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Purpose
The purpose of the paper is to evaluate the social and economic impact of the United Nations' intervention in the Fire Brigade Department (FBD) of the Urban Community Al-Fayhaa (UCF) in North Lebanon. The study uses a multi-perspective approach, including community, internal processes, resources and personnel development, to assess improvements in fire response capabilities, public safety measures and overall community resilience. The findings demonstrate that the intervention is both justifiable and feasible, with a high benefit-cost ratio, supporting the continuation and expansion of similar projects in crisis-affected regions.
Design/methodology/approach
The methodology for the appraisal involved four steps: (1) a general literature review was conducted to identify elements related to costs and benefits, using both qualitative and quantitative methods; (2) a framework on economic efficiency, focusing on minimizing fatalities, injuries and property losses, was created to assess the intervention’s impact on fire brigade operations; (3) all costs related to the intervention were converted into monetary values, and a benefit-cost ratio was calculated and (4) a financial plan for the operation and maintenance was developed, covering facility, equipment, human resources and information technology costs, including inflation and currency devaluation factors.
Findings
The paper finds that the United Nations' intervention in the FBD of the UCF significantly improved fire response capabilities, public safety and community resilience. The intervention enhanced operational efficiency through better equipment, infrastructure, and staff training. A benefit-cost analysis showed a high ratio of 10.48, proving the intervention’s economic and social value. The study concludes that such targeted interventions are effective and should be continued and expanded in crisis-affected regions to strengthen local resilience and improve safety outcomes.
Originality/value
The originality of the paper lies in its comprehensive social and economic appraisal of a specific United Nations intervention in the FBD of the UCF in North Lebanon. It utilizes a multi-perspective approach – covering community, internal processes, resources and personnel development – to quantify the impacts of the intervention, offering a unique context-specific analysis. The study combines qualitative and quantitative methods, including benefit-cost analysis, to provide a nuanced understanding of the intervention’s effectiveness. This approach provides new insights into the value and feasibility of similar resilience-building projects in crisis-affected regions, particularly in the context of Lebanon’s ongoing challenges.
Introduction
The “Municipal Empowerment and Resilience Project” (MERP) is a joint initiative by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Human Settlement Programme (UN-Habitat) and is funded by the European Union (EU) through the EU Regional Trust Fund in Response to the Syrian Crisis, the “Madad Fund.” The project aims to strengthen the long-term resilience of subnational authorities in Lebanon as well as host communities, refugees and displaced persons affected by the Syrian Crisis (
As part of this process, the Urban Community Al-Fayhaa (UCF), composed of four municipalities (Tripoli, Al-Mina, Al-Beddaoui and Qalamoun) in North Lebanon, submitted a proposal that aims to improve the role and performance of its Fire Brigade Department (FBD). In specific, the project objectives are to: (1) equip the FBD with the needed vehicles and equipment to improve the response to fires in the four municipalities of the Union; (2) improve the working conditions in the fire brigade building by rehabilitating it; (3) empower the fire brigade staff with appropriate and advanced skills and capabilities that enable them to perform their tasks in a better and more effective manner in terms of first aid and advanced skills in response to fires and (4) improve public safety measures through inspection of buildings in the area (
Geographically, the UCF is located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, with a total area of 33 km2 within the Northern Governorate of Lebanon. In addition to its Lebanese residents, the region is home to displaced Syrians and Palestinian refugees. Tripoli, the biggest among the four municipalities, is the second largest city in Lebanon and has an area of 20.394 km2. It is located 85 km north of Beirut and is the capital of the Northern Governorate. The city is rich in tourist sites and witnesses a great deal of religious tourism due to the presence of churches and mosques. Tripoli is also home to the second largest port in Lebanon, which fulfills the same duties as the Port of Beirut. Al-Mina is a city of 3.737 km2 and is located 5 km to the east of Tripoli. Al-Beddaoui is a city of 5.533 km2 located 5 km north of Tripoli. Finally, Qalamoun is a city of 3.15 km2.
The total population in the Union’s member municipalities in 2020 was estimated to be 463,100 inhabitants, of whom 389,600 are Lebanese residents, 56,500 are displaced Syrians and 17,000 are Palestinian refugees residing in the Al-Beddaoui Palestinian refugee camp (
This profile of UCF provides the UNDP and UN-Habitat with an overview that can assist with evaluating the Union’s needs in general. The firefighting unit at Al-Fayhaa Union requires urgent support, especially since it suffers from a shortage in the number of firefighters and drivers. In addition, the firefighting unit is suffering from a shortage of equipment, which obstructs the mission of the firefighters. There is limited awareness of safety standards, difficulty in reaching areas off the main road and extremely poor conditions in the firefighting brigade building itself (
With the many challenges facing the Union, the rehabilitating and equipping of the fire brigade unit of the UCF project is a critical intervention to promote public safety since the current firefighting system (including personnel and equipment) is inadequate to meet residents’ needs and prevent the loss of lives and property. The union has identified four main objectives: (1) supply of firefighting equipment, (2) rehabilitation of the firefighting brigade building, (3) fostering the role of firefighters and developing their capacity by conducting training sessions and (4) raising public awareness regarding fire safety hazards and measures to minimize risks.
According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Lebanon hosts the highest per capita number of “refugees” worldwide, with approximately one million officially registered Syrian “refugees” as per UNHCR terminology, where 69% of the Syrian “refugees” live in residential properties and 11% in non-residential structured buildings. The remaining 20% live in informal tented settlements. Informal settlements include abandoned buildings or cramped spaces in the country’s decades-old Palestinian camps. This situation added to the challenges facing the country as a result of the unstable economy, decayed infrastructure and social systems and the COVID-19 pandemic.
The first wave of Palestinian refugees arrived in Lebanon after the 1948 Israeli-Palestinian war. More than 472,013 Palestinian refugees are registered with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) in Lebanon, and half of them reside in 12 official UNRWA-mandated camps and gatherings. However, it is estimated that many are no longer present in the country. According to a study conducted by the American University in Beirut in 2015, between 260,000 and 280,000 Palestinian refugees currently remain in Lebanon. Moreover, the Population and Housing Census in the Palestinian Camps and Gatherings in Lebanon (PHCCG-2017) enumerated only 224,901 people including 183,255 Palestinian refugees living in 168 localities in camps, adjacent gatherings and other gatherings (
The Palestinian refugees in UCF Union reside in one camp and five gatherings as follows: (1) one camp in Al-Beddaoui, (2) two gatherings are located in Bab El Tebbaneh and Zahrryeh in Tripoli, (3) one gathering in Al-Mina and (4) two gatherings, Mankoubin and Mouhajarin in Al-Beddaoui, in addition to the Naher El Bared camp in North Lebanon (
The huge Syrian influx of the displaced population that started in 2011 led to an increase in the demand for public services, adding pressure on the already weak provision of basic services, causing widespread dissatisfaction with the level and quality of public services provided among residents. In addition, and despite support provided by UNHCR and other international organizations, the influx of displaced Syrians further reduced the scarce municipal resources and capabilities to provide the necessary services to their residents. Furthermore, the population in the Al-Beddaoui camp increased as a result of the Syrian crisis and the arrival of Palestinian refugees from Syria, placing significant strains on the infrastructure and services provided (
Methodology
The political context in Lebanon significantly affects local economies and public services, including firefighting. Governance issues such as poor infrastructure, inefficient service delivery and limited municipal capacities create challenges in addressing crises. The local economic development assessment conducted in 2022 underlines the absence of effective collaboration between municipalities and the private sector. Political instability exacerbates these challenges, restricting access to essential resources, delaying reforms and hindering strategic coordination. Addressing these systemic issues requires robust governance reforms to improve service delivery, reduce costs and support local economic recovery and resilience (
The objective of this paper is to conduct a social and an economic appraisal of the intervention conducted by the United Nations agencies and not for the existence or the feasibility of having the Fire Brigade facility inside the UCF. To conduct the appraisal for the intervention, an appraisal approach composed of four perspectives was implemented: (1) stakeholders, (2) internal process, (3) organizational capacity and (4) personnel. Based on the mentioned four perspectives, the social and economic appraisal was implemented via the following methodology.
First step: a general literature review was conducted to identify all elements related to costs and benefits. To mitigate any gap in the literature, a mixed methodology combining qualitative and quantitative techniques such as face-to-face interviews along with statistical analysis was applied.
Second step: based on the work of
Third step: all costs associated with operating the FBD at UCF and all incurred costs for the intervention of MERP were quantified into monetary value. As mentioned earlier, the appraisal is for the intervention of MERP and not for the FBD as a service facility. Thus, only costs of intervention by MERP, both fixed and variable, were included. Then, the benefit-cost ratio was deduced, and a conclusion for the feasibility of the project was generated.
Fourth step: a detailed financial plan for operation and maintenance (O&M) for the Fire Brigade project was developed. The costing structure covers four components. The first component is the facility cost of operating and maintaining fire brigade building stations, training facilities, administrative offices and the burn treatment room. In this component, utilities, maintenance and repairs were considered. The second component is the equipment cost of procuring and maintaining the existing fleet and new equipment and vehicles. Both the lifespan of equipment and the economic service life of all equipment were considered. The third component is the human resources cost including wages, allowances and benefits for all staff, according to the Lebanese social security law. The fourth component is the information technologies cost including communication and Internet costs. Furthermore, an estimate over a ten-year period for each component was developed, including factors impacting the O&M cost such as inflation, currency devaluation and price of fuel.
Social and economic appraisal
In this section, a social and economic appraisal was performed for the intervention of MERP in the development of the FBD. The objective is to conduct an appraisal of the intervention conducted by MERP and not for the existence or the feasibility of having the Fire Brigade facility inside the UCF. To conduct the appraisal for the intervention, an appraisal approach composed of four perspectives was implemented: (1) community, (2) internal processes, (3) resources and (4) personnel and development.
According to
Based on the above, the appraisal entailed the four perspectives: (1) community, (2) internal processes, (3) resources and (4) personnel and development before conducting a benefit-cost analysis for the intervention of MERP for the FBD.
The increase in population of the cities of UCF was estimated to be 1.4% before the Syrian crisis (
Currently, Syrian citizens represent 12.9% of the total number of residents in the geographical area of UCF and the percentage of Palestinian refugees is 3.7% (
The intervention of MERP will enhance the FBD logistics to accommodate the geographical location of UCF and residents’ needs. It will generate more prevention methods and will reduce death and injury rates. The annual death rate from fires in Lebanon decreased constantly from 4.79 per 100,000 people in 1990 to 1.74 per 100,000 people in 2019 with a total number of 90 fatalities in Lebanon and 8 fatalities within the FBD geographical area (
In terms of gender, the beneficiaries are divided into 224,140 men and 238,960 women (
The largest number of beneficiaries will be the residents of UCF, who will benefit from the services of the burn injuries treatment center, which will receive the largest number of users to provide them with the necessary services and treatments considering the difficult economic conditions.
The project aims to enhance the internal processes function of the FBD by building the capacity of the current staff and improve the availability, training effectiveness and incident effectiveness to accomplish the assigned tasks according to the best global practice, as per the NFPA standards, in firefighting community services.
From the organizational structure perspective, the FBD follows a military structure composed of (1) an officers’ section for the leadership, (2) a corporals’ section for the operations and missions and (3) a drivers’ section to handle operations related to vehicles and transportation. Noting that according to the NFPA, it is recommended to have 1.67 firefighters per 1,000 people.
Due to the financial crisis and the devaluation of the Lebanese lira, the FBD suffers from a shortage in the number of personnel, both firefighters and drivers. More than 10% of the current personnel left FBD from 2021 to date, and many applied for unpaid leave.
The number of missions accomplished by the Fire Brigade during the year 2021 is 1,168 missions combined between fires and other community services such as rescue from elevators, transport of patients and city patrol, with an average of 97 missions per month. These missions varied during the year and reached the peak during the summer term, which is beyond the staff and equipment capacities.
The project improved the buildings, equipment and vehicles for the fire brigade to accommodate all residents’ needs within the geographical area of UCF. Based on site visits, there was a shortage in the number of vehicles, which has been impeding the work of the fire brigade, especially after the Syrian crisis. The current number of firefighting vehicles is five and all vehicles are “old,” dated between 1985 and 2008. Thus, they are exposed to many malfunctions, with a high cost of maintenance, leading to failure or delay in the fulfillment of many tasks. It is worth noting that according to the NFPA, the international standard is to acquire one vehicle per 20,000 to 28,000 people. Furthermore, other vehicles were needed to support regular operations, such as (1) small-sized vehicles designated for the internal areas and narrow streets, (2) water tanks due to a lack of adequate water supply in the field (
The building of the FBD department is located next to the headquarters of the UCF. It is composed of (1) ground floor, (2) first floor, (3) second floor and (4) a roof. On the roof, a full solar system was installed to provide adequate electricity to operate the building. On the east side of the building, there is the parking for vehicles, the burn treatment room and a pond where all social activities related to the FBD team are conducted.
The working conditions in the fire brigade building are inappropriate to perform 24 over 24-h service. The building is in bad condition due to water leakage, inadequate sewer network and electrical installations. The internal and external walls need to be fortified and painted, the ceiling has not been insulated for more than 20 years and the tiles are extremely damaged by water leakage. Moreover, there is a lack of adequate administrative offices and venues for training and holding meetings. Rooms allocated to the burn treatment center are inadequate to provide full service.
Members of the fire brigade should be able to use the entire area of the building, redistribute and organize the use of rooms and halls. Lockers are located outside the building or in the sports training hall. There are no allocated rooms for the dormitory. The awareness and training hall is used as a warehouse due to limited space.
A study was prepared for the rehabilitation and maintenance of the fire brigade building with reconsidering the functions of all rooms and facility layout. Then, technical specifications and drawings were designed and implemented to execute the rehabilitation and maintenance of the building. Based on the above study, (1) a full renovation for the building is currently under process, (2) more than 180 new equipment items were procured and (3) two vehicles for firefighting were purchased.
As for the value of money, the renovation of the FBD building costs around $23 per square foot, based on the cost of intervention and the total facility area, compared to $275 per square foot for a similar facility in Wilmoth, West Virginia, United States of America, for the same population size (
With the devaluation of the Lebanese Lira and the current financial crisis, the basic monthly salary of a firefighter is valued at less than 100 USD in 2022. Currently, the majority of the FBD team is struggling to provide necessities such as utilities mainly electricity and water, food, transportation, housing and education. Furthermore, most of the health care centers are not accepting the medical coverage of the FBD team. Based on interviews conducted with the FBD team, the financial crisis had a severe impact on the social and personal life of the team. Many of the team members are either working as a side job or receiving financial support to be able to cope with the current inflation. Several family tensions, conflicts and divorce cases were reported among the FBD team during the last two years. More than 10% of the team members resigned or were on unpaid leave during the last two years, and more than 20% are aiming to leave or to immigrate outside Lebanon to provide basic needs for their families. Thus, there is a lack of staff motivation to perform any mission or service.
Furthermore, there is a shortage in the technical skills of the fire brigade’s staff, and there is a lack of training for the various tasks related to the fire brigade, such as firefighting, first aid, rescue and advanced courses for treating burns. No training for trainers’ course was conducted previously to train the fire brigade’s members on the principles of firefighting and public safety procedures for various groups of civil society, including associations, clubs, health, educational and scout institutions.
Since the intervention of MERP, the staff's motivation has been improved. The project enhanced the skills of the FBD team and improved the working conditions in the building. Moreover, one of the rooms is now designed to serve as a gym for firefighters to train and maintain physical fitness and readiness.
Benefit-cost analysis
It is crucial to note that the benefit-cost analysis presented in this study includes interventions proposed by the MERP that are currently under implementation. While the projected outcomes indicate significant improvements in operational efficiency, public safety and community resilience, these results remain theoretical until fully realized and observed. Acknowledging this, a caveat is highlighted that the results are based on anticipated impacts derived from established methodologies and prior studies, emphasizing the need for future evaluations to confirm these findings post-implementation.
The intervention of MERP will provide state-of-the-art vehicles and equipment for the FBD, as well as securing advanced equipment for the staff, providing capacity building, increasing efficiency and activating the Public Safety Office. The new vehicles consume less fuel, operate more efficiently and generate fewer emissions, which directly contribute to improving air quality in the cities of UCF by reducing emissions of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen compounds and sulfur. Furthermore, the activation of the Public Safety Office of the Fire Brigade, which is charged with the proactive detection of the safety of buildings, will ensure the safety of these buildings. It will monitor and provide compliance with environmental and health regulations. This office will contribute to the early and permanent detection of fire hazards to avoid them, as well as to monitor the observance of these buildings to ensure public safety and environmental compliance.
Enhancing the efficiency of the fire brigade team, equipment and vehicles will contribute to increasing the response time in fighting fires, thus mitigating the effects of these fires and their consequences. Based on the work of
The hypothesis tested in this analysis is that the intervention of MERP for the Fire Brigade Project will enhance the efficiency of the internal operations of the fire brigade, which will increase the responsiveness toward firefighting and decrease the intensity of fires. The current response time in the FBD, after 2020, is estimated to be more than 12 min. The project will decrease this response time by one minute every year starting Year 1 (after the implementation of the project) and will decrease by one minute per year till Year 7, where the response time reaches a steady-state condition of five minutes from Year 7 till Year 10. Based on the literature, the average saving will be $3000 per fire, including all types of generated benefits as mentioned earlier. In this analysis, the estimated number of fires and missions conducted by the FBD is 1,002 per year based on the most reliable data during the last ten years.
All costs associated with operating the FBD at UCF and all incurred costs for the intervention of MERP (the project) were quantified into monetary value. A costing structure was developed based on a range of estimates over a ten-year period for each component, including factors impacting the O&M cost such as inflation and price of fuel. The developed costing structure covers three main aspects as follows. First, the administrative expenses are composed of three items: (1) employees’ basic salaries, (2) employees’ allowances and (3) transportation. Second, the operation expenses for the facility are composed of (1) electrical utilities; (2) water; (3) communication; (4) office stationery, supplies and logistics; (5) hygiene and cleaning expenses; (6) food expenses; (7) maintenance and repair of the facility and (8) advertisement and marketing. Third, the expenses for operations and missions are composed of (1) fuel for vehicles, (2) maintenance and repair of vehicles, (3) insurance and (4) equipment.
The cost of fuel for vehicles was estimated based on the estimated fuel consumption per year multiplied by the average cost of fuel. The yearly consumption of fuel is based on two factors: (1) fuel consumption during the movements (from the FBD building to the location of fire) of vehicles to perform all required missions and (2) fuel consumption during missions, which is referred to as idling time. The fuel consumption cost during the movements of vehicles was calculated via the following algorithm:
(1)The average distance per municipality was calculated based on the identification of all landmarks in each municipality and then using a weight average technique multiplied by the number of missions conducted using the data of 2019 including missions outside the UCF geographical area. Then the model was calibrated using a gravity model.
(2)The total distance per year was determined from the first step and multiplied by the average fuel consumption of vehicles (liters/km) to determine the annual fuel consumption.
(3)The cost of fuel consumption during movements was determined by multiplying the previous step by the average cost of fuel.
The fuel consumption cost during missions (idling time) was calculated via the following algorithm:
(1)The average time per-mission for each municipality was determined and calculated by the average number of missions conduced for each municipality, including outside the UCF geographical area.
(2)Then the total fuel consumption was determined by multiplying the total time for all missions by the average fuel consumption per unit of idling time.
(3)The fuel consumption during missions was determined by multiplying the previous step by the average cost of fuel.
The maintenance and repair of vehicles cover all components including filters (oil, fuel and air), engine oil, tires, brakes, fluids (power steering and transmission, battery, electrical spare parts and mechanical parts including all related parts as rated in the current market.
The cost of insurance for all vehicles was estimated by determining the current market value of each vehicle. Then, the risk premium is estimated to be 1.5% of the sum insured per year regardless of the actual mileage with a minimum of 500 USD. The insurance covers the mandatory insurance, third-party liability insurance and all other types of insurance available in the Lebanese market.
The maintenance and repair of equipment was based on the frequency of usage for all equipment during missions of the FBD during 2019 for the actual value in dollars. The fuel price increase was estimated to be 3.42% per year based on the data for the last ten years. The time value of money was estimated to be 9.75% per year based on the cost of capital and 5% risk premium for the current financial classification of Lebanon (Standard & Poor’s credit rating and Fitch’s credit rating in 2022).
Using the benefit-cost equation (
Based on the above calculations, the benefit-cost ratio is 10.48, making the intervention of UN agencies in rehabilitating the FBD in North Lebanon both justifiable and feasible.
Conclusion and future research
The rehabilitation of the FBD in North Lebanon, conducted under the umbrella of the United Nations agencies, has yielded substantial benefits for the UCF. The project’s outcomes, including enhanced operational capacity, improved public safety and increased community resilience, underscore the importance and efficacy of targeted interventions in crisis-affected regions. The social and economic appraisal of the intervention revealed improvements in the four critical areas: community, internal processes, resources and personnel and development. These enhancements have collectively contributed to increased efficiency in fire response, reduced property damage and improved public safety.
The community perspective highlighted the critical role of prevention methods in reducing fires and false alarms, thereby enhancing overall community satisfaction and safety. The internal processes perspective focused on improving the availability and effectiveness of fire services, which is vital for timely and efficient incident management. Resources were optimized through better building infrastructure, modern equipment and well-maintained vehicles, ensuring value for money. Lastly, personnel and development saw improvements in staff motivation, skills and overall health and welfare, which are crucial for maintaining a robust and responsive fire brigade.
The benefit-cost analysis confirmed that the investment in the FBD, facilitated by MERP, yielded a substantial return. The comprehensive financial plan developed for the operation and maintenance of the FBD ensures sustainability and continued efficiency of the services provided.
Future research should focus on several areas to build on the findings of this study. Firstly, a longitudinal study could provide deeper insights into the long-term impact of the intervention on the community and the fire brigade’s operational efficiency. Secondly, exploring the integration of advanced technologies, such as predictive analytics and artificial intelligence (
Factors to assess intervention in fire and rescue service
Number of fires per type between 2012 and 2021
| Fire type | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Green areas | 655 | 679 | 555 | 493 | 579 | 453 | 462 | 509 | 647 | 692 |
| Waste/Garbage | 107 | 121 | 104 | 98 | 92 | 107 | 70 | 75 | 17 | 26 |
| Tires | 56 | 34 | 13 | 4 | 10 | 17 | 25 | 19 | 7 | 10 |
| Home | 162 | 131 | 140 | 142 | 119 | 130 | 129 | 142 | 94 | 108 |
| Vehicle | 69 | 87 | 76 | 54 | 64 | 73 | 50 | 66 | 66 | 83 |
| Gas | 2 | 3 | 3 | 7 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 1 | |
| Wood | 27 | 20 | 18 | 17 | 11 | 16 | 14 | 17 | 11 | 2 |
| Commercial shop | 79 | 63 | 56 | 36 | 49 | 62 | 44 | 41 | 50 | 56 |
| Electricity | 65 | 71 | 75 | 71 | 75 | 54 | 61 | 84 | 57 | 71 |
| Institution | 25 | 29 | 13 | 10 | 16 | 8 | 12 | 16 | 28 | 6 |
| Lift | 2 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 13 | 6 | 1 |
| Boiler | 5 | 11 | 5 | 4 | 9 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 2 | |
| Warehouse | 21 | 23 | 17 | 17 | 15 | 8 | 10 | 8 | 10 | 7 |
| Church/Mosque | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
| Other | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | ||||
| Total | 1,275 | 1,280 | 1,079 | 952 | 1,047 | 940 | 888 | 1,002 | 999 | 1,065 |
Source(s): Developed by the authors
Services performed between 2012 and 2021
| Services of the fire brigade | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rescue from elevator | 18 | 17 | 13 | 8 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 13 | 9 | 11 |
| Transport of patients | 24 | 0 | 7 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| City patrols | 5 | 20 | 7 | 10 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| Rescue of drowning/citizen | 39 | 58 | 33 | 28 | 29 | 27 | 13 | 19 | 13 | 18 |
| Road rinse | 20 | 17 | 7 | 5 | 8 | 7 | 11 | 3 | 4 | |
| Transport of dead people | 11 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | |
| Fire cooling | 6 | 15 | 4 | 7 | 1 | 3 | 15 | 9 | 1 | |
| Water filling | 45 | 49 | 58 | 39 | 138 | 201 | 304 | 309 | 64 | |
| Other | 18 | 9 | 2 | 10 | 9 | 10 | 6 | 11 | 0 | 5 |
| Total | 115 | 175 | 145 | 140 | 103 | 195 | 242 | 375 | 345 | 103 |
Source(s): Developed by the authors
Cost of the intervention and all benefits generated from year 1 till year 10
| Cost of intervention | Benefits generated | |
|---|---|---|
| Year 1 | $350,954 | $3,006,000 |
| Year 2 | $558,654 | $6,012,000 |
| Year 3 | $772,773 | $9,018,000 |
| Year 4 | $981,351 | $12,024,000 |
| Year 5 | $1,190,251 | $15,030,000 |
| Year 6 | $1,399,488 | $18,036,000 |
| Year 7 | $1,541,978 | $21,042,000 |
| Year 8 | $1,550,636 | $21,042,000 |
| Year 9 | $1,559,679 | $21,042,000 |
| Year 10 | $1,569,125 | $21,042,000 |
Source(s): Developed by the authors
References
Blank, L. and Tarquin, A. (2017), Engineering Economy,
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