; Wesche et al. 2016; Pfeiffer et al. 2020). Diversity in the flora and vegetation of grasslands is enriched by the fact that the country is located at the biogeographical intersection between three different subkingdoms (i.e., the Boreal, Tethyan, and East Asian subkingdoms) of the Holarctic realm (Pfeiffer et al. 2020).
The grasslands and steppe vegetation of Mongolia has been systematically studied using plot-based approaches by many authors (Hilbig 1990, 1995, 2000, 2003; Dulamsuren et al. 2005; Von Wehrden et al. 2006; Cheng et al. 2008; Zemmrich et al. 2010; Suzuki et al. 2021, 2023), offering detailed syntaxonomic classification.
In Japan, the climax community comprises various types of forests (Ushimaru et al. 2018). Grasslands are divided based on their origin into “natural” (maintained or temporarily established by natural disturbances and specific soil conditions), “semi-natural” (maintained by continuous anthropogenic management), and “secondary” grasslands (established temporarily or maintained continuously with land-use changes and grazing animals) (Ushimaru et al. 2020). Natural grasslands include very limited areas, such as alpine meadows, riparian areas, and coasts, which are considered equivalent to azonal and extrazonal grassland types (sensu Dengler et al. 2014, 2020). However, the majority of grasslands in Japan correspond to various types of semi-natural (pastures and meadows) and secondary grasslands (Ushimaru et al. 2020), both types included among secondary grasslands by Dengler et al. (2014, 2020).
An overview of various grassland types in Japan and their dominant species is provided by Ushimaru et al. (2020) using an approach based on dominance and physiognomy. The country has a rich and long-standing tradition in phytosociological research (Nowak et al. 2022a), with early foundational works significantly shaping vegetation science in the region. Early studies, such as those by Yamanaka (1950, 1960), Taniguchi (1958), Itow (1962, 1974), Suganuma (1966, 1967), Lieth et al. (1973), and Ohba (1974), focused on classifying semi-natural and natural grasslands. Numata (1969 and many references therein) further advanced these efforts, examining gradients of grassland succession and providing insights into ecological dynamics and vegetation trends. The late 20th century marked a pivotal period for vegetation science in Japan, with major contributions like the Japan Vegetation Record (Miyawaki 1980–1989; Fujiwara 1996) providing detailed classifications. Moreover, Miyawaki and Suzuki (1980) tried to foster vegetation science and mapping using phytosociological methods, and Yamato et al. (2004) syntaxonomically assessed grasslands of the Ryukyu Island. Much of Japan’s early phytosociological research was published in Japanese (see Nowak et al. 2022a). More recently, Shimoda et al. (2020) made a significant contribution by compiling the largest publicly available grassland vegetation dataset in Japan. This database, encompassing 28 grassland sites from Hokkaido to Kyushu, provides critical insights into semi-natural and artificial grasslands (see Ushimaru et al. 2018), supporting conservation and management efforts. Unfortunately, there is almost no new research on the typological diversity of Japan’s grasslands.
The Korean Peninsula, in contrast, has fewer classification studies but maintains a tradition of vegetation classification, with limited contributions focused on open habitats and grasslands (Kolbek and Jarolímek 2013). Early works like those of Blažková (1993) or Sádlo and Kolbek (1997) and more recent studies on montane grasslands (Kim et al. 2024) highlight the need for broader systematic efforts. There are also some papers published in the Korean language on classical phytosociology (e.g., Kim and Jang 1989; Shin et al. 2009, 2015; Lee and Ahn 2012; Kim et al. 2017).
Taiwan has limited literature on grassland typology, with vegetation monitoring studies like Lee (2005) providing valuable, though fragmented, insights.
West Asia
West Asia (also called Southwest Asia), covering the Middle East, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Caucasus, is a region of remarkable ecological, cultural, and historical significance, renowned as the cradle of early civilizations and a centre for crop domestication (Zohary et al. 2012; Ghazanfar and McDaniel 2016). The region’s climate, ranging from cool temperate and Mediterranean to xeric and monsoonal (Loutfy Boulos and Miller 1994), fosters a rich vegetation mosaic within the transition zone of the Holarctic and Palaeotropical floristic kingdoms (sensu Takhtajan 1986) embracing four phytogeographical regions: “Euro-Siberian”, “Irano-Turanian”, “Mediterranean”, and “Saharo-Sindian” (Zohary 1973; Léonard 1981–1989).
Global biodiversity hotspots such as the Irano-Anatolian and Caucasus regions, comprising a large proportion of grasslands and steppes, correspond to the high levels of plant endemism in this area (Noroozi 2020). The current vegetation classification efforts in this region, while valuable, remain fragmented and require more comprehensive and standardized methodologies (Nowak et al. 2022a).
The region hosts a diverse array of grasslands ranging from natural to semi-natural, primarily shaped by elevation. These grasslands include plain steppes, such as desert steppe and treeless steppe grasslands, as well as montane and alpine steppes. Additionally, steppe woodlands and forest-steppes contribute to the region’s ecological diversity. Alongside these zonal grasslands, azonal types also exist, including saline vegetation in vast lowland depressions and mesophilic montane grasslands, both of which are considered either natural or semi-natural (Ambarlı et al. 2018; Ramzi et al. 2024).
Despite being classified as natural vegetation in much of the region, these grasslands and their vegetation structure have been profoundly shaped by anthropogenic pressures over millennia. Grazing and human activity have driven significant ecological changes, leading to two key processes: “ruderalization” (sensu Zohary 1973), characterized by the expansion of disturbance-adapted ruderal species, and “tragacanthization” (sensu Zohary 1973), also referred to as “antipastoralism”, which involves the proliferation of unpalatable, thorn-cushion grazing-resistant vegetation. This latter process is particularly evident in high montane zones across the Middle East and Southwest Asia (Zohary 1973; Breckle et al. 2013). As a result, thorn-cushion vegetation, composed of endemic-rich genera such as Astracantha, Astragalus, Acantholimon, Acanthophyllum, Onobrychis, Gypsophylla, Cousinia, and Arenaria, and unpalatable dwarf-shrub communities of Artemisia dominate these landscapes (Zohary 1973; Ariapour et al. 2017; Ambarlı et al. 2018). A particularly striking ecological transformation occurred in the fertile-crescent of the Irano-Anatolian region, where human activity has progressively altered prehistoric grasslands since the Neolithic period. Drawing on anthracological, pollen, and modern vegetation data, it was hypothesized that early landscape management practices led to the gradual replacement of species-rich, post-Pleistocene semi-arid pseudo-savanna with low diversity, evenly-aged Quercus -dominated parklands (sensu Zohary 1973), or steppe-forest (Erdős et al. 2018) by the early Holocene (Asouti and Kabukcu 2014).
The foundational geobotanical studies and vegetation mapping in the region were conducted by Zohary (1973), who provided a seminal classification of Middle Eastern vegetation including its grasslands and steppes. Pioneering efforts in vegetation description, classification, and mapping using the physiognomic-ecological approach were made by Freitag (1971) for Afghanistan, Mobayen and Tregubov (1970) and Frey and Probst (1986) for Iran, and Frey and Kürschner (1989) for whole Middle East. This laid the foundation for subsequent research.
Turkey and Iran, in particular, have made significant contributions to the phytosociological understanding of West Asia (Ambarlı et al. 2018, 2020; Nowak et al. 2022a). Early works such as those by Quézel (1973), Akman et al. (1984, 1996), and Kürschner (1986) classified diverse vegetation types, including steppes and alpine meadows. These studies inspired further database works conducted by Güler (2021) in Turkey. Similarly, Ramzi et al. (2024) provided a comprehensive synthesis of historical and ongoing vegetation classification efforts across various ecosystems in Iran, including grasslands. For open habitats, Naqinezhad et al. (2021) provided a syntaxonomy of relict montane fens and wet meadows of Iran and the Irano-Turanian region (see also Kamrani et al. 2011; Jalili et al. 2014). Additionally, Mahdavi et al. (2017) and Tirgan et al. (2022) dealt with the vegetation of Iran’s sand dunes, while Akhani (2004) and Akhani and Mucina (2015) developed a syntaxonomic framework for the country’s halophytic vegetation. Meanwhile, Noroozi (2020 and references therein) have surveyed the vegetation of montane, alpine steppes and grasslands across Southwest Asia, with a particular focus on Iran and Middle Asia (see also Naqinezhad and Esmailpoor 2017). In contrast, other West Asian countries—such as those in the Arabian Peninsula, the Caucasus, and the Levant—have seen more limited progress. Grasslands of the Caucasus countries have been fragmentarily studied particularly using plot-based classification approaches (e.g. Pyšek and Šrůtek 1989; Peper et al. 2010; Etzold et al. 2016; Jabbarov et al. 2020; Nakhutsrishvili et al. 2022). Early advances in the physiognomic classification of grasslands, coastal sand dunes, sabkha ecosystems, halophytic vegetation, and related open habitat communities were provided by Schulz and Whitney (1986), Deil and al Gifri (1998), and Brown (2006) in the Arabian Peninsula. Several plot-based local studies have also emerged in this region, including works by Kürschner et al. (2006) and De Sanctis et al. (2013) in Socotra, El-Demerdash (1996), Shaltout et al. (1997), and Kürschner and Neef (2011) in Saudi Arabia, Babikir (1984) in Qatar, Abbas et al. (1991) in Bahrein, Deil and Müller-Hohenstein (1996) in the United Arab Emirates, and Abbadi and El-Sheikh (2002) in Kuwait. Research in Palestine and Israel has been conducted by Danin (1988), Ighbareyeh et al. (2022), and El-Sheikh et al. (2003), while Stephan et al. (2019) and Zein et al. (2024) have contributed to vegetation studies in Lebanon. In Iraq, an early work by Abul-Fatih (1975) focused on the vegetation of saline depressions.
South Asia
South Asia, comprising Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, is a geographically and ecologically diverse region. This section features rugged mountain ranges such as the Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and Himalayas, as well as the expansive Indo-Gangetic Plain. Its diverse ecosystems include tropical rainforests, montane grasslands, and coastal vegetation (Xiao et al. 2023). Despite their ecological richness, grasslands in South Asia remain underexplored, with much of the research relying on descriptive physiognomic surveys rather than plot-based classification efforts.
India has historically been a focal point for grassland studies. Early works by Bharucha and colleagues in the mid-20th century laid the groundwork for understanding forest and grassland communities (Bharucha and Dave 1952; Bharucha and Shankarnarayan 1958; Bharucha 1975). These studies identified seven major natural grassland types: coastal grasslands, riverine alluvial grasslands, montane grasslands, alpine grasslands, sub-Himalayan tall grasslands, tropical savannas, and wet grasslands (Dabadghao and Shankarnarayan 1973; Chandran 2015; Ratnam et al. 2016). Moreover, the country is characterised by a diverse range of unique “ethnic grasslands”, each with a distinct floristic composition and high ecological value (Malaviya et al. 2017). Despite the vast extent of grasslands in this region, there is no clear approach to their classification and typology. In India, no formal framework exists for grassland classification, and most studies have focused on species diversity rather than typological classification. Some plot-based studies, such as those by Galav et al. (2005), Reddy et al. (2011), Yadav et al. (2020), and Bhutia et al. (2024), refer to their work as phytosociological research. However, these studies primarily use phytosociology as a tool to assess species diversity and ecological attributes rather than as a means of systematically classifying grassland ecosystems. Notable exceptions include classical phytosociological works in Ladakh by Hartmann (1987, 1990, 1999), Klimeš (2003), and Dvorský et al. (2011), which provided valuable insights into high-altitude grassland plant communities and their elevational gradients.
In Nepal, the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot has been the focus of several phytosociological and ecological surveys. Bürzle et al. (2017) studied treeline ecotone vegetation in the Rolwaling Himal. Vetaas and Grytnes (2002) conducted extensive studies on elevational patterns of plant diversity in the Himalayan mountains, further complemented by the work of Bhattarai and Vetaas (2003) .
Sri Lanka’s montane grasslands have been fragmentarily studied in some foundational works by Pemadasa and Mueller-Dombois (1979, 1981) and Pemadasa and Amarasinghe (1982) .
In Pakistan, significant efforts have been made to classify steppe and grassland communities and their underlying ecological variables using informal plot-based classification approaches (Tareen and Qadir 1991; Iqbal et al. 2021; Mumshad et al. 2021; Zeb et al. 2021). As in India, community traits such as plant species composition, distribution patterns, density, cover, and frequency were considered as “phytosociological characteristics” in these publications rather being treated as a means of systematically classifying grassland ecosystems. Nevertheless, Peer et al. (2007) provided a formal classification of steppe vegetation in northern Pakistan.
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, comprising Brunei, Cambodia, East Timor (Timor-Leste), Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam, is predominantly characterized by tropical forests, with grasslands occurring in more localized areas. These grasslands primarily include tropical savannas, which represent the region’s natural lowland grasslands, as well as floodplain grasslands (e.g., Chea et al. 2024) and secondary grasslands dominated by Imperata cylindrica, often resulting from deforestation or agricultural activities (Seavoy 1975; Garrity et al. 1996; Dove 2004). It is expected that more secondary grasslands will be developed due to climate change and fire disturbances through the “savannization” of tropical forests (Wang et al. 2023). I. cylindrica, a native species, is estimated to cover approximately 35 million hectares across Asia, with its primary distribution in tropical regions (Moog 1990; Garrity et al. 1996). Some of the earliest plot-based studies on these grasslands were conducted in South Sumatra, Indonesia, where researchers classified them ecologically and described their successional development from tropical rainforests (Tanimoto 1961).
The only formal phytosociological classification in Southeast Asia has been conducted in Thailand, where studies have examined plant community structure and the phytosociology of coastal dunes (Suzuki et al. 2005; Laongpol et al. 2009).
Content of the Special Collection
Despite the call being open to all classification approaches—including IVC, non-formal methods, remote sensing (RS)-based classifications, formations, and biomes—from all parts of Asia, the VCS Special Collection comprises only seven articles from just four countries in West and Middle Asia (Figure 2). Four regions of Asia are entirely unrepresented, and many countries within the two included regions are also missing. The methodological approaches in the collected studies range from detailed phytosociological analyses based on vegetation plots to broader investigations of grassland ecology and floristics. The following sections introduce these studies in detail.
Figure 2. Examples of Asian grassland types presented in the Special Collection. a) Acantholimono caryophyllacei-Stipetum holosericeae, Armenia; b) Alpine vegetation in Damavand Mts with Acantholimetum demawendici as the main vegetation at altitude 3,700 m a.s.l.; c) Quercus brantii forest-steppe (2,000–2,600 m a.s.l.) on the right-hand side and Aethionemetum umbellati scree vegetation (4,200 m a.s.l.) on the left-hand side, both from Dena Mts; d) Fereydunshahr: tall-umbelliferous vegetation type (2,800 m a.s.l.); e) Pistacietum khinjuk near Ramhormoz, Iran; f) Pistacion verae near Nurek, Tajikistan (1,450 m a.s.l.); g) cryophilous steppe near Alichur, Eastern Pamir, Tajikistan (3,900 m a.s.l.), h) forb steppe of Eremogono griffithii-Nepetetea near Koshtegirmen, Tajikistan (3,300 m a.s.l.). Photos by: D. Vynokurov (a), A. Talebi (b), J. Noroozi (c–d), A. Naqinezhad (e), A. Nowak (f–h).
West Asia
Vynokurov et al. (2024) (Figure 2a) delivered the first syntaxonomic, plot-based classification of Armenia’s dry grasslands and thorn-cushion communities, proposing a potential new vegetation class, Ziziphora tenuior-Stipa arabica grasslands, distinct from the Euro-Siberian Festuco-Brometea and Anatolian Astragalo-Brometea . Based on 111 vegetation plots sampled during the 13th EDGG Field Workshop and supplemented with 487 plots from surrounding countries, the study utilized modified TWINSPAN (Two Way Indicator Species Analysis) to classify the plots from Armenia in 12 vegetation clusters. These clusters were assigned to five broad-scale groups, with half of the Armenian plots fitting into the new class. The authors described three new orders, four alliances, and six associations, showcasing significant differences in species composition, site conditions, and structural parameters between the units. With a mean vascular plant richness of 46.8 species in 10 m2, well above the Palaearctic dry grassland average (33.7 according to the GrassPlot Diversity Explorer, https://edgg.org/databases/GrasslandDiversityExplorer; see Biurrun et al. 2021), this study highlights the unique biodiversity of Armenian grasslands and supports their conservation while advancing the understanding of Caucasian vegetation.
Talebi et al. (2024) (Figure 2b) presented a pioneering syntaxonomic classification of the diverse vegetation along the southern slopes of Mt. Damavand, the highest summit in the Middle East, reaching 5,610 m a.s.l. Covering a 3,000-m elevational gradient, this study comprehensively analysed four distinct vegetation classes: rocky habitats (Tanacetalia kotschyi, class unknown), screes (Didymophyso aucheri - Dracocephaletea aucheri), snow-beds (Salicetea herbaceae), and grasslands (Astragalo - Brometea). The researchers distinguished six orders, nine alliances, and 18 association-level communities, many of which are newly described, including two alliances (Artemision aucheri and Cousinion petrocauli) and seven associations. The results revealed significant floristic distinctions between vegetation groups driven primarily by elevation, which influences species composition and ecological specialisation. Mt. Damavand’s high rate of endemism and geographic isolation led to striking vegetation differences to nearby regions like the Caucasus, Anatolia, and Middle Asia. This work not only advanced the classification of Iranian alpine and subalpine ecosystems but also included previously understudied lower-elevation vegetation, such as semi-natural mown tall-herb-rich grasslands, which were placed in the new alliance Cousinion petrocauli . By aligning Mt. Damavand’s vegetation with the broader phytosociological framework, the study underscores the ecological significance of this region while highlighting the need for further exploration of the Alborz Mountains and other Iranian ranges. This comprehensive vegetation analysis is expected to serve as a critical resource for understanding and conserving the unique biodiversity of Iran’s mountainous landscapes.
Noroozi et al. (2024) (Figure 2c) provided an in-depth investigation of the Dena Mountains, the highest peaks in the Zagros range (4,409 m a.s.l.), renowned as the second richest centre of plant endemism in the region. The study examined the floristic connections of Dena to adjacent mountain ranges, identified species reaching the subnival zone, and characterized its unique plant communities. A total of 242 taxa endemic to the Iranian Plateau were found in Dena, with 22 being strictly endemic to the area. The mountains exhibited the strongest floristic affinity with the Yazd-Kerman massif, sharing 84 taxa, compared to fewer shared taxa with the Alborz (51), Azerbaijan Plateau (37), and Kopet Dagh-Khorassan (15). In the subnival zone, 38 taxa occurred, most of which (68%) were endemic to the Iranian Plateau. The authors described two new associations from scree habitats: Aethionemetum umbellati and Zerdanetum anchonioidei, which form part of the newly established alliance Galion pseudokurdici, nested within the class Didymophyso aucheri-Dracocephaletea aucheri . This study underscores the vulnerability of high-altitude ecosystems in the Dena Mountains to climate change, particularly the risk posed to alpine and subnival habitats. While the region lies within a protected area, the authors highlighted that protection alone cannot mitigate the impacts of global warming, which are likely to shrink these habitats. They called for intensified conservation measures targeting range-restricted and elevation-dependent species to safeguard this biodiversity hotspot.
In the nearby mountains of Fereydunshahr, Iran (Figure 2d), Yaselyani et al. (2024) focused on the plant diversity of the subalpine and alpine zones, describing their life-forms and chorological spectra, as well as their affinity to other vegetation types described in the area, i.e., montane steppe shrublands, subalpine tall-umbelliferous vegetation, subalpine and alpine thorn-cushion grasslands, chasmophytic vegetation, and wetlands. This study highlighted the floristic uniqueness of the Central Zagros, with almost 20% of the 308 listed species being endemic to Iran, and 7% to Zagros Mountain range. The genus Astragalus stands out, with 14 of the 24 species endemic to Iran and six to Zagros. Most of these endemic species grew in subalpine and alpine thorn-cushion grasslands, although the vegetation type with highest proportion of endemics (56%) was the subalpine tall-umbelliferous vegetation. The authors emphasized the need for more comprehensive studies on the flora, especially on the vegetation of the mountains of Fereydunshahr. Such studies are fundamental for the development of protection and conservation strategies.
Middle Asia
Nowak et al. (2024a) (Figure 2e–f) provided a comprehensive analysis of pistachio woodlands, proposing a new vegetation class, Pistacietea verae, to highlight their ecological and phytogeographical distinctiveness across Tajikistan and Iran. These open, deciduous woodlands with a high proportion of grasses and forbs, occur in the colline-montane belts of the Irano-Turanian region, including the Pamir-Alai, Zagros, Kopet-Dagh, and Alborz Mountains. These woodlands are considered part of the forest-steppe category, which is widely distributed across the Irano-Turanian region (Bragina et al. 2017; Ambarlı et al. 2018; Erdős et al. 2018). By analysing two datasets—one specific to pistachio groves (110 relevés) and another comparative dataset (1,276 relevés) of floristically related communities—the study utilized the modified TWINSPAN algorithm to classify plots into clusters, and applied NMDS ordination to explore group relationships. The findings revealed the unique floristic composition of pistachio woodlands, characterized by high levels of endemism, with species such as Ajuga turkestanica, Astragalus quisqualis, and Tulipa subquinquefolia . With a sparse Pistacia -dominated canopy that allows significant light penetration, the understory supports a diverse range of herbaceous plants and shrubs, enhancing overall biodiversity. Two associations, Pistacietum verae and Pistacietum khinjuk, defined the new class, which showed marked differentiation from neighbouring vegetation types such as Quercetea ilicis and Crataegetalia ponticae . This study underscores the ecological significance of Pistacia open woodlands as an under-researched zonal vegetation type and advocated for targeted conservation strategies to preserve these fragile ecosystems, which extend from Iran to Tajikistan and potentially into Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Pakistan.
Świerszcz et al. (2022) (Figure 2g) explored the distribution of graminoids across five open vegetation types in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, revealing how climatic factors and grazing pressures shape vegetation patterns in these ecosystems. By analysing 1,525 vegetation plots from the Vegetation of Middle Asia database (Nowak et al. 2017), this study highlighted the crucial ecological role of graminoids, particularly in steppes, pseudosteppes, and mires, where their relative cover was highest. Applying polynomial functions and commonality analysis, the research identified key drivers of diversity, including mean annual temperature, precipitation, aridity, and livestock density. Notably, pseudosteppes exhibited a strong correlation between graminoid cover and grazing intensity, confirming their secondary origin due to anthropogenic pressures. In contrast, for steppes and salt marshes, temperature and aridity were the primary determinants of graminoid distribution, with salt marshes being particularly vulnerable to rising temperatures under climate change. Meanwhile, mires and tall-forb communities showed weak or negligible responses to the studied variables. This study underscores the multifaceted factors influencing graminoid contributions to Middle Asia’s open vegetation types and warns of potential declines in graminoid cover in salt marshes, steppes, and pseudosteppes due to climate change and overgrazing. By providing critical insights into graminoid ecology, it lays the groundwork for sustainable management strategies to preserve these ecosystems and their essential functions in the face of environmental change.
Świerszcz et al. (2023) (Figure 2h) presented a detailed classification of subalpine forb steppes in the Pamir-Alai Mountains, proposing a new vegetation class to reflect the ecological and floristic uniqueness of these dicot-rich grasslands in the Irano-Turanian region. Based on 149 relevés sampled in 2014 and 2021, the study utilized a modified TWINSPAN algorithm to classify clusters and Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) to explore compositional differences between alpine and subalpine grasslands.
The research identified 12 vegetation clusters, including nine new associations and three communities, each characterized by distinct species compositions influenced by environmental variables such as diurnal temperature ranges, annual precipitation, precipitation seasonality, and minimum winter temperatures. Among the newly proposed vegetation types were subalpine forb steppes with Eremogone griffithii and Nepeta podostachys, as well as mesic alpine grasslands dominated by Festuca alaica and Festuca kryloviana . These forb steppes were particularly notable for replacing juniper open woods in the upper montane and subalpine belts, signifying a major ecological shift. The study contributes to a broader understanding of upper montane and subalpine grasslands in Middle Asia, providing a consistent hierarchical classification framework while emphasizing the need for further research to refine the syntaxonomic positions of certain communities. The findings underscore the role of forb steppes as a distinct and ecologically significant vegetation type within the Pamir-Alai region.
Conclusions and future perspectives
Vegetation classification is widely recognized as fundamental for understanding and managing ecosystems globally (Dixon et al. 2014; De Cáceres et al. 2018; Keith et al. 2022). Such classifications enhance insights into vegetation dynamics and provide standardized frameworks essential for cross-regional ecological comparisons and targeted conservation strategies (Janišová et al. 2016; Nowak et al. 2022a). Our synthesis of current data (Figure 1), however, reveals significant gaps in the application of plot-based vegetation classification across Asia. Only two countries have established comprehensive phytosociological classification systems, and only one country has fully adopted the IVC /EcoVeg approach, whereas 25 countries rely on partial classifications. Ten countries employ solely informal, local plot-based methods, 22 use coarse, non-plot-based systems covering entire nations, and 11 have no established grassland typology at all. While notable progress has been made in regions such as Russia, Middle Asia, West Asia, and parts of China (Guo et al. 2018; Güler 2021; Ramzi et al. 2024; Nowak et al. 2025), large geographic areas remain underrepresented. For instance, this Special Collection does not include contributions from Central Asia, South Asia, North Asia, Southeast Asia, or East Asia, despite these regions encompassing some of the world’s most extensive and ecologically significant grasslands (Dixon et al. 2014; Wesche et al. 2016). Notably, phytosociological research in North Asia (Russia) has advanced significantly, as demonstrated by the ongoing national vegetation classification programme (Plugatar et al. 2020) and the forthcoming three-volume prodromus documenting at least 250 grassland associations (Olga Morozova, pers. comm.).
The inconsistent methodological approaches and substantial documentation gaps across Asia stem largely from the continent’s immense geographic, ecological, and cultural diversity (Nowak et al. 2022a). Socio-political and economic barriers—including uneven research capacities, economic disparities, geopolitical tensions, language barriers, and restrictive visa policies—further exacerbate these challenges (Ambarlı et al. 2018; Nowak et al. 2022a). Additionally, studies in regions such as South and Southeast Asia often remain fragmented and dominated by agricultural or forestry perspectives rather than typological classification.
A practical approach to addressing these challenges involves strengthening regional vegetation databases and classification frameworks. Successful regional prototypes, such as the Vegetation of Middle Asian database (Nowak et al. 2017) and the Vegetation Database of Iran (IranVeg; Ramzi et al. 2024), demonstrate how systematic data collection can serve as a foundation for developing a comprehensive, continent-wide resource. Furthermore, special initiatives, such as this Grasslands of Asia Special Collection, represent essential steps toward promoting local and regional data collection efforts, ultimately contributing to a unified framework for classifying and conserving Asian grasslands. Future research should specifically target regions where substantial gaps remain, including South and Southeast Asia, the alpine and high-montane grasslands of the Himalayas, and the expansive desert steppes of the Middle East, all of which urgently require increased attention and focused local studies.
Moving forward, there is a clear need to develop a unified, continent-wide vegetation classification framework that addresses existing methodological and data gaps. Initiatives such as the Mapping Asia Plants (MAP) project (Ma 2017; Xue et al. 2020; Xu et al. 2020; Xiao et al. 2023) offer promising models for integrating local, regional, and national datasets. Experiences from other continents—including Europe’s European Vegetation Archive (EVA; Chytrý et al. 2016), North America’s VegBank (Peet et al. 2012), and Australia’s TERN-AEKOS archive (Chabbi and Loescher 2017)—demonstrate the substantial benefits of collaborative databases in advancing large-scale ecological research and supporting informed conservation planning. In contrast, Asia, much like Africa (Guuroh et al. 2024) and Latin America (Peyre et al. 2024), lags behind due to methodological fragmentation, limited data accessibility, and geopolitical barriers. Establishing a similar collaborative framework specifically for Asia’s vegetation, particularly its diverse grasslands, would significantly enhance cross-regional and international cooperation, address critical data deficiencies, and advance biodiversity research across the continent. Fortunately, the availability of Asian vegetation data in global repositories—such as the Global Index of Vegetation-Plot Databases (GIVD; Dengler et al. 2011), sPlot (Bruelheide et al. 2019; Sabatini et al. 2021), GrassPlot (Dengler et al. 2018; Biurrun et al. 2019; Boch et al. 2021), and EVA (Chytrý et al. 2016)—already provides a solid foundation upon which these efforts can build.
The Asian Regional Section of the International Association for Vegetation Science (IAVS) is uniquely positioned to facilitate this critical transition. With 117 members from 29 countries, including 17 Asian nations, it serves as an essential platform for scientific exchange, capacity building, and collaboration, especially benefiting early-career researchers. Through organizing workshops, field studies, and conferences, the Asian Regional Section actively promotes knowledge sharing, standardization of methodologies, and the establishment of partnerships to strengthen regional collaboration. Expanding membership and fostering stronger connections with underrepresented countries will be pivotal in addressing Asia’s vegetation ecology challenges effectively.
Author contributions
ANa planned and drafted this Editorial, while all other authors contributed, revised and approved it.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Soghra Ramzi for preparing Figure2and compiling the references. We also sincerely thank the authors and reviewers whose contributions and efforts were instrumental in bringing this Special Collection to this final stage.
E-mail and ORCID
Alireza Naqinezhad (Corresponding author,[email protected]), ORCID:https://orcid.org/0009-0000-4512-729X
Idoia Biurrun ([email protected]), ORCID:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1454-0433
Victor Chepinoga ([email protected]), ORCID:https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3809-7453
Jürgen Dengler ([email protected]), ORCID:https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3221-660X
Arkadiusz Nowak ([email protected]), ORCID:https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8638-0208
Supplementary materials
Supplementary material 1
Assessment of 48 Asian countries according to the methodological approach for grassland classification (.xlsx)
Abbadi GA, El-Sheikh MA (2002) Vegetation analysis of Failaka Island (Kuwait). Journal of Arid Environments 50: 153–165. https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.2001.0855
Abbas JA, Saleh MA, Mohammed SA (1991) Plant communities of a protected area in the desert of Bahrain island. Journal of Arid Environments 20: 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-1963 (18) 30773-0
Abul-Fatih H (1975) Vegetation and soil of saline depressions near Najaf, Central Iraq. Vegetatio 30: 107–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02389612
Akhani H (2004) Halophytic vegetation of Iran: towards a syntaxonomical classification. Annali di Botanica 4: 65–82.
Akhani H, Mucina L (2015) The Tamaricetea arceuthoidis : a new class for the continental riparian thickets of the Middle East, Central Asia and the subarid regions of the Lower Volga valley. Lazaroa 36: 61–66. https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_LAZA.2015.v36.50200
Akman Y, Ketenoglu O, Quézel P, Demirors M (1984) A syntaxonomic study of steppe vegetation in Central Anatolia. Phytocoenologia 12: 563–584. https://doi.org/10.1127/phyto/12/1984/563
Akman Y, Vural M, Quézel P, Kurt L, Ketenoğlu O, Serin M, Barbero M (1996) Etude de la végétation steppique de la région de Karaman et d’Ermenek (sud de l’Anatolie Centrale). Ecologia Mediterranea 22: 1–7. https://doi.org/10.3406/ecmed.1996.1804
Ambarlı D, Vrahnakis M, Burrascano S, Naqinezhad A, Pulido Fernández M (2018) Grasslands of the Mediterranean Basin and the Middle East and their management.In:Squires VR, Dengler J, Hua L, Feng H (Eds)Grasslands of the World.CRC Press, Boca Raton, US, 103–126. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315156125-12
Ambarlı D, Naqinezhad A, Aleksanyan A (2020) Grasslands and shrublands of the Middle East and the Caucasus.In:Goldstein MI, DellaSala DA (Eds)Encyclopedia of the World’s Biomes.Elsevier, Oxford, UK, 714–724. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.12142-6
Anenkhonov OA, Naidanov BB (2024) Syntaxonomy of steppe plant communities on the permafrost soils on the Vitimskoye Plateau (Transbaikalia region). Vegetation of Russia 48: 117–127. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.31111/vegrus/2024.48.117
Ariapour A, Badripour H, Jouri MH (2017) Rangeland and pastureland of Iran: Problems and potentials.In:Squires VR, Shang ZH, Ariapour A (Eds)Rangeland Along the Silk Road: Transformative Adaptation under Climate and Global Change.Nova Science Publishers, New York, US, 121–148.
Asouti E, Kabukcu C (2014) Holocene semi-arid oak woodlands in the Irano-Anatolian region of Southwest Asia: natural or anthropogenic? Quaternary Science Reviews 90: 158–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.03.001
Babikir AAA (1984) Vegetation and environment on the coastal sand dunes and playas of Khor El-Odaid Area, Qatar. GeoJournal 9: 377–385. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00697966
Basargin EV, Zibzeev EG (2018) Vegetation Mulgedio-Aconiteteta class in the subalpine belt of Kuznetsky Alatau. Flora and Vegetation of Asian Russia 1: 38–56. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.21782/RMAR1995-2449-2018-1(38-56)
Batsaikhan N, Buuveibaatar B, Chimed B, Enkhtuya O, Galbrakh D, Ganbaatar O, Lkhagvasuren B, Nandintsetseg D, Berger J, Whitten T (2014) Conserving the World’s finest grassland amidst ambitious national development. Conservation Biology 28: 1736–1739. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12297
Bharucha FR (1975) Fifty years of ecological and phytosociological research in India. Vegetatio 30: 153–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02389703
Bharucha FR, Dave RN (1952) Grasslands of Raita, Bombay. Journal of the British Grassland Society 7: 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.1952.tb01303.x
Bharucha FR, Shankarnarayan KA (1958) Studies on the Grasslands of the Western Ghats, India. The Journal of Ecology 46: 681. https://doi.org/10.2307/2257545
Bhattarai KR, Vetaas OR (2003) Variation in plant species richness of different life forms along a subtropical elevation gradient in the Himalayas, east Nepal. Global Ecology and Biogeography 12: 327–340. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1466-822X.2003.00044.x
Bhutia PL, Gupta B, Yadav RP, Bhutia KG, Yadav D, Langlentombi LC (2024) Floristic composition and phytosociology of various forage-based land-use systems in the Himalayas over an altitudinal gradient. Range Management and Agroforestry 45: 1–11. https://doi.org/10.59515/rma.2024.v45.i1.01
Biurrun I, Burrascano S, Dembicz I, Guarino R, Kapfer J, Pielech R, Garcia-Mijangos I, Wagner V, Palpurina S, Dengler J (2019) GrassPlot v. 2.00 – first update on the database of multi-scale plant diversity in Palaearctic grasslands. Palaearctic Grasslands 44: 26–47. https://doi.org/10.21570/EDGG.PG.44.26-47
Biurrun I, Pielech R, Dembicz I, Gillet F, Kozub Ł, Marcenò C, Reitalu T, Van Meerbeek K, Guarino R, Dengler J (2021) Benchmarking plant diversity of Palaearctic grasslands and other open habitats. Journal of Vegetation Science 32: e13050. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvs.13050
Biurrun I, Dengler J, Willner W (2025) Vegetation classification and survey: five years and looking ahead. Vegetation Classification and Survey 6: 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.148065
Blažková D (1993) Phytosociological study of grassland vegetation in North Korea. Folia Geobotanica et Phytotaxonomica 28: 247–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02853512
Boch S, Becker T, Deák B, Dengler J, Klaus VH (2021) Grasslands of temperate Europe in a changing world – Editorial to the 16th EDGG Special Feature in Tuexenia. Tuexenia 41: 351–359. https://doi.org/10.14471/2021.41.020
Bragina TM, Nowak A, Vanselow KA, Wagner V (2017) Grasslands of Kazakhstan and Middle Asia: Ecology, Conservation and use of a vast and globally important area.In:Squires VR, Dengler J, Feng H, Limin H (Eds)Grasslands of the World.CRC Press, Boca Raton, US, 141–169.
Breckle SW, Hedge IC, Rafiqpoor MD (2013) Vascular plants of Afghanistan: An Augmented Checklist.Scientia Bonnensis,Rheinbreitbach, DE,598 pp.
Brown G (2006) The sabkha vegetation of the United Arab Emirates.In:Khan MA, Böer B, Kust GS, Barth HJ (Eds)Sabkha Ecosystems: Volume II: West and Central Asia.Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, NL, 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5072-5_4
Brown CG [Ed.] (2020) Common Grasslands in Asia: A Comparative analysis of Chinese and Mongolian grasslands.Edward Elgar Publishing,Cheltenham, UK,200 pp. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781788974059
Bruelheide H, Dengler J, Jiménez-Alfaro B, Purschke O, Hennekens SM, Chytrý M, Pillar VD, Jansen F, Kattge J, Zverev A (2019) sPlot – A new tool for global vegetation analyses. Journal of Vegetation Science 30: 161–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvs.12710
Bürzle B, Schickhoff U, Schwab N, Oldeland J, Müller M, Böhner J, Chaudhary RP, Scholten T, Dickoré WB (2017) Phytosociology and ecology of treeline ecotone vegetation in Rolwaling Himal, Nepal. Phytocoenologia 47: 197–220. https://doi.org/10.1127/phyto/2016/0130
Chabbi A, Loescher HW [Eds] (2017) Terrestrial ecosystem research infrastructures: challenges and opportunities.CRC Press,Boca Raton, US,558 pp. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315368252
Chandran M (2015) Grassland vegetation of India: An update.In:Rawat GS, Adhikari BS (Eds)Ecology and management of grassland ecology in India.Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, IN, 12–27.
Chea M, Fraser BT, Nay S, Sok L, Strasser H, Tizard R (2024) A survey of changes in grasslands within the Tonle Sap Lake Landscape from 2004 to 2023. Diversity 16: e448. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16080448
Cheng Y, Nakamura T (2007) Phytosociological study of steppe vegetation in east Kazakhstan. Grassland Science 53: 172–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-697X.2007.00090.x
Cheng Y, Tsendeekhuu T, Narantuya N, Nakamura T (2008) Phytosociological study of steppe vegetation in Mongolia. Grassland Science 54: 107–116. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-697X.2008.00112.x
Cheng Y, Kamijo T, Tsubo M, Nakamura T (2013) Phytosociology of Hulunbeier grassland vegetation in Inner Mongolia, China. Phytocoenologia 43: 41–51. https://doi.org/10.1127/0340-269X/2013/0043-0540
Chibilyov AA (2002) Steppe and forest-steppe landscapes of Eurasia.Russian Academy of Sciences,Moscow, RU,412 pp.
Chupina IS, Korolyuk AY (2024) New alliance of South Siberian petrophytic steppes. Flora and Vegetation of Asian Russia 17: 237–252. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.15372/RMAR20240306
Chytrý M, Hennekens SM, Jiménez‐Alfaro B, Knollová I, Dengler J, Jansen F, Landucci F, Schaminée JHJ, Aćić S, Yamalov S (2016) European Vegetation Archive (EVA) : an integrated database of European vegetation plots. Applied Vegetation Science 19: 173–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12191
Dabadghao PM, Shankarnarayan KA (1973) The grass cover of India.Indian Council of Agricultural Research,Delhi, IN,738 pp.
Danin A (1988) Flora and vegetation of Israel and adjacent areas. The Zoogeography of Israel 30: 251–276.
De Cáceres M, Wiser SK (2012) Towards consistency in vegetation classification. Journal of Vegetation Science 23: 387–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-1103.2011.01354.x
De Cáceres M, Chytrý M, Agrillo E, Attorre F, Botta‐Dukát Z, Capelo J, Czúcz B, Dengler J, Ewald J, Wiser SK (2015) A comparative framework for broad‐scale plot‐based vegetation classification. Applied Vegetation Science 18: 543–560. https://doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12179
De Cáceres M, Franklin SB, Hunter JT, Landucci F, Dengler J, Roberts DW (2018) Global overview of plot-based vegetation classification approaches. Phytocoenologia 48: 101–112. https://doi.org/10.1127/phyto/2018/0256
De Sanctis M, Adeeb A, Farcomeni A, Patriarca C, Saed A, Attorre F (2013) Classification and distribution patterns of plant communities on Socotra Island, Yemen. Applied Vegetation Science 16: 148–165. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-109X.2012.01212.x
Deil U, al Gifri AN (1998) Montane and Wadi vegetation.In:Ghazanfar SA, Fisher M (Eds)Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula.Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, NL, 125–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-3637-4_6
Deil U, Müller-Hohenstein K (1996) An outline of the vegetation of Dubai (UAE). Verhandlungen-Gesellschaft für Ökologie 25: 77–96.
Dengler J, Chytrý M, Ewald J (2008) Phytosociology.In:Jørgensen SE, Faith BD (Eds)Encyclopedia of ecology, vol.4. Elsevier, Oxford, UK, 2767–2779. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008045405-4.00533-4
Dengler J, Jansen F, Glöckler F, Peet RK, De Cáceres M, Chytrý M, Ewald J, Oldeland J, Lopez‐Gonzalez G, Spencer N (2011) The global index of vegetation‐plot databases (GIVD) : a new resource for vegetation science. Journal of Vegetation Science 22: 582–597. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-1103.2011.01265.x
Dengler J, Bergmeier E, Willner W, Chytrý M (2013) Towards a consistent classification of European grasslands. Applied Vegetation Science 16: 518–520. https://doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12041
Dengler J, Janišová M, Török P, Wellstein C (2014) Biodiversity of Palaearctic grasslands: a synthesis. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 182: 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2013.12.015
Dengler J, Wagner V, Dembicz I, García-Mijangos I, Naqinezhad A, Boch S, Chiarucci A, Conradi T, Goffredo F, Biurrun I (2018) GrassPlot – a database of multi-scale plant diversity in Palaearctic grasslands. Phytocoenologia 48: 331–347. https://doi.org/10.1127/phyto/2018/0267
Dengler J, Biurrun I, Boch S, Dembicz I, Török P (2020) Grasslands of the Palaearctic Biogeographic Realm: Introduction and Synthesis.In:Goldstein MI, DellaSala DA (Eds)Encyclopedia of the World’s Biomes.Elsevier, Oxford, UK, 617–637. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.12432-7
Dixon AP, Faber‐Langendoen D, Josse C, Morrison J, Loucks CJ (2014) Distribution mapping of world grassland types. Journal of Biogeography 41: 2003–2019. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.12381
Dove MR (2004) Anthropogenic grasslands in Southeast Asia: Sociology of knowledge and implications for agroforestry. Agroforestry Systems 61–62: 423–435. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:AGFO.0000029013.29092.36
Dudov SV (2018) Grasslands of the Sea of Japan coast (Lazovskiy nature reserve named after L. G. Kaplanov. Primorye Territory). Vegetation of Russia: 19–34. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.31111/vegrus/2018.32.19
Dulamsuren C, Hauck M, Muhlenberg M (2005) Vegetation at the taiga forest-steppe borderline in the western Khentey Mountains, northern Mongolia. Annales Botanici Fennici 42: 411–426.
Dvorský M, Doležal J, de Bello F, Klimešová J, Klimeš L (2011) Vegetation types of East Ladakh: species and growth form composition along main environmental gradients. Applied Vegetation Science 14: 132–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-109X.2010.01103.x
Egamberdieva D, Öztürk M [Eds] (2018) Vegetation of Central Asia and Environs.Springer International Publishing,Cham, CH,381 pp. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99728-5
El-Demerdash MA (1996) The Vegetation of the Farasān Islands, Red Sea, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Vegetation Science 7: 81–88. https://doi.org/10.2307/3236419
El-Sheikh MA, Mady ME, Shaltout KH (2003) Vegetation analysis of the down-stream part of Wadi Gaza, Palestine. Ecologia Mediterranea 29(2) : 139–151. https://doi.org/10.3406/ecmed.2003.1548
Erdős L, Ambarlı D, Anenkhonov OA, Bátori Z, Cserhalmi D, Kiss M, Kröel-Dulay G, Liu H, Magnes M, Török P (2018) The edge of two worlds: A new review and synthesis on Eurasian forest-steppes. Applied Vegetation Science 21: 345–362. https://doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12382
Etzold J, Münzner F, Manthey M (2016) Sub‐alpine and alpine grassland communities in the northeastern Greater Caucasus of Azerbaijan. Applied Vegetation Science 19: 316–335. https://doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12207
Faber-Langendoen D, Keeler-Wolf T, Meidinger D, Tart D, Hoagland B, Josse C, Navarro G, Ponomarenko S, Saucier J-P, Comer P (2014) EcoVeg: a new approach to vegetation description and classification. Ecological Monographs 84: 533–561. https://doi.org/10.1890/13-2334.1
Fang JY, Guo K, Wang GH, Tang ZY, Xie ZQ, Shen ZH, Wang RQ, Qiang S, Liang CZ, Yu D (2020) Vegetation classification system and classification of vegetation types used for the compilation of vegetation of China. Chinese Journal of Plant Ecology 44: 96–110. [In Chinese] https://doi.org/10.17521/cjpe.2019.0259
Franklin SB, Hunter JT, De Cáceres M, Dengler J, Landucci F, Krestov P (2016) Introducing the IAVS vegetation classification working group. Phytocoenologia 46: 5–8. https://doi.org/10.1127/phyto/2016/0116
Freitag H (1971) Die natürliche vegetation Afghanistans beiträge zur flora und vegetation Afghanistans I. Vegetatio 22: 285–344. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01975703
Frey W, Kürschner H (1989) Die Vegetation im Vorderen Orient: Erläuterungen zur Karte A VI 1 Vorderer Orient, Vegetation, des “Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients.” Dr Ludwig Reichert,Wiesbaden, DE,112 pp.
Frey W, Probst W (1986) A synopsis of the vegetation of Iran.In:Kürschner H (Ed.)Contribution of the vegetation of southwest Asia.Dr. Ludwig Reichert, Wiesbaden, DE, 9–44.
Fujiwara K (1996) Classification of plant communities in the “Vegetation of Japan 1980–1989. ” Bulletin of the Institute of Environmental Science and Technology, Yokohama National University 22: 23–80.
Galav PK, Katewa SS, Chaudhary BL, Jain A (2005) Phytosociological studies on the grassland community of Southern Aravalli Fills of Rajasthan. Indian Forester 131: 943–952.
Garrity DP, Soekardi M, van Noordwijk M, de la Cruz R, Pathak PS, Gunasena HPM, van So N, Huijun G, Majid NM (1996) The Imperata grasslands of tropical Asia: area, distribution, and typology. Agroforestry Systems 36: 3–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00142865
Ghazanfar SA, McDaniel T (2016) Floras of the middle east: a quantitative analysis and biogeography of the flora of Iraq. Edinburgh Journal of Botany 73: 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0960428615000244
Golovanov Y, Yamalov S, Abramova L (2017) The steppe communities in urban ecosystems in the South Urals: syntaxonomy and conservations. Botanica Pacifica 6: 13–21. https://doi.org/10.17581/bp.2017.06102
Güler B (2021) Non-forest vegetation database of Turkey – NFVDT: current status and opportunities. 29th Conference of European Vegetation Survey, Online conference, 6–7 September 2021. https://doi.org/10.21570/BUL-202103-9
Guo DG, Shangguan TL, Ma XY, Hao J, Bi R (2014) Vegetation of Shanxi: Needleleaf Forest volume.Science Press,Beijing, CN,342 pp. [In Chinese]
Guo K, Liu CC, Xie ZQ, Li FY, Franklin SB, Lu Z-J, Ma KP (2018) China vegetation classification: concept, approach and applications. Phytocoenologia 48: 113–120. https://doi.org/10.1127/phyto/2017/0166
Guo K, Fang J-Y, Wang G-H, Tang Z-Y, Xie Z-Q, Shen Z-H, Wang R-Q, Qiang S, Liang C-Z, Yu D (2020) A revised scheme of vegetation classification system of China. Chinese Journal of Plant Ecology 44: 111–127. [In Chinese] https://doi.org/10.17521/cjpe.2019.0271
Guuroh RT, Brown LR, Alvarez M, Finckh M, Schmiedel U, Tsheboeng G, Dengler J (2024) African vegetation studies: introduction to a Special Collection. Vegetation Classification and Survey 5: 279–288. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.143360
Hartmann H (1987) Pflanzengesellschaften trockener Standorte aus der subalpinen und alpinen Stufe im südlichen und östlichen Ladakh. Candollea 42: 277–326.
Hartmann H (1990) Pflanzengesellschaften aus der alpinen Stufe des westlichen, südlichen und östlichen Ladakh mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der rasenbildenden Gesellschaften. Candollea 45: 525–574.
Hartmann H (1999) Studien zur Flora und Vegetation im östlichen Transhimalaya von Ladakh (Indien). Candollea 54: 171–230.
Heim RJ, Chepinoga VV (2019) Subalpine tall-herb vegetation patterns: a case study from the Khamar-Daban Range (southern Baikal region, Eastern Siberia). Botanica Pacifica 8: 39–49. https://doi.org/10.17581/bp.2019.08111
Hilbig W (1990) Pflanzengesellschaften der Mongolei. In: Erforschung biologischer Ressourcen der Mongolischen Volksrepublik. Halle, DE, 3–146.
Hilbig W (1995) The vegetation of Mongolia.SPB Academic Publishing,Amsterdam, NL,258 pp.
Hilbig W (2000) Kommentierte Übersicht über die Pflanzengesellschaften und ihre höheren Syntaxa in der Mongolei. Feddes Repertorium 111: 75–120. https://doi.org/10.1002/fedr.20001110108
Hilbig W (2003) Geobotanical research in the Dornod Aymak (East Aymak) of Mongolia. Feddes Repertorium 114: 508–539. https://doi.org/10.1002/fedr.200311013
Hou XY (1960) Vegetation of China.People’s Education Press,Beijing, CN,308 pp. [In Chinese]
Ighbareyeh JMH, Cano-Ortiz A, Cano E (2022) Phytosociology and vegetation of plants of Beit Jibrin in Palestine. Land 11: e264. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11020264
Iqbal M, Khan SM, Ahmad Z, Hussain M, Shah SN, Kamran S, Manan F, Haq ZU, Ullah S (2021) Vegetation classification of the Margalla foothills, Islamabad under the influence of edaphic factors and anthropogenic activities using modern ecological tools. Pakistan Journal of Botany 53: 1831–1843. https://doi.org/10.30848/PJB2021-5(22)
Itow S (1962) Grassland vegetation in uplands of western Honshu, Japan: Part I. Distribution of grassland 12: 123–129. [In Japanese]
Itow S (1974) Phytosociological studies on grassland vegetation in western Japan. Phytocoenologia 1: 306–338. https://doi.org/10.1127/phyto/1/1974/306
Jabbarov M, Ibragimov A, Nabieva F, Atamov V, Erkul SK (2020) Phytosociological features of frigana vegetation of Nakhchivan, Azerbaijan. Bangladesh Journal of Botany 49: 273–286. https://doi.org/10.3329/bjb.v49i2.49300
Jalili A, Naqinezhad A, Kamrani A (2014) Wetland ecology, with a special approach on wetland habitats of southern Alborz.University of Mazandaran Publication,Babolsar, IR,268 pp. [In Persian]
Janišová M, Dengler J, Willner W (2016) Classification of Palaearctic grasslands. Phytocoenologia 46: 233–239. https://doi.org/10.1127/phyto/2016/0169
Kamrani A, Jalili A, Naqinezhad A, Attar F, Maassoumi AA, Shaw SC (2011) Relationships between environmental variables and vegetation across mountain wetland sites, N. Iran. Biologia 66: 76–87. https://doi.org/10.2478/s11756-010-0127-2
Keith DA, Ferrer-Paris JR, Nicholson E, Bishop MJ, Polidoro BA, Ramirez-Llodra E, Tozer MG, Nel JL, Mac Nally R, Kingsford RT (2022) A function-based typology for Earth’s ecosystems. Nature 610: 513–518. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05318-4
Khassanov FO, Turginov O, Khudzhanazarov U, Tirkasheva M (2022) The Vegetation of the Pamir-Alay Mountainous System in Middle Asia.In:Öztürk M, Khan SM, Altay V, Efe R, Egamberdieva D, Khassanov FO (Eds)Biodiversity, Conservation and Sustainability in Asia.Volume 2: Prospects and Challenges in South and Middle Asia. Springer International Publishing, Cham, CH, 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73943-0_4
Kim CS, Jang YS (1989) Phytosociological study on the vegetation of Daehuksan Island. The Korean Journal of Ecology 12: 145–160. [In Korean]
Kim MH, Eo J, Kwon SI, Song YJ (2017) Flora and vegetation of Hilly Pasture in Daegwallyeong. Environmental Biology Research 35: 398–412. https://doi.org/10.11626/KJEB.2017.35.3.398
Kim JW, Kim SY, Choi BK (2019) Alpine vegetation on the Paekdu-San (Changbaishan) Summit of the North-east China. Journal of Plant Biology 62: 436–450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12374-019-0305-x
Kim EJ, Park JW, You YH, Park JH (2024) Characteristics of succession and plant biodiversity of montane grasslands in the Republic of Korea. Journal of Plant Biology 67: 377–390. [In Korean] https://doi.org/10.1007/s12374-024-09438-4
Klimeš L (2003) Life-forms and clonality of vascular plants along an altitudinal gradient in E Ladakh (NW Himalayas). Basic and Applied Ecology 4: 317–328. https://doi.org/10.1078/1439-1791-00163
Kolbek J, Jarolímek I (2013) Vegetation of the northern Korean Peninsula: classification, ecology and distribution. Phytocoenologia 43: 245–327. https://doi.org/10.1127/0340-269X/2013/0043-0544
Korolyuk AY, Yamalov S, Lebedeva MV, Golovanov Y, Dulepova NA, Zolotareva NV (2022a) Syntaxonomy of xeropetrophytic vegetation of Southern Urals: alliance Elytrigion pruiniferae all. nov. Vegetation of Russia 43: 88–105. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.31111/vegrus/2022.43.88
Korolyuk AYu, Lysenko TM, Golovanov YM, Sinelnikova NV, Polyakova MA, Chupina IS, Yamalov SM (2022b) Syntaxonomical notes. 1. Flora and Vegetation of Asian Russia 15: 152–165. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.15372/RMAR20220206
Korolyuk AY, Gogoleva P, Lysenko TM, Pestryakova LA, Prystyazhnyuk SA, Telyatnikov MYu, Troeva EL, Cherosov MM (2023) Syntaxonomical notes. 3. Flora and Vegetation of Asian Russia 16: 392–405. [In Russian]
Korolyuk AY, Zibzeev EG, Igay NV, Makunina NI, Telyatnikov MY, Sin’kovskiy EK (2024) Syntaxonomical notes. 4. Flora and Vegetation of Asian Russia 17: 156–169. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.15372/RMAR20240208
Korovin EP (1961) Vegetation of Middle Asia and Southern Kazakhstan. Book 1.UzbekSSR Academy of Sciences,Taschkent, UZ,429 pp. [In Russian]
Korovin EP (1962) Vegetation of Middle Asia and Southern Kazakhstan. Book 2.UzbekSSR Academy of Sciences,Taschkent, UZ,460 pp. [In Russian]
Korznikov KA, Dzizyurova VD, Petrenko TYa (2024) Tall-forbs vegetation of the class Filipendulo-Artemisietea montanae Ohba 1973 from Kamchatka, Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. Botanica Pacifica 13: 173–180. https://doi.org/10.17581/bp.2024.13211
Kubentayev SA, Alibekov DT, Perezhogin YV, Lazkov GA, Kupriyanov AN, Ebel AL, Izbastina KS, Borodulina OV, Kubentayeva BB (2024) Revised checklist of endemic vascular plants of Kazakhstan. PhytoKeys 238: 241–279. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.238.114475
Kürschner H (1986) The subalpine thorn-cushion formations of western South-West Asia: ecology, structure and zonation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Section B. Biological Sciences 89: 169–179. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269727000009003
Kürschner H, Neef R (2011) A first synthesis of the flora and vegetation of the Tayma oasis and surroundings (Saudi Arabia). Plant Diversity and Evolution 129: 27–58. https://doi.org/10.1127/1869-6155/2011/0129-0033
Kürschner H, Hein P, Kilian N, Hubaishan MA (2006) Diversity and zonation of the forests and woodlands of the mountains of Northern Socotra, Yemen. Englera 28: 11–55. https://doi.org/10.2307/20358182
Laongpol C, Suzuki K, Katzensteiner K, Sridith K (2009) Plant community structure of the coastal vegetation of peninsular Thailand. Thai Forest Bulletin (Botany) : 106–133.
Lapina AM, Lavrinenko OV (2023) New syntaxa of tundra vegetation in the Siberian sector of the Arctic. Botanica Pacifica 12: 69–87. https://doi.org/10.17581/bp.2023.12107
Lavrinenko OV, Lapshina ED, Lavrinenko IA (2022) New associations with Eriophorum vaginatum L. in the Russian Arctic. Botanica Pacifica 11: 15–36. https://doi.org/10.17581/bp.2022.11109
Lee TM (2005) Monitoring the dynamics of coastal vegetation in Southwestern Taiwan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 111: 307–323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-005-0209-8
Lee YK, Ahn KH (2012) Actual vegetation and vegetation structure at the coastal sand bars in the Nakdong Estuary, South Korea. Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology 26: 911–922. [In Korean]
Léonard J (1981–1989) Contribution a l’etude de la flore et de la végétation des deserts d’Iran. [Vols 1–9].Bulletin of Jardin Botanique National de Belgique,Meise, BE,1111 pp.
Li FY, Jäschke Y, Guo K, Wesche K, Goldstein MI, DellaSala DA (2020a) Grasslands of China. In: Encyclopedia of the World’s Biomes. Elsevier, Oxford, UK, 773–784. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.12120-7
Li L, Chen J, Han X, Zhang W, Shao C (2020b) Grassland Ecosystems of China: A Synthesis and Resume.Springer Singapore,Singapore, SG,583 pp. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3421-8
Li W, Tojibaev KS, Hisoriev H, Shomurodov KF, Luo M, Feng Y, Ma K (2020c) Mapping Asia Plants: Current status of floristic information for Central Asian flora. Global Ecology and Conservation 24: e01220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01220
Lieth H, Numata M, Suganuma T (1973) Studies of the grassland vegetation in the kawatabi special research area of the Japanese IBP. Vegetatio 28: 41–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02386213
Liu C, Qiao X, Guo K, Zhao L, Pan Q (2022) Vegetation classification of Stipa steppes in China, with reference to the International Vegetation Classification. Vegetation Classification and Survey 3: 121–144. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.72875
Loidi J, Navarro-Sánchez G, Vynokurov D (2022) Climatic definitions of the world’s terrestrial biomes. Vegetation Classification and Survey 3: 231–271. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.86102
Loutfy Boulos AGM, Miller AG (1994) Regional overview: South West Asia and the Middle East.In:WWF IUCN (Eds)Centres of plant diversity: a guide and strategy for their conservation.IUCN Publications Unit, Cambridge, UK, 293–308.
Lysenko TM, Korolyuk AYu, Averinova EA, Sokolova TA, Chupina IS (2022) Syntaxonomical notes. 2. Flora and Vegetation of Asian Russia 15: 308–322. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.15372/RMAR20220406
Ma K (2017) Mapping Asia Plants: a cyberinfrastructure for plant diversity in Asia. Biodiversity Science 25: 5–10. https://doi.org/10.17520/biods.2017030
Mahdavi P, Isermann M, Bergmeier E (2017) Sand habitats across biogeographical regions at species, community and functional level. Phytocoenologia 47: 139–165. https://doi.org/10.1127/phyto/2017/0127
Makunina NI (2022) Meadows of West Siberian Plain and Altai-Sayan Mountain region: biodiversity and syntaxonomic review. Flora and Vegetation of Asian Russia 15: 191–210. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.15372/RMAR20220302
Makunina NI (2023) Steppes of Tyva: syntaxonomy and phytocenotic characteristics. Flora and Vegetation of Asian Russia 16: 369–291. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.15372/RMAR20230407
Makunina NI, Zhirova OS, Sakhnevich MB (2019) Vegetation of Teletskiy Ridge (Altai Republic). Flora and Vegetation of Asian Russia 1: 53–74. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.21782/RMAR1995-2449-2019-1(53-74)
Makunina NI, Egorova EV, Zibzeev EG (2020) Tundra-steppe on Ukok Plateau (The south-east Altai). Flora and Vegetation of Asian Russia 2: 3–17. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.21782/RMAR1995-2449-2020-2(3-17)
Malaviya DR, Roy AK, Kaushal P (2017) Rangelands/Grasslands of India: Current Status and Future Prospects.In:Squires VR, Dengler J, Hua L, Feng H (Eds)Grasslands of the World.CRC Press, Boca Raton, US, 235–252. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315156125-18
Matveyeva NV, Lavrinenko OV (2021) The checklist of the syntaxa within the Russian Arctic: current state with vegetation classification. Vegetation of Russia: 3–41. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.31111/vegrus/2021.42.3
Matveyeva NV, Lavrinenko OV (2023) Carici arctisibiricae–Hylocomietea alaskani – a new class of zonal tundra vegetation. Botanica Pacifica 12: 3–20. https://doi.org/10.17581/bp.2023.12106
Miehe G, Bach K, Miehe S, Kluge J, Yongping Y, Duo L, Co S, Wesche K (2011) Alpine steppe plant communities of the Tibetan highlands. Applied Vegetation Science 14: 547–560. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-109X.2011.01147.x
Mittermeier RA, Turner WR, Larsen FW, Brooks TM, Gascon C (2011) Global biodiversity conservation: the critical role of hotspots.In:Zachos FE, Habel JC (Eds)Biodiversity hotspots.Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, DE, 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-20992-5_1
Miyawaki A [Ed.] (1980–1989) Japan Vegetation Record [Nihon Shokusei Shi], 10 vols.Shibundo,Tokyo, JP,5249 pp. [in Japanese; with German and English summaries]
Miyawaki A, Suzuki K (1980) Process of phytosociological studies and vegetation mapping. Bulletin of the Institute of Environmental Science and Technology, Yokohama National University 6: 65–76.
Mobayen S, Tregubov V (1970) Map of the natural vegetation of Iran.University of Tehran,Tehran, IR,34 pp.
Moog FA (1990) Philippine Grasslands: Liveweight Gains in Cattle and Buffaloes, with and Without Introduced Legumes. Journal of Biogeography 17: 521–523. https://doi.org/10.2307/2845385
Mumshad M, Ahmad I, Khan SM, Abdullah Rehman K, Islam M, Sakhi S, Khan SU, Afridi SG, Ahmad Z (2021) Phyto-ecological studies and distribution pattern of plant species and communities of Dhirkot, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. PLoS ONE 16: e0257493. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257493
Nakamura T, Yaoming G, Shu J (1988) A preliminary study on the classification of steppe vegetation using Braun-Blanquet’s method in some areas of Xilin River basin in Inner Mongolia. Bulletin of Sugadaira Montane Research Center 9: 9–17.
Nakhutsrishvili G, Batsatsashvili K, Bussmann RW, Rahman IU, Hart RE, Haq SM (2022) The subalpine and alpine vegetation of the Georgian Caucasus - a first ethnobotanical and phytosociological synopsis. Ethnobotany Research and Applications 23: 1–60. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.23.12.1-60
Naqinezhad A (2023) Asian Grassland Conference. IAVS Bulletin 2023(3) : 32–37. https://doi.org/10.21570/BUL-202302-2
Naqinezhad A, Esmailpoor A (2017) Flora and vegetation of rocky outcrops/cliffs near the Hyrcanian forest timberline in the Mazandaran Mountains, Northern Iran. Nordic Journal of Botany 35: 449–466. https://doi.org/10.1111/njb.01384
Naqinezhad A, Nowak A, Świerszcz S, Jalili A, Kamrani A, Wheeler BD, Shaw SC, Attar F, Nobis M, Hájek M (2021) Syntaxonomy and biogeography of the Irano‐Turanian mires and springs. Applied Vegetation Science 24: e12571. https://doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12571
Noroozi J [Ed.] (2020) Plant biogeography and vegetation of high mountains of Central and South-West Asia.Springer International Publishing,Cham, CH,360 pp. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45212-4
Noroozi J, Talebi A, Suen M, Schneeweiss GM (2024) Plant biogeography, endemism and vegetation types of Dena Mts, Zagros, West Iran. Vegetation Classification and Survey 5: 185–202. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.118433
Nowak A, Nobis M, Nowak S, Nobis A, Swacha G, Kącki Z (2017) Vegetation of Middle Asia – the project state of art after ten years of survey and future perspectives. Phytocoenologia 47: 395–400. https://doi.org/10.1127/phyto/2017/0208
Nowak A, Biurrun I, Janišová M, Dengler J (2022a) Classification of grasslands and other open vegetation types in the Palaearctic – Introduction to the Special Collection. Vegetation Classification and Survey 3: 149–159. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.87068
Nowak A, Świerszcz S, Nowak S, Plášek V, Nobis A, Klichowska E, Nobis M (2022b) Diversity, distribution, and classification of chasmophytic vegetation in the Central Asian biodiversity hotspot: alpine belt of the Eastern Pamir-Alai and Western Tian Shan Mountains. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 91: e911. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.911
Nowak A, Świerszcz S, Nowak S, Nobis M (2023) High altitude semi-deserts and desert steppes in the eastern Pamir-Alai and western Tian Shan Mountains (Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan). Phytocoenologia 51: 331–356. https://doi.org/10.1127/phyto/2023/0404
Nowak A, Świerszcz S, Naqinezhad A, Nowak S, Nobis M (2024a) The Pistacietea verae : a new class of open, deciduous woodlands in Middle and Southwestern Asia. Vegetation Classification and Survey 5: 109–126. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.104841
Nowak A, Świerszcz S, Nowak S, Nobis A, Klichowska E, Nobis M (2024b) Conspectus of the vegetation types of Tajikistan and adjacent areas with special focus on phytosociological classes. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 93: 1–16. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp/191675
Nowak A, Świerszcz S, Nowak S, Nobis M (2024c) Vegetation of hot semi-deserts, badlands and related ruderal vegetation in western Tajikistan (Middle Asia). Acta Musei Silesiae, Scientiae Naturales 73: 40–68. https://doi.org/10.2478/cszma-2024-0005
Nowak A, Nobis M, Nowak S, Kotowski M, Klichowska E, Nobis A, Świerszcz S (2025) The vegetation of Middle Asia with a special reference to Tajikistan. Monographiae Botanicae 111, 624 pp.
Numata M (1969) Progressive and retrogressive gradient of grassland vegetation measured by degree of succession—Ecological judgement of grassland condition and trend IV. Vegetatio 19: 96–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00259006
Ohba T (1974) Comparative studies about the alpine vegetation of Japan. Phytocoenologia 1: 339–401. https://doi.org/10.1127/phyto/1/1974/339
Olson DM, Dinerstein E, Wikramanayake ED, Burgess ND, Powell GVN, Underwood EC, D’amico JA, Itoua I, Strand HE, Kassem KR (2001) Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on earth. BioScience 51: 933–938. https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568 (2001) 051[0933:TEOTWA]2.0.CO;2
Pan X, Wui S, Feng G, Erdun Feng F (1992) Hulunbeier grassland in China.Jilin Science and Technology Press,Changchun, CN,424 pp. [In Chinese]
Peer T, Gruber JP, Millinger A, Hussain F (2007) Phytosociology, structure and diversity of the steppe vegetation in the mountains of Northern Pakistan. Phytocoenologia 37: 1–65. https://doi.org/10.1127/0340-269X/2007/0037-0001
Peet R, Lee M, Jennings M, Faber-Langendoen D (2012) VegBank – a permanent, open-access archive for vegetation-plot data. Biodiversity & Ecology 4: 233–241. https://doi.org/10.7809/b-e.00080
Pemadasa MA, Amarasinghe L (1982) The ecology of a montane grassland in Sri Lanka: I. Quantitative description of the vegetation. Journal of Ecology 70: 1–15. https://doi.org/10.2307/2259860
Pemadasa MA, Mueller-Dombois D (1979) An ordination study of montane grasslands of Sri Lanka. Journal of Ecology 67: 1009–1023. https://doi.org/10.2307/2259225
Pemadasa MA, Mueller-Dombois D (1981) An association-analysis of montane grasslands of Sri Lanka. Austral Ecology 6: 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1981.tb01278.x
Peper J, Pietzsch D, Manthey M (2010) Semi-arid rangeland vegetation of the Greater Caucasus foothills in Azerbaijan and its driving environmental conditions. Phytocoenologia 40: 73–90. https://doi.org/10.1127/0340-269X/2010/0040-0432
Peyre G, Andrade BO, Velazquez A, Giorgis MA (2024) Vegetation classification in the Neotropics – Novel insights from Latin America and the Caribbean. Vegetation Classification and Survey 5: 219–223. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.133613
Pfeiffer M, Dulamsuren C, Wang Y, Wesche K (2018) Grasslands of China and Mongolia: spatial extent, land use and conservation.In:Squires VR, Dengler J, Hua L, Feng H (Eds)Grasslands of the world.CRC Press, Boca Raton, US, 182–210. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315156125-15
Pfeiffer M, Dulamsuren C, Wesche K (2020) Grasslands and shrublands of Mongolia.In:Goldstein MI, DellaSala DA (Eds)Encyclopedia of the world’s biomes.Elsevier, Oxford, UK, 759–772. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.12057-3
Plugatar YuV, Ermakov NB, Krestov PV, Matveyeva NV, Martynenko VB, Golub VB, Neshataeva VYu, Neshataev VYu, Anenkhonov OA, Polyakova MA (2020) The concept of vegetation classification of Russia as an image of contemporary tasks of phytocoenology. Vegetation of Russia 38: 3–12. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.31111/vegrus/2020.38.3
Polyakova N, Golovanov YM, Yamalov SM, Lebedeva MV, Shigapov ZH (2023) Ephemeroid vegetation of the Kulan Plateau in the Badhyz Reserve (Turkmenistan). Botanica Pacifica 12: 55–68. https://doi.org/10.17581/bp.2023.12110
Pyšek P, Šrůtek M (1989) Numerical phytosociology of the subalpine belt of the Kazbegi region, Caucasus, USSR. Vegetatio 81: 199–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00045525
Quézel P (1973) Contribution à l’étude phytosociologique du massif du Taurus. Phytocoenologia 1: 131–222. https://doi.org/10.1127/phyto/1/1973/131
Rachkovskaya EI, Bragina TM (2012) Steppes of Kazakhstan: diversity and present state.In:Werger MJA, van Staalduinen MA (Eds)Eurasian steppes.Ecological Problems and Livelihoods in a Changing World. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, NL, 103–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-3886-7_3
Ramzi S, Noroozi J, Gholizadeh H, Hamzeh’ee B, Asri Y, Talebi A, Moradi H, Mahdavi P, Tamjidi Eramsadati SS, Naqinezhad A (2024) IranVeg – the vegetation database of Iran: current status and the way forward. Vegetation Classification and Survey 5: 237–256. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.114081
Ratnam J, Tomlinson KW, Rasquinha DN, Sankaran M (2016) Savannahs of Asia: antiquity, biogeography, and an uncertain future. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 371: e20150305. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0305
Reddy C, Krishna PH, Ravikiran A (2011) Mapping the vegetation types of Rajasthan, India using remote sensing data. Journal of Environmental Research and Management 2: 1–9.
Sabatini FM, Lenoir J, Hattab T, Arnst EA, Chytrý M, Dengler J, De Ruffray P, Hennekens SM, Jandt U, Bruelheide H (2021) sPlotOpen – An environmentally balanced, open-access, global dataset of vegetation plots. Global Ecology and Biogeography 30: 1740–1764. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13346
Sádlo J, Kolbek J (1997) The terrestrial ruderal and segetal vegetation of North Korea: A synthesis. Folia Geobotanica 32: 25–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02803882
Schulz E, Whitney JW (1986) Vegetation in north-central Saudi Arabia. Journal of Arid Environments 10: 175–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-1963 (18) 31237-0
Seavoy RE (1975) The origin of tropical grasslands in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Journal of Tropical Geography 40: 48–52.
Shaltout KH, El-Halawany EF, El-Garawany MM (1997) Coastal lowland vegetation of eastern Saudi Arabia. Biodiversity and Conservation 6: 1027–1040. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018319714993
Shimoda K, Tsutsumi M, Higashiyama M, Nakagami K (2020) Fact database of grassland vegetation in Japan. Ecological Research 35: 1057–1061. https://doi.org/10.1111/1440-1703.12166
Shin JK, Yun CW, Yang HM (2009) Community classification for actual vegetation of Anmyeon Island in Chungcheongnam-do Province, Korea. Journal of Environmental Science International 18: 1427–1436. [In Korean] https://doi.org/10.5322/JES.2009.18.12.1427
Shin HS, Kim TG, Yun CW (2015) Phytosociological vegetation classification and flora for the mid-west coast in Korea. Korean Journal of Apiculture 30: 315–329. [In Korean] https://doi.org/10.17519/apiculture.2015.11.30.4.315
Song YC (2011) Recognition and proposal on the vegetation classification system of China. Chinese Journal of Plant Ecology 35: 882–892. [In Chinese] https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1258.2011.00882
Stephan J, Barhoun J, Maatouk E, Foucault B, Safi S (2019) Syntaxonomy of open oak forests on basalt formations in north Lebanon. Lebanese Science Journal 20: 391–412. https://doi.org/10.22453/LSJ-020.3.391-412
Suganuma T (1966) Phytosociological studies on the semi-natural grasslands used for grazing In Japan, I. Classification of grazing land. Journal of Japanese Botany 19: 255–276.
Suganuma T (1967) Phytosociological studies on the semi-natural grassland used for grazing in Japan, II. Ecological strata in pasture vegetation. Shokubutsugaku Zasshi 80: 145–160. https://doi.org/10.15281/jplantres1887.80.145
Suzuki K, Laongpol C, Sridith K (2005) Phytosociological studies on vegetation of coastal dunes at Narathiwat, Thailand. Tropics 14: 229–244. https://doi.org/10.3759/tropics.14.229
Suzuki K, Tsendeekhuu T, Amartuvshin N, Kamijo T, Nakamura T (2021) Phytosociological study of steppe vegetation in western Mongolia. Journal of Arid Land Studies 31: 63–76. https://doi.org/10.14976/jals.31.3_63
Suzuki K, Tungalag R, Narantsetseg A, Tsendeekhuu T, Shinoda M, Yamanaka N, Kamijo T (2023) Composition, distribution and environmental drivers of Mongolian rangeland plant communities. Journal of Plant Ecology 16: rtac100. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpe/rtac100
Swacha G, Świerszcz S, Nowak S, Nobis M, Nowak A (2023) Classification of alpine grasslands in the western Tian Shan Mountains (Kyrgyzstan, Middle Asia). Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 92: 1–26. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp/169036
Świerszcz S, Swacha G, Raduła MW, Nowak S (2022) Distribution of graminoids in open habitats in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. Vegetation Classification and Survey 3: 273–286. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.95767
Świerszcz S, Nobis M, Swacha G, Nowak S, Nowak A (2023) Syntaxonomic classification of forb steppes and related vegetation of subalpine and alpine belts in the Pamir-Alai Mountains (Tajikistan, Middle Asia). Vegetation Classification and Survey 4: 291–317. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.102634
Takhtajan AL (1986) Floristic regions of the world.University of California Press,Oakland, US,522 pp.
Talebi A, Vynokurov D, Attar F, Dengler J, Naqinezhad A (2024) Vegetation of the southern slopes of Mt. Damavand, Iran: a comprehensive phytosociological classification. Vegetation Classification and Survey 5: 301–328. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.136825
Taniguchi M (1958) Phytosociological study of serpentine area of Mt. Asama. Acta Phytotaxonomica et Geobotanica 17: 122–127.
Tanimoto T (1961) Vegetation of the alang-alang grassland and succession in the Benakat District of South Sumatra, Indonesia. Bulletin of Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute 314: 11–19.
Tareen RB, Qadir SA (1991) Phytosociology of the hills of Quetta district. Pakistan Journal of Botany 23: 90–114.
Telyatnikov MYu, Khitun OV, Czernyadjeva IV, Kuzmina EYu, Ermokhina KA (2021) A contribution to the syntaxonomic diversity of the Tazovsky Peninsula, Arctic Russia. Botanica Pacifica 10: 37–51. https://doi.org/10.17581/bp.2021.10106
Telyatnikov MYu, Khitun OV, Ermokhina KA, Pristyazhnyuk SA (2022) Vegetation of the ultramafic mountain massif Rai-Iz (upper reaches of the Enga-Yu River, the Polar Urals, Russia). Botanica Pacifica 11: 37–50. https://doi.org/10.17581/bp.2022.11108
Telyatnikov MYu, Khitun OV, Kudr EV, Pisarenko OYu, Pristyazhnyuk SA, Ermokhina KA (2023) Mountain tundra vegetation in the axial part of the Polar Urals. Botanica Pacifica 12: 181–197. https://doi.org/10.17581/bp.2023.12204
Telyatnikov MYu, Khitun OV, Kudr EV, Pisarenko OYu, Pristyazhnyuk SA, Ermokhina KA (2024) Meadow, mire and shrub vegetation in the axial part of the Polar Urals (Russia). Botanica Pacifica 13: 131–146. https://doi.org/10.17581/bp.2024.13206
Teteryuk BYu, Lavrinenko OV, Kipriyanova LM (2022) Sparganion hyperborei – new alliance in water-bodies of the Arctic and mountainous regions of Eurasia. Botanica Pacifica 11: 57–64. https://doi.org/10.17581/bp.2022.11208
Tirgan S, Naqinezhad A, Moradi H, Kazemi Z, Vasefi N, Fenu G (2022) Caspian remnant coastal dunes: how do natural and anthropogenic factors impact on plant diversity and vegetation? Plant Biosystems 156: 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/11263504.2022.2065376
Tishchenko MP, Korolyuk AY (2020) Syntaxonomic diversity of meadow vegetation of right-bank part of the Upper Ob basin (Novosibirsk oblast). Flora and Vegetation of Asian Russia: 3–35. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.21782/RMAR1995-2449-2020-4(3-35)
Tishchenko MP, Zibzeev EG (2022) Syntaxonomic diversity of forest meadows at Ob-Inya watershed in the Novosibirsk Region. Vegetation of Russia 43: 41–59. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.31111/vegrus/2022.43.41
Török P, Dengler J (2018) Palaearctic grasslands in transition: overarching patterns and future prospects.In:Squires VR, Dengler J, Hua L, Feng H (Eds)Grasslands of the world: Diversity, management and conservation.CRC Press, Boca Raton, US, 15–26.
Ushimaru A, Uchida K, Suka T (2018) Grassland biodiversity in Japan: threats, management and conservation.In:Squires VR, Dengler J, Hua L, Feng H (Eds)Grasslands of the World.CRC press, Boca Raton, US, 211–232.
Ushimaru A, Uchida K, Ikegami M, Suka T (2020) Grasslands and Shrublands of Japan.In:Goldstein MI, DellaSala DA (Eds)Encyclopedia of the World’s Biomes.Elsevier, Oxford, UK, 785–799. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.12096-2
Venn S (2022a) Asian Grassland Conference. IAVS Bulletin 2022(2) : 12–15. https://doi.org/10.21570/BUL-202202-3
Venn S (2022b) Conference report. Asian grassland Conference. Palaearctic Grasslands 53: 9–11. https://doi.org/10.21570/EDGG.PG.53.35-35
Vetaas OR, Grytnes J (2002) Distribution of vascular plant species richness and endemic richness along the Himalayan elevation gradient in Nepal. Global Ecology and Biogeography 11: 291–301. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1466-822X.2002.00297.x
Von Wehrden H, Hilbig W, Wesche K (2006) Plant communities of the Mongolian Transaltay Gobi. Feddes Repertorium 117: 526–570. https://doi.org/10.1002/fedr.200611110
Vynokurov D, Aleksanyan A, Becker T, Biurrun I, Borovyk D, Fayvush G, García-Mijangos I, Magnes M, Palpurina S, Dengler J (2024) Dry grasslands and thorn-cushion communities of Armenia: a first syntaxonomic classification. Vegetation Classification and Survey 5: 39–73. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.119253
Wagner V, Bragina TM, Nowak A, Smelansky IE, Vanselow KA, Goldstein MI, DellaSala DA (2020) Grasslands and Shrublands of Kazakhstan and Middle Asia.In:Goldstein MI, DellaSala DA (Eds)Encyclopedia of the World’s Biomes.Elsevier, Oxford, UK, 750–758. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.12043-3
Wang JT (1988) The Steppes and Deserts of the Xizang Plateau (Tibet). Vegetatio 75: 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00045626
Wang GH, Fang JY, Guo K, Xie ZQ, Tang ZY, Shen ZH, Wang RQ, Wang XP, Wang DL (2020) Contents and protocols for the classification and description of Vegetation Formations, Alliances and Associations of vegetation of China. Chinese Journal of Plant Ecology 44: 128–178. [In Chinese] https://doi.org/10.17521/cjpe.2019.0272
Wang M, Guo Q, Chen A (2023) The savannization of tropical forests in mainland Southeast Asia since 2000. Landscape Ecology 38: 3961–3971. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-023-01691-1
Wesche K, Ambarlı D, Kamp J, Török P, Treiber J, Dengler J (2016) The Palaearctic steppe biome: a new synthesis. Biodiversity and Conservation 25: 2197–2231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-016-1214-7
Xiao C, Zhang Z, Ma K, Lin Q (2023) Mapping Asia Plants: Historical Outline and Review of Sources on Floristic Diversity in South Asia. Plants 12: e1617. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12081617
Xu X, Naqinezhad A, Ghazanfar SA, Fragman-Sapir O, Oganesian M, Dagher Kharrat MB, Taifour H, Filimban FZ, Matchutadze I, Ma K (2020) Mapping Asia plants: Current status on floristic information in Southwest Asia. Global Ecology and Conservation 24: e01257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01257
Xue J, Chepinoga VV, Liu Y, Ma K (2020) Mapping Asia Plants: Historical outline and review of sources on floristic diversity in North Asia (Asian Russia). Global Ecology and Conservation 24: e01287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01287
Yadav RP, Gupta B, Meena VS, Choudhary M, Parihar M, Shyam N, Bisht JK (2020) Effect of elevation and land use systems on phytosociology of shrub and herbage vegetation in Indian central Himalayas.In:Popova AT (Ed.)Cutting-edge research in agricultural sciences.Book Publisher International, West Bengal, IN, 100–108.
Yamanaka T (1950) The serpentine vegetation of Nishikiyama. Acta Phytotaxonomica et Geobotanica 12: 188–192. [In Japanese]
Yamanaka T (1960) A phytosociological study of serpentine areas in Shikoku, Japan. Research Reports of the Kôchi University 8: 1–47. [In Japanese]
Yamato M, Asami K, Takeda Y (2004) Phytosociological study of semi-natural grasslands in the Ryukyu Islands. Vegetation Science 21: 1–13. https://doi.org/10.15031/vegsci.21.1
Yang X, Zhu Y, Wang B, Liu Y (2022) Hulun Buir Steppe floristic features and vegetation classification.In:Yang X, Zhu Y, Wang B, Liu Y (Eds)Atlas of rangeland plants in Hulun Buir.Springer International Publishing, Cham, CH, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07277-2_1
Yaselyani M, Bagheri A, Saeidi H, Noroozi J (2024) Vascular plant diversity of the high mountains of Fereydunshahr, Central Zagros, Iran. Vegetation Classification and Survey 5: 329–346. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.110546
Zeb SA, Khan SM, Ahmad Z, Abdullah(2021) Phytogeographic Elements and Vegetation along the River Panjkora - Classification and Ordination Studies from the Hindu Kush Mountains Range. The Botanical Review 87: 518–542. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12229-021-09247-1
Zein HE, Chalak L, Baydoun S, Khater C, Choueiter D, McKenna M (2024) Habitat characterization and mapping on the western slopes of Mount Hermon in Lebanon. Vegetation Classification and Survey 5: 85–107. https://doi.org/10.3897/VCS.106377
Zemmrich A, Hilbig W, Oyuunchimeg D (2010) Plant communities along an elevation gradient under special consideration of grazing in Western Mongolia. Phytocoenologia 40: 91–115. https://doi.org/10.1127/0340-269X/2010/0040-0443
Zhang JW (1988) Vegetation of Tibet.Science Press,Beijing, CN,503 pp. [In Chinese]
Zhu Y, Shan D, Wang B, Shi Z, Yang X, Liu Y (2019) Floristic features and vegetation classification of the Hulun Buir Steppe in North China: Geography and climate-driven steppe diversification. Global Ecology and Conservation 20: e00741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00741
Zhu L, Hughes AC, Zhao X-Q, Zhou L-J, Ma K-P, Shen X-L, Li S, Liu M-Z, Xu W-B, Watson JEM (2021) Regional scalable priorities for national biodiversity and carbon conservation planning in Asia. Science Advances 7: eabe4261. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abe4261
Zohary M (1973) Geobotanical foundations of the Middle East.Gustav Fischer Verlag Press,Amsterdam, NL,340 pp.
Zohary D, Hopf M, Weiss E (2012) Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The origin and spread of domesticated plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.Oxford University Press,Oxford, UK,264 pp. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199549061.001.0001
Zolotareva NV, Korolyuk AYu, Makunina NI, Podgaevskaya EN (2024) Steppe vegetation of the hilly area along the Ural River (the steppe zone of Chelyabinsk Region). Vegetation of Russia 49: 3–51. [In Russian] https://doi.org/10.31111/vegrus/2024.49.3
Alireza Naqinezhad([email protected])1, 2
Idoia Biurrun3
Victor Chepinoga4
Jürgen Dengler5, 6
Arkadiusz Nowak7
1Department of Environmental Sciences, College of Science and Engineering, University of Derby, Derby, UK University of Derby, Derby United Kingdom
2Department of Plant Biology, Faculty of Basic Sciences, University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Iran University of Mazandaran, Babolsar Iran
3Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Bilbao, Spain University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Bilbao Spain
4Geobotany Section, Institute of Earth System Sciences (IESW), Leibniz University Hannover, Hannover, Germany Leibniz University Hannover, Hannover Germany
5Vegetation Ecology Research Group, Institute of Natural Resource Sciences (IUNR), Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), Wädenswil, Switzerland Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), Wädenswil Switzerland
6Plant Ecology, Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Environmental Research (BayCEER), University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth Germany
7Polish Academy of Sciences, Botanical Garden – Center for Biological Diversity Conservation in Powsin, Warszawa, Poland Polish Academy of Sciences, Botanical Garden – Center for Biological Diversity Conservation in Powsin, Warszawa Poland
© 2025. This work is licensed under http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (the “License”). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.