BEYOND PRESCRIPTIONS: REVISITING SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP THEORY THROUGH BIBLIOMETRIC ANALYSIS AND CROSS-CULTURAL INSIGHTS

Abstract

This study offers a state-of-the-art literature review and bibliometric analysis of Situational Leadership Theory (SLT), focusing on foundational principles, empirical evaluations, and cross-cultural applicability. Using a dataset from the Web of Science, we conducted a detailed bibliometric analysis that includes bibliographic coupling, Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) and thematic mapping techniques, employing tools like Bibliometrix in R Studio. Our analysis identified influential works and clusters within SLT research, highlighting two primary themes: SLT's adaptability in developmental leadership contexts and its alignment with ethical and cross-cultural considerations. The findings reveal SLT's enduring relevance, particularly in educational and training environments where leader adaptability enhances engagement and learning. However, the analysis underscores empirical challenges, especially regarding applicability across job levels and diverse cultural settings. The results suggest that SLT would benefit from culturally sensitive adaptations and the integration of objective metrics to improve its reliability. This study advances understanding of SLT role in fostering situationally responsive, ethically grounded, and culturally attuned leadership practices, with implications for refining the theory to meet the demands of a global, dynamic workforce.

Headnote

ABSTRACT

This study offers a state-of-the-art literature review and bibliometric analysis of Situational Leadership Theory (SLT), focusing on foundational principles, empirical evaluations, and cross-cultural applicability. Using a dataset from the Web of Science, we conducted a detailed bibliometric analysis that includes bibliographic coupling, Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) and thematic mapping techniques, employing tools like Bibliometrix in R Studio. Our analysis identified influential works and clusters within SLT research, highlighting two primary themes: SLT's adaptability in developmental leadership contexts and its alignment with ethical and cross-cultural considerations. The findings reveal SLT's enduring relevance, particularly in educational and training environments where leader adaptability enhances engagement and learning. However, the analysis underscores empirical challenges, especially regarding applicability across job levels and diverse cultural settings. The results suggest that SLT would benefit from culturally sensitive adaptations and the integration of objective metrics to improve its reliability. This study advances understanding of SLT role in fostering situationally responsive, ethically grounded, and culturally attuned leadership practices, with implications for refining the theory to meet the demands of a global, dynamic workforce.

Keywords: Cross-Cultural Insights, Situational Leadership

1. THEORY DEVELOPMENT

Situational Leadership Theory (SLT), introduced by Hersey and Blanchard (1969), has significantly influenced leadership studies through its adaptive model, proposing that effective leadership arises from adjusting one's style according to followers' readiness, defined by competence and commitment (Blanchard et al., 1993). SLT suggests four primary styles- Telling, Selling, Participating, and Delegating-tailored to follower development levels. Despite its popularity in management, SLT has faced extensive critique regarding empirical support, cross-cultural adaptability, and the relevance of its prescriptive model. This literature review synthesizes foundational theories, empirical tests, critiques, and adaptations across cultural and organizational contexts.

Foundational Theory and Prescriptive Model

SLT's foundational model aligns leaders" behavior with followers' developmental stage, advocating adaptability through directive and supportive behaviors (Hersey et al, 1982). Hersey and Blanchard's (1982) four-style model posits that the Telling style suits lowreadiness followers, while Delegating is appropriate for high-maturity followers. Blanchard et al. (1993) later refined SLT with SLT-II, incorporating psychological states and emphasizing a developmentally adaptive leadership style. This version underscores SLT's alignment with dynamic, follower-centered management, highlighting adaptability as critical for leadership effectiveness (Blanchard et al., 1993). Graeff (1983) critiqued SLT's model, arguing that the maturity construct lacks clear operationalization, with SLT's reliance on subjective assessments undermining its reliability.

He noted ambiguities in readiness classifications, suggesting a need for clearer guidelines (Graeff, 1983). Vecchio (1987) further tested SLT among high school teachers, finding that SLT's structured approach benefited lower-maturity followers, but was less effective for experienced followers. Vecchio's study, a foundational empirical test of SLT, prompted ongoing examination of SLT's prescriptive model.

Empirical Tests and Criticisms

Extensive empirical tests of SLT have yielded mixed results. Goodson, McGee, and Cashman (1989) evaluated SLT's prescriptions but found inconsistencies in the theory's ability to predict effective leadership outcomes. Their study noted that SLT's directive styles may suit beginnerlevel employees but are less effective for advanced roles, questioning SLT's generalizability across readiness levels. Thompson and Vecchio (2009) expanded on these critiques by testing multiple SLT adaptations, incorporating situational factors like job autonomy and task complexity. Though promising, their findings indicated that SLT's rigid model limits adaptability, particularly in high-autonomy settings, where flexibility is essential for leadership effectiveness. Building on SLT's limitations, Papworth, Milne, and Boak (2009) tested SLT in clinical supervision, finding that SLT's flexibility suits professions requiring adaptive methods but that certain prescriptive styles do not align with specific clinical needs. This context-specific application underscores the challenges of applying SLT uniformly across diverse professions (Papworth et al., 2009). In contrast, Norris and Vecchio (1992) investigated SLT in a healthcare setting with nurses, affirming that directive styles enhance performance at lower-maturity levels, yet SLT's predictive power diminishes as follower maturity increases, suggesting that a uniform application may be oversimplified.

Leader-Follower Congruence as an Alternative Validation

To address SLT's empirical challenges, Thompson and Glasg (2018) proposed a leaderfollower congruence model, positing that SLT's effectiveness improves when leaders and followers agree on follower readiness. This congruence-based model found partial empirical support, revealing that alignment between leader perceptions and follower self-assessments enhances leadership effectiveness (Thompson & Glaso, 2018). However, Vecchio et al. (2009) argued that subjective congruence measures remain limiting, proposing the use of objective indicators, such as tenure and experience, to improve SLT's validity. This congruence approach highlights the need for more precise assessments of follower readiness.

Cross-Cultural Perspectives and SLT's Adaptability

SLT's application across cultures reveals both its adaptability and limitations. Silverthorne (2000) studied SLT's effectiveness in Taiwan, finding that Taiwanese managers preferred directive approaches (aligned with SLT's Telling style) to enhance productivity, contrasting with Western participative styles. This research highlights SLT's need for cultural adjustments to accommodate hierarchical and high power distance cultural norms (Silverthorne, 2000). Similarly, Papworth et al. (2009) found that SLT's prescriptive styles did not always align with clinical supervisory behaviors, underscoring SLT's need for flexibility across culturally diverse settings. Hersey et al. (1982) highlighted the theory's universality by emphasizing adaptive leadership in classroom environments, where developmental focus enhances student engagement. However, Blanchard et al. (1993) argued that SLT's prescriptive nature may require adjustment for different professional contexts, suggesting that culture-sensitive adaptations could enhance SLT's relevance in global workplaces (Blanchard et al., 1993).

Ethical and Social Contexts in SLT

SLT's prescriptive model aligns with ethical and supportive leadership, which emphasizes the adaptability of directive and supportive behaviors based on follower needs. Ashforth's (1994) concept of petty tyranny cautions against authoritarian leadership, illustrating how misaligned directive styles harm employee morale. This critique aligns with SLT's core principle of adaptable leadership, warning that excessive control undermines follower development. Zohar and Luria (2004) expanded SLT's implications by examining safety climate, finding that supervisory consistency in safety practices builds a strong safety climate, aligning with SLT's adaptability. Their study emphasizes that SLT's directive styles are effective in high-risk environments, where leaders must establish and reinforce strict behavioral expectations to ensure workplace safety. This study aligns SLT's adaptive model with practical implications, where situational demands warrant a directive approach. Judge and Ferris (1993) further explored SLT's ethical dimensions by examining the social context of performance evaluation, revealing that performance assessments are shaped by interpersonal dynamics, organizational culture, and leader-follower relationships. They suggested that SLT's model may overlook important social factors influencing evaluations, indicating a need for SLT to integrate social context as part of adaptive leadership.

Current and Future Directions

SLT's adaptability remains relevant in contemporary management, yet empirical findings emphasize a need for contextual adaptations. Graeff (1983) and Vecchio et al. (2009) criticized SLT's prescriptive nature, advocating for evidence-based updates that incorporate objective metrics like tenure and role experience to define follower readiness. The cross-cultural studies by Silverthorne (2000) and Papworth et al. (2009) demonstrate that SLT's application requires adjustments based on cultural and professional contexts, suggesting that cultural flexibility enhances SLT's practical value. Integrating leader-follower congruence, as suggested by Thompson and Glaso (2018), could increase SLT's predictive accuracy by aligning leader perceptions with follower self-assessments. Additionally, future adaptations may benefit from incorporating situational factors, as suggested by Thompson and Vecchio (2009), to improve SLT's application across varied job levels. Overall, the inclusion of objective metrics, cultural considerations, and ethical adaptability could enhance SLT's predictive power, allowing leaders to tailor their approach to meet complex organizational demands. Situational Leadership Theory remains a foundational model in leadership studies, valued for its adaptive approach to leadership. However, empirical tests by Vecchio (1987), Goodson et al. (1989), and others indicate limitations in SLT's prescriptive model, particularly across diverse maturity levels and cultural contexts. Cross-cultural studies highlight SLT's need for cultural calibration, while leader-follower congruence models offer promising avenues for enhancing SLT's relevance. This review underscores SLT's value in fostering adaptable leadership while emphasizing a need for evidence-based, culturally aware adaptations that align with modern workplace demands.

2. METHOD AND DATA COLLECTION

This research applies bibliometric analysis to evaluate foundational and contemporary literature on situational leadership, using the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection™ as its data source. The dataset includes 425 articles specifically focused on situational leadership in the domains of management, business, economics, and finance, sourced through a topic-based search conducted in November 2024. Articles were selected by refining initial results from 1457 article to include only relevant categories and exclude books, editorials, and conference proceedings.

Visualization tool Bibliometrix in R Studio is used to enhance data representation. The goal is to review existing literature comprehensively, offer insights into prominent research areas, and highlight directions for future study in transformational leadership.

2.1. Clustering by coupling

In our bibliometric analysis, specifically through clustering by bibliographic coupling, we identified two main clusters within the situational leadership literature. Each cluster represented distinct thematic areas:

* Cluster 1: Foundational Theories and Models in Situational Leadership

This cluster establishes situational leadership as a framework rooted in adaptability and responsive decision-making, with a focus on balancing directive and supportive behaviors according to team needs. Leaders in this cluster are encouraged to assess follower readiness, skill levels, and motivation, adapting their approach to foster both task achievement and positive relationships. This foundation allows leaders to navigate complex leader-follower dynamics and make situational adjustments that align with the evolving needs of both individuals and teams. By emphasizing theoretical adaptability, this cluster reinforces situational leadership as a flexible, context-driven model that provides the groundwork for developing transformational qualities in leaders. In doing so, it positions leaders to be proactive and intentional in guiding diverse teams, fostering cohesion, and driving progress through nuanced and effective engagement.

Cluster 1: Foundational Theories and Models in Situational Leadership This cluster focuses on the core principles and theoretical foundations of situational leadership such as:

* Adaptability in Leadership Styles: Emphasizes leaders' ability to adjust their style (directive, supportive, participative, or delegative) based on situational factors. This adaptability is a fundamental principle in situational leadership theory.

* Leader-Follower Dynamics: Explores how leaders assess follower readiness (motivation and skill level) to determine appropriate leadership behavior. This theme centers on the interactions between leaders and team members, highlighting the responsive nature of situational leadership.

* Evolution of Situational Leadership Theory: Examines the development and refinement of situational leadership frameworks, often incorporating concepts from transformational and transactional leadership. This theme reflects how the theory has evolved to address diverse organizational needs.

* Task vs. Relationship Orientation: Studies in this theme explore how leaders balance a focus on task completion with the importance of fostering positive relationships, emphasizing the flexibility required in situational leadership.

Cluster 2: Applied Situational Leadership and Behavioral Impacts

Focused on real-world applications, Cluster 2 highlights how situational leadership influences team outcomes, employee well-being, and adaptability within multicultural and organizational contexts. Leaders applying this approach are shown to have a positive impact on team performance and productivity, leveraging situational awareness to tailor support and direction in ways that promote motivation and reduce burnout. This cluster underscores the value of situational leadership in enhancing job satisfaction and morale, particularly in high-stress or culturally diverse environments. Leaders in this domain are encouraged to develop a versatile skill set, emphasizing emotional intelligence, cultural sensitivity, and continuous growth. As a result, this applied perspective on situational leadership cultivates leaders who can inspire resilience, inclusivity, and adaptability, ensuring team and organizational success across varying conditions and challenges. Most prominent themes include:

* Impact on Team Performance and Productivity: Analyzes how adaptive leadership styles influence team outcomes, including productivity and efficiency. Leaders' adaptability in style has a direct effect on achieving organizational goals and enhancing team performance.

* Psychological Well-being and Job Satisfaction: Investigates how supportive situational leadership styles impact employee well-being, reduce burnout, and increase job satisfaction. This theme underscores the human-centered aspect of situational leadership.

* Cultural and Contextual Adaptability: Explores situational leadership in cross-cultural or diverse environments, highlighting how leaders adjust their style based on cultural norms and organizational context. This adaptability is essential in multinational or diverse teams.

* Developmental and Training Implications: Focuses on how situational leadership skills can be developed through training, emphasizing the role of adaptability, emotional intelligence, and situational awareness in leadership development programs.

2.2. Thematic Map Analysis: Clusters and Quadrants

The thematic analysis of Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) reveals six primary themes that underscore the theory's core principles and applications. These themes illustrate SLT's focus on performance, transformational leadership, ethical decision-making, and adaptability, as well as the nuanced roles of job-performance metrics and design principles in fostering effective, responsive leadership.

* Niche Themes: "Design" and "Career"

Design: Located in the "Niche Themes" quadrant, the design cluster includes terms such as "resilience," "coordination," and "countries." Being a niche theme, "design" is highly developed but has low centrality, meaning it is dense in its own specialized area but less connected across broader themes. The high density suggests that "design" operates as a specific focus area, likely relevant for specialized applications such as international projects or resilience planning, rather than having a wide-reaching impact across all themes. Career: Also in the "Niche Themes" quadrant, "career" serves as a focused area with relatively high development but low centrality, implying it is a specialized area of interest. The low centrality suggests it plays a lesser role in linking with other themes, indicating that careerrelated discussions may remain concentrated on personal development rather than integrating with organizational or strategic themes.

* Motor Themes: "Job-Performance"

Job-Performance: Positioned in the "Motor Themes" quadrant, this cluster includes terms like "information," "validity," and "situation." As a motor theme, job-performance is both highly central and developed, suggesting it plays a crucial role in driving the broader thematic structure. High centrality means it has strong relevance across multiple clusters, linking with essential areas like leadership, organizational effectiveness, and individual contributions. This positioning emphasizes job-performance as a critical, influential theme that underpins the success and productivity of both individuals and organizations.

* Basic Themes: "Transformational Leadership" and "Performance"

Transformational Leadership: Found in the "Basic Themes" quadrant alongside related terms such as "personality" and "mediating role," transformational leadership is central but less developed than motor themes. This cluster forms the foundational concepts in the thematic network, suggesting that transformational leadership is essential yet still evolving. Its high centrality indicates that it links well with other themes, such as motivation and change, but as a foundational theme, it may require further development to increase its density and specialized applications.

Performance: Also in the "Basic Themes" quadrant, the performance cluster, which includes terms like "leadership" and "model," is essential in providing a basis for understanding organizational outcomes. This cluster's placement indicates it is widely applicable and central but less developed in specific applications. Its foundational status highlights performance as a primary concern across various fields, connecting with other themes such as job satisfaction and leadership effectiveness.

* Emerging or Declining Themes: "Ethical Decision-Making"

Ethical Decision-Making: Positioned in the "Emerging or Declining Themes" quadrant, this cluster includes terms like "ethics" and "corporate social responsibility." This placement suggests that ethical decision-making currently has low density and centrality, indicating it may either be emerging as a new area of interest or declining in relevance within the current thematic structure. Its low centrality implies limited connectivity with other themes, which may suggest that ethical concerns are not yet fully integrated into broader discussions on performance and leadership. However, as an emerging area, this cluster has the potential to grow in relevance as organizations increasingly focus on social responsibility.

2.3. Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA)

MCA is a statistical technique used primarily for analyzing categorical data (Abdi & Valentin, 2007), allowing researchers to identify and visualize relationships between multiple categorical variables. MCA extends the ideas of Correspondence Analysis (CA), which is typically used for two categorical variables, to handle more than two, making it particularly useful for complex datasets.

Based on the Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) plot it illustrates how various terms and themes relate to each other within the situational leadership framework. The MCA map is divided along two dimensions (Dim 1 and Dim 2), each representing an axis that encapsulates different aspects of the thematic relationships:

* Dimension 1 (X-Axis): Thematic Orientation

The x-axis (Dim 1) appears to capture the distinction between individual and relational aspects of leadership:

On the left side of Dim 1, we see terms like "job satisfaction," "information," "validity," "situational judgment tests," and "job performance." This side likely represents themes focused on individual outcomes and assessments, such as evaluating job satisfaction, individual performance, and judgment.

On the right side of Dim 1, terms like "transformational leadership," "transactional leadership," "member exchange," and "self-efficacy" appear, suggesting themes that emphasize leadermember relationships and relational dynamics within leadership styles. This dimension thus moves from individual-focused concepts on the left to relational or group-oriented concepts on the right.

* Dimension 2 (Y-Axis): Developmental and Contextual Orientation

The y-axis (Dim 2) seems to distinguish between foundational theories and broader organizational or contextual aspects:

The upper part of Dim 2 features terms such as "context," "organization," "trust," "knowledge," "culture," and "commitment." These terms suggest a focus on contextual and organizational factors, emphasizing broader conditions that shape leadership effectiveness and the workplace environment. It includes high-level concepts that influence leadership dynamics, such as organizational culture and trust.

The lower part of Dim 2 includes terms like "situational judgment tests," "job performance," and "outcomes," which are more practically oriented or measurable constructs. This area seems to focus on direct, measurable outcomes and assessments, aligning with concepts foundational to leadership effectiveness, such as individual outcomes and accountability.

Interpretation of Clusters and Key Themes

* Upper Left (Organizational and Cultural Themes):

This quadrant includes terms like "organization," "trust," "knowledge," "creativity," "culture," and "teams." It represents a cluster centered around organizational culture and team dynamics. Themes in this area focus on how situational leadership can be shaped by, and in turn shape, organizational values, culture, and interpersonal trust. The presence of terms like "commitment" and "consequences" suggests a strong interest in the impacts of leadership on employee loyalty and organizational outcomes within this context.

* Upper Right (Relational and Transformational Themes):

Here, we find terms like "transformational leadership," "member exchange," "self-efficacy," and "transactional leadership," suggesting a cluster dedicated to relationship-driven leadership approaches. This quadrant captures the themes related to transformational and transactional leadership, emphasizing relational dynamics and leadership's motivational aspects. Concepts like "self-efficacy" and "perspective" highlight the focus on empowering followers and building effective leader-follower relationships.

* Lower Left (Performance and Measurement Themes):

This area includes terms such as "job satisfaction," "information," "validity," and "situational judgment tests," forming a cluster focused on performance and assessment. This quadrant deals with metrics and outcomes that evaluate the effectiveness of leadership, such as job performance and job satisfaction. This group represents the more analytical or evaluative side of situational leadership, providing tangible measures of its impact on individual contributors.

* Lower Right (Ethical and Supportive Leadership Themes):

Terms like "ethical leadership," "leader-member exchange," "abusive supervision," and "mediating role" are grouped here, indicating a focus on ethical and supportive dimensions of leadership. This quadrant addresses issues related to leadership ethics and the importance of supportive, non-abusive leadership practices. Concepts such as "mediating role" suggest that leadership plays a crucial role in mediating between individual needs and organizational expectations, ensuring an ethical and supportive environment.

3. CONCLUSION AND RESEARCH LIMITATIONS

The article, presents a thorough examination of Situational Leadership Theory (SLT), integrating insights from a literature review, Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA), bibliographic coupling, and thematic analysis. Our findings highlight SLT's core strengths and evolving relevance, particularly in terms of adaptability, performance impact, and its emerging focus on ethical, cross-cultural, and supportive leadership practices. Key clusters such as Performance and Leadership Effectiveness, Transformational Leadership, and Ethical Decision-Making illustrate SLT's flexibility and its ability to adapt to varied organizational and cultural contexts. These themes show that SLT continues to serve as a foundational framework, offering adaptable strategies for responsive leadership. Despite its adaptability, SLT faces future challenges. The theory's prescriptive model, though foundational, may be too rigid to address complexities in high-maturity roles and culturally diverse environments. Our analysis underscores the need for SLT to incorporate more objective metrics to assess follower readiness, such as experience or tenure, rather than solely relying on subjective leader assessments. Furthermore, the importance of cross-cultural insights suggests SLT would benefit from culturally sensitive adaptations, especially in high power distance contexts where directive leadership may be more effective. Integrating a greater emphasis on ethical leadership practices is another future challenge, as leadership ethics become increasingly relevant in preventing abusive supervision and fostering supportive work environments. Our study also encountered limitations inherent to bibliometric and thematic analyses. The reliance on data from a single database (Web of Science) limits the scope of our findings, as literature outside this platform may offer additional insights into SLT. Additionally, while MCA and thematic mapping reveal key themes and clusters, they do not capture the full depth of each concept or the subtleties within leadership styles.

Future research would benefit from empirical studies that test SLT's adaptability across diverse organizational settings and cultural contexts, allowing for a refined and empirically validated SLT model that addresses the multifaceted needs of modern leadership.

Future research

Future research on Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) could refine its applicability and theoretical rigor by focusing on several key areas. One area for improvement lies in SLT's reliance on subjective assessments of follower readiness, typically based on leaders' perceptions of followers' competence and commitment. Incorporating objective metrics such as tenure, prior experience, and performance data could lead to more standardized and reliable assessments of readiness, strengthening SLT's practical applications. Another area needing further exploration is SLT's cross-cultural adaptability. Research shows that SLT's effectiveness varies significantly across cultural contexts, particularly in high power distance cultures where more directive leadership styles are often preferred. Future studies could examine how cultural factors like collectivism versus individualism impact SLT, potentially resulting in culturally nuanced adaptations of the model that better align with diverse organizational environments. With growing emphasis on ethical leadership, integrating ethical decision-making and responsibility into SLT offers another promising research direction. Ethical considerations could be essential in guiding SLT application, especially in high-stress or diverse work settings where leadership practices must support ethical and non-toxic work environments. Examining these impacts would help SLT adapt to current organizational needs by embedding ethical leadership principles within its framework. SLT's prescriptive nature also warrants examination in contexts involving high-readiness or highly autonomous teams. While SLT is effective for guiding followers with lower readiness, its structured approach may lack flexibility for experienced employees who require minimal direction. Research could explore SLT's adaptability in high-autonomy roles, identifying ways the framework might evolve to better support experienced employees in complex roles. Additionally, longitudinal studies on SLT effectiveness would provide valuable insights into its long-term impact on organizational outcomes, team morale, and leader-follower relationships. Tracking SLT's effectiveness over time, particularly through periods of organizational change or follower development, would help clarify its sustained relevance and adaptability. Finally, SLT's theoretical robustness could benefit from comparative studies that examine it alongside other leadership models, such as transformational, transactional, and servant leadership. These comparisons would highlight SLT's unique strengths and limitations, particularly regarding adaptability, team motivation, and cohesion, while also identifying potential integration points with complementary leadership frameworks. Addressing these research areas could strengthen SLT's role in modern leadership and its adaptability in varied organizational contexts.

References

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