Content area
Student success in South African higher education institutions (HEIs) is poor, and universities have not been successful in implementing strategies to improve students learning experiences. Tutoring has been identified as an effective strategy to improve student success but is often used inconsistently, without empirical and pedagogical justification. The present study formed part of a larger effort to review tutoring practices in a South African universitys health sciences faculty. Through tutors first-hand accounts of tutorials, we frame their perspectives of tutoring. To this end, we illuminate tutors in-depth experiences to improve practice and student success. A qualitative approach with an explorative research design was utilised, and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data. The data were analysed thematically using Braun and Clarke's six-phase process. Four primary themes emerged in the study: (a) disciplinary content-driven engagements, (b) a theory-practice dilemma, (c) time and time-urgent behaviours, and (d) understandings of mentoring and tutoring. We established that tutors conceptions of tutoring were varied and that these perspectives impacted how they understood, operationalised their roles in the faculty and demonstrated the need for integrating disciplinary, practical learning with pedagogically guided approaches. Tutors perceptions also missed key empirical insights highlighting topics absent from their institutional training. Moreover, we identified a promising model of tutoring which seemed to best address the challenges faced by the health sciences faculty concerning tutoring practice. This model may serve as a starting point for cross-higher education utility that may benefit stakeholders who want to adopt it to achieve effective tutoring strategies. Our research supports valuing tutors as key role players in academic support who have a stake in student success pursuits within the higher education (HE) context.
Abstract
Abstract Student success in South African higher education institutions (HEIs) is poor, and universities have not been successful in implementing strategies to improve students learning experiences. Tutoring has been identified as an effective strategy to improve student success but is often used inconsistently, without empirical and pedagogical justification. The present study formed part of a larger effort to review tutoring practices in a South African universitys health sciences faculty. Through tutors first-hand accounts of tutorials, we frame their perspectives of tutoring. To this end, we illuminate tutors in-depth experiences to improve practice and student success. A qualitative approach with an explorative research design was utilised, and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data. The data were analysed thematically using Braun and Clarke's six-phase process. Four primary themes emerged in the study: (a) disciplinary content-driven engagements, (b) a theory-practice dilemma, (c) time and time-urgent behaviours, and (d) understandings of mentoring and tutoring. We established that tutors conceptions of tutoring were varied and that these perspectives impacted how they understood, operationalised their roles in the faculty and demonstrated the need for integrating disciplinary, practical learning with pedagogically guided approaches. Tutors perceptions also missed key empirical insights highlighting topics absent from their institutional training. Moreover, we identified a promising model of tutoring which seemed to best address the challenges faced by the health sciences faculty concerning tutoring practice. This model may serve as a starting point for cross-higher education utility that may benefit stakeholders who want to adopt it to achieve effective tutoring strategies. Our research supports valuing tutors as key role players in academic support who have a stake in student success pursuits within the higher education (HE) context.
Keywords: tutors, tutorials, tutoring, mentoring, student success, health sciences
1. Introduction
High levels of failure mark the general performance of students in South African higher education drop-out, leading to poor throughput and low graduation rates (Penprase, 2018; Wilson-Strydom, 2010; Wilson-Strydom & Hay, 2010). Student success has been identified as a priority area, given its slow pace in the sector (Jackson et al., 2024; Van Zyl et al., 2020). More recently, evidence suggests this continues as the prevailing status quo, with low undergraduate pass and graduate success rates reported across the sector (Sithole & Gumede, 2022). The South African higher education landscape is further characterised by widespread socio-political and socio-economic inequalities, establishing a context within which students are further disadvantaged (Faroa, 2017). Low participation rates and poor access among the country's historically disadvantaged groups, as well as widespread underpreparedness of students from diverse backgrounds, create additional barriers to achieving success at university (Cupido & Norodien-Fataar, 2018; Du Preez, et al., 2013; Jackson et al., 2024). To address these issues, some South African universities have adopted tutoring programmes as part of their academic offerings to improve student development goals. In South Africa, tutoring has been utilised as a vehicle through which universities have attempted to facilitate and improve student academic success, lecturer-student learning partnerships, social cohesion, student engagement and more holistic student development (Clarence, 2016; Faroa, 2017; Layton & McKenna, 2015; Underhill & McDonald, 2010; Roux, 2009).
Tutoring is a form of academic support that has been shown to have a positive effect on graduate development and retention through accessible means by blending academic activities with peer interaction to promote engagement, one of the key factors in improving student success (Faroa, 2017; Grillo & Leist, 2014). Its benefits in improving academic performance are well-established (Arco-Tirado, et al., 2020; Gazula et al., 2017; Kim, et al., 2021; Penprase, 2018). As a learning strategy, tutoring enables tutors to bridge the experiential learning gap, thereby lessening the divides between a learner's existing knowledge and the skills and demands of a new task (Eaton, 2015). It is not only an intervention for struggling students, but tutorials also provide a supportive and nurturing environment for all students. lts benefits for learning and teaching include fostering and enhancing disciplinary, discursive, and contextual knowledge by providing opportunities to practice nascent academic skills through juxtaposing academic activities and peer interactions (Dube, et al., 2012; Grillo & Leist, 2014).
More broadly, the roles of tutors, while disparate, seem to share some commonality across HE spaces. Tutors' roles and responsibilities may vary from institution to institution, but as documented in the literature, their roles and responsibilities have remained relatively consistent (Gynnild, et al., 2008). These roles also extend to online tutoring with some notable exceptions, including open and online distance formats (de Metz & Bezuidenhout, 2018). Concerns surrounding tutoring have centred around tutors' knowledge quality and expertise in course subjects (Mlika, et al., 2022), as well as institutional support factors such as the availability or access to learning and teaching resources (Okoro & Phiri, 2023; Yusuf & Ahmad, 2020). These have been reported to hamper tutor effectiveness in their roles. Concerning the roles and responsibilities of tutors, these typically involve assisting with coursework tasks, promoting in-depth and self-regulated learning strategies, and helping students establish conceptual relationships within the context of their disciplines (Gynnild et al., 2008).
Additionally, previous research has suggested that tutors help students set goals, plan, solve problems, and monitor their (students') academic performance (Gynnild et al., 2008). Though notably important to HE practices, tutor roles have also been complicated; some tutors have been confused about their roles within tutorial programmes, mainly as a result of ill-defined or unidentified deliverables and roles, as well as a lack of training (Mashau & Nyawo, 2021; Outhred & Chester, 2010). Tutors have also identified the need to develop basic awareness and learning-related issues outside their disciplines, which are necessary to build their skills as tutors (Gynnild et al., 2008).
1.1 Aim and research question
This study aimed to explore the perceptions and experiences of health science tutors at a South African university to understand how this impacts tutor practice. We conducted the study as an initial step for reviewing the Faculty of Community and Health Sciences' tutorial programme. The research question was: What are tutors' perceptions, and how do these impact how tutorials are conducted in a health sciences faculty at a South African university?
2. Theoretical framework
Vygotsky's (1962, 1978, 1986) social constructivist perspective was used as a guiding theory for this research. Lev Vygotsky formulated a cognitive theory of development in which learning is understood as a product of social interactions. Implicit in Vygotsky's theory is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which represents the distance between that which a learner cannot accomplish on their own without assistance (level of actual development) and what a learner can do with help (level of potential development) of a more knowledge other (Sukrajh, 2018). Capable tutors can assist students in entering the ZPD and effectively move from not knowing to mastering through collaborative, peer academic and interactive strategies in the tutorial or other learning settings. Thus, students acquire the knowledge and skills required for academic success by entering and moving through the lower boundaries and into the ZPD.
As a consequence, students/tutees can assimilate new knowledge and/or practical skills through various learning strategies such as imitation, simulations, and content exercises and reinforce how tutors have assisted them in rehearsing and accomplishing tutorial tasks (Sukrajh, 2018; Torre, 2006). These strategies exemplify some of the effective peer academic support practices, as Sukrajh (2018) noted, suggesting the usefulness of constructivist pedagogies for tutoring, learning and teaching. Accordingly, for Vygotsky (1978), learning occurs beyond mere observation and imitation but is constructed through interactions with more knowledgeable peers. Thus, through interactions with more knowledgeable persons (parents, teachers, and tutors), students acquire knowledge, skills, and strategies which can be reinforced to yield optimal learning (Schunk, 2012). From this perspective, peer tutoring is valued as an educational support strategy which aids and abets learning, expert-student and peer teaching. As noted by Sukrajh and Adefolalu (2021), peer teaching, as an aspect of tutor practice, can be defined as an educational strategy that embraces active learning to explore social dynamics, interactions, communication, and interpersonal skills, ultimately influencing learning. Peer teaching also demonstrates the multidimensionality of tutoring as a strategic endeavour possessing utility for both individual and social learning environments. Functionally, Vygotsky's (1978) theory provides a contextually flexible lens from which to understand tutors' experiences by first asserting the implicit value of their interactions to learning to facilitate the capacitation of tutees into proprietors of conceptual and/or practical knowledge. Thus, helping to qualify its suitability as a theoretical frame for the current research.
3. Methods
3.1 Study design
The present study explored tutors' perceptions and experiences to explain how they impact tutorial practice in a health sciences faculty at a South African university. In order to achieve the study's aim, the researchers needed to provide a rich and meaningful picture of tutors' experiences in the programme. To this end, an exploratory qualitative approach was used to explore the tutors' experiences of running tutorial sessions with students. As an underexplored topic, tutors' experiences in this context provide a suitable basis for the explorative research design, keeping with Creswell and Creswell (2017).
3.2 Research setting
This study was conducted at the University of the Western Cape's Faculty of Community and Health Sciences (FCHS) in the Western Cape Province of the Republic of South Africa. It serves the most diverse student population in the country with a large portion of students being from previously excluded and disadvantaged groups, as well as non-English first language speakers. Students from the FCHS graduate in several professions, including dietetics, nursing, occupational therapy, physiotherapy, social work, nursing, psychology, and natural medicine. Students in the faculty are tutored as part of academic support initiatives, where tutors are either postgraduate students or undergraduate senior students. These sessions differ depending on the programme in which they are offered. They may include content revision, practice for practical techniques, patient simulations, exam preparation, and assistance in the clinical setting. The variety of these approaches in the faculty does not suggest a coordinated approach to tutoring, which might only be characteristic of the unique needs of each department, institute, school or unit in the faculty. Therefore, tutoring has proceeded over time without a clear structure. Understanding the benefits and/or challenges of such an approach can be beneficial to inform or enhance practice should challenges and successes be uncovered. These issues, along with the earlier challenges faced nationwide, HEIs concerning student success served as a sound point of departure from which to review the faculty's existing tutoring programme to strengthen implementation and best practices.
3.3 Population and sampling
A purposive sampling approach was used to select the study participants. Purposive sampling enables the selection of specific individuals with common characteristics or descriptions which may enable the researcher to explore and describe the central ideas of the phenomenon (Creswell, 2017; D'Cruz & Jones, 2004). The population of this study included 28 postgraduate students employed as tutors across the FCHS, 10 of whom volunteered and constituted the final sample. Tutors were spread across two departments and one school. Departments and the number of tutors included physiotherapy (six), psychology (two), social work (one), and nursing (one), respectively. All the participants were currently enrolled Masters and PhD postgraduate students in their disciplines. The sample consisted of six persons who identified as females and four as males between the ages ranged between 25 - 45 years. Six participants were international students (outside South Africa), and four were South African citizens.
The researchers adopted the following criteria to select the study participants: (a) participants must have been employed as a tutor in the FCHS, (b) participants must have had at least one-year (four full academic terms) tutoring experience, and (c) participants must have been a registered student at the time interviews were conducted. Participants were recruited through departmental tutor coordinators who e-mailed eligible tutors. Interested participants were then contacted by a research team (BA) member, and interviews were arranged at dates and times convenient for the participants by a research assistant.
3.4 Data collection
Interviews were conducted in English and guided by a schedule populated by semi-structured questions appended by follow-up probes to garner additional explanations when necessary. The literature on tutoring practice guided interview questions, the aim and research questions of the study. Face-to-face interviews were conducted by one of the researchers (BA) with the assistance of a research assistant who organised interview slots. Each semi-structured session was audio-recorded and lasted approximately 60 minutes. Data saturation was reached between the ninth and tenth interviews. The audio files were transcribed verbatim by an independent professional transcriber, after which the data were subjected to thematic analysis by the research team.
3.5 Data analysis
Braun and Clarke's (2006, 2013) six-phase framework was used to conduct an inductive thematic analysis of the text. As Boyatzis (as cited in Nowell, et al., 2017) notes, themes are inductive when generated from raw data, such as what was done in the present study. This method allowed the researchers to derive the analysis structure from the collected data. The data were collected explicitly for the present study with themes linked to the data itself, the coding and the analysis, which was data-driven rather than from the researchers' theoretical interest (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Therefore, the research and interview questions had to exhibit relational relevance to the specific research, as noted by several scholars (Vaismoradi, et al., 2013; Braun & Clarke, 2006; Boyatzis, 1998). Thematic analysis was suitable because it is an independent and reliable approach to analysing qualitative data. Themes generated from thematic analysis serve to reveal core consistencies and meanings in qualitative data. Themes within thematic analysis can be defined as large, abstract categories of meaningful data segments (Creswell & Creswell, 2017; Vaismoradi et al., 2013; Buetow, 2010). The interviews were transcribed, read and re-read for familiarisation. The researchers compiled notes and memos on the margins of the transcripts, which assisted in generating initial codes. These initial codes were then re-organised to obtain further refined codes. Those codes which exhibited similar concepts were grouped and formed the sub-themes. Sub-themes addressing similar concepts were further grouped to form the final themes. One of the researchers (BF) independently coded the transcriptions, searched for and defined appropriate themes and produced a report on the interpretation of the data as recommended by Braun and Clarke (2013, 2006). In this way, themes arose due to the researcher's interaction with the data rather than being predetermined. MR and AR then peer-reviewed the findings for consistency. Furthermore, a broad description of the research setting and participants is provided for transferability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
3.6 Trustworthiness and rigour
Rigour and trustworthiness were established through credibility, confirmability, dependability, transferability, and reflexivity (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). During data collection, participants could express themselves without restrictions. To improve credibility, member-checking is in line with Birt et al. (2016), who advocate a transparent process that allows participants to validate their impressions by reviewing the interpreted data of their interviews. Further, a recap of the salient points originating from the interviews was done to get the participants' approval, additions, and corrections. A detailed methodology and verbatim transcriptions of the participants' responses were included to enhance transferability. A reflective journal was kept for the study as part of an audit trail. A reflective journal was used to document the discussions, deliberations, and the researchers' decisions.
Additionally, to ensure dependability, an interview schedule was developed. This interview schedule was informed and based on the literature on tutoring, and the result of consultations between the research team. A single semi-structured interview guide was used for all the interviews. Two research team members (MR and AR) met afterwards to discuss the findings to review these and reach a consensus.
4. Ethics considerations
Approval for the project was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of the University of the Western Cape (registration number HS/17/4/4). Before conducting the interviews, participants were provided with an information sheet written in English. The aim of the study was explained to the participants who consented to participate. All information obtained during the study was kept confidential. To maintain confidentiality and easily identify the information sources, tutors were coded as participants A to J.
5. Results and discussion
Four primary themes emerged in this study: disciplinary content-driven engagements, a theory-practice dilemma, time, and understanding of mentoring and tutoring. These themes are considered below, along with quotes presented as evidence supporting each theme.
Theme 1: Disciplinary content-driven engagements
The participants perceived their role as content experts who aimed to guide students during tutorials. To this end, tutors articulated their function as that of problem-solvers with various roles in programme administration. In this context, tutors characterised their engagement with students in tutorials as pervasively driven by students' needs to grasp disciplinary knowledge. Students' academic help-seeking behaviours reportedly drove their role as problem-solvers.
Students come with lecture notes [and] want a tutor to assist in understanding. (Participant C)
Students come up with questions and problems, and the tutor helps them solve them. (Participant E)
How we engage with the class is sometimes more heavily content-driven, in which case we just try to simplify content that has been taught in lectures within the tutorial space. (Participant G)
The above responses indicate the role that tutors felt they played in students' learning process. Tutors reported occupying the role of disciplinary content experts rather than mediators or facilitators of learning. Moreover, tutors felt that students' expectations of tutorials were that tutors would merely solve difficulties regarding understanding lecture content. While beneficial, this interaction between tutors and students may also cause concern, in that students may become over-reliant on tutors to provide answers and clarify content and lecture notes. In the health sciences, transferring and converting knowledge and skills from theory to practice is an essential exercise that is paramount in establishing clinical credibility (Handley & Dodge, 2013). Thus, it is essential for health sciences students to not only master disciplinary knowledge but also analytical skills, which are crucial for clinical practice. When the objective of transferring knowledge overtakes tutorials, several academic skills may be neglected. In other words, the disciplinary content-driven nature of tutor and student engagements may mean that vital analytical skills such as critical thinking and clinical reasoning, which reflect deeper learning, remain uncultivated. In academic settings, a principal objective of tutoring typically entails the acquisition of academic skills and preventing students from dropping out of academic programmes (Ragonis & Hazzan, 2009; Budge, 2006). In addition, tutors' perceptions of their role as content experts and problem-solvers may contribute to students' co-dependence. This means that the tutors' perception of their role may lead students to require those (tutors) to solve problems they (students) experience regarding lectures and their content.
Noting that more than half of the tutors involved in this study reported being confused by their role, the confusion may be related to the nature of tutorials, with an almost exclusive focus on disciplinary knowledge. As one tutor noted:
I think one of the challenges regarding tutoring was not clear expectations described by the lecturer...So I really feel like, about the tutoring programme, the expectations from the department side need to be clear as to what the tutor will be used for (Participant A)
From tutors' descriptions, disciplinary content knowledge is prioritised, and this has been attributed to a lack of guidance from lecturers beyond content sharing. By definition, lecturers are content and disciplinary experts who ultimately guide the nature of tutorial learning. However, tutors' responses indicate that while disciplinary and content learning take precedence, they appear frustrated and bewildered by whether this is their role.
Tutors also alluded to a lack of structure in the tutorial sessions, which could be linked to the lack of clarity on their roles as tutors and the absence of guiding pedagogical principles. Both features are essential for developing successful tutorial programmes (Gordon, 2009). Providing more organised learning activities as part of tutorials - as opposed to simply preparing for assessment tasks - has garnered the interest of those working in the health sciences in several ways. Structured tutorials may involve tutorials with clear outlines, clear guiding theory, and clear tutor roles. Tutorial activities are also boundary objects (Weatherby et al., 2022; Wenger, 1998). As such, practitioners can design more structured learning activities to enable students to move progressively towards full participation in a community of practice (CoP). However, as Morton McKay (2016) cautions, organised learning activities may be insufficient on their own without the buy-in and involvement of tutors. Tutors should not only exhibit disciplinary content knowledge or ameliorate students' assessment capabilities, but their role in facilitating learning should be explicit and guided by learning theory.
While most of the roles played by tutors in this study seem recognisable throughout the present literature, others may not. Since courses in the health and social sciences require greater inter-, multi-, and trans-disciplinary engagements and clinical supervision of students (Delany & Molloy, 2009), tutors in these programmes may also be required to take on additional roles such as those mentioned by the study participants. It may be that the roles taken on by tutors in this study are not traditionally part of a tutor's role but should be performed by a teacher or graduate teaching assistant. In both the United States and the United Kingdom, graduate students are more frequently employed as graduate teaching assistants, most notably on a part-time basis. Graduate teaching assistants in these contexts mitigate high teaching loads as laboratory, practical and field class demonstrators and lead tutorials and/or seminar groups (Chadha, 2013; Park, 2004; Goodlad, 1997). Increasingly, graduate teaching assistants serve as the primary instructors in undergraduate courses throughout the United States and Canada (Parker, et al., 2015). From how our participants perceived their roles, tutors' roles accorded more closely to graduate teaching assistants' roles. The concept of graduate students teaching and tutoring undergraduate classes is not new to South African universities. The more formalised role of graduate teaching assistants is uncommon and understudied. In addition, in cases like this, in which tutors report not being informed of their dual role and its influences on their interactions with students, it seems there is a potential problem for student learning. This challenge may be characterised by both a conflation of tutor and graduate teaching assistant roles and having tutors work outside their scope.
Theme 2: A Theory-practice dilemma
Tutors reported that students mostly asked them to assist in enhancing their understanding of course material and lectures and applying theory to influence their performance on assessment tasks. Participants thought that students struggled to establish the link between theory and practice. The quotations below highlight the tutors' perceptions of how the tutorials assisted the students.
Helped students understand more, get a deeper understanding of what they are being taught, you know, when they have gone for their practical sessions. (Participant B)
It is like understanding the work presented in the classroom. (Participant C)
I would say that one of the primary needs for students is that they can understand and relate to content. | think that...what our students need is the ability to kind of have the content demonstrated to them in a way that they are able to understand it and connect it to knowledge that they already have. (Participant G)
Difficulties experienced by students to maintain a balance between theory and practice are hardly a new dilemma in the health sciences. This dilemma has been extensively studied, especially in the nursing discipline, and has affectionately become known as the theorypractice gap or the knowledge and theory gap (see Handley & Dodge, 2013; Ajani & Moez, 2011; Bland, et al., 2011; Ricketts, 2011; Scully, 2011; Valler-Jones, et al., 2011; Borneuf & Haigh, 2010; Cant & Cooper 2009). The nature of the gap is thought to arise when students are unable to generalise from what they have learned in theory and apply these in real clinical situations (Ajani & Moez, 2011). The implications of this gap are reportedly far-reaching. Ajani and Moez (2011: 3928) explained that "if the theory-practice gap is not minimised, it can cause difficulties because the principles of practice established in curricula are not well aligned with the principles operating in the workplace". More recently, though, Bjórck and Johansson (2019) framed the debate evoked by the theory-practice dilemma. The authors argue that within professional education there is a need to reconceptualise it away from the traditional dualistic thinking. Instead, they hold that the epistemological nature of "practice" tends to be privileged over theory (Bjórck & Johansson, 2019). To this end, the authors call for a reciprocal approach to the theory-practice conception.
Consequently, theoretical foundations of professional training should not be lost at the expense of overemphasising practical knowledge (Phillips & Condy, 2023). These challenges can be extended to other disciplines in the health sciences, especially given that almost all such disciplines involve clinical practice and patient care, the root of which lies in theoretical or foundation knowledge about how to perform professional skills, patients and their care. Moreover, tutors in this study also overwhelmingly reported that students presented with a theory-practice dilemma. Tutors reported students as either doing well in one domain and/or struggling in the other, reflecting a duality inherent in traditional theory-practice understandings. Applying such limited pedagogical thinking may potentially spell trouble for students. An overextended focus on disciplinary knowledge and theory may contribute substantially to this problem, as does if the neglect of the former prioritises practice. Within Vygotsky's (1978) theory, the assumption about a student's abilities extends to theory and practice. A tutor would need to start from the premise that students' theoretical and practical skills are present, even to a lesser extent. As an MKO, a tutor must know the reciprocal relationship between theory and practice and how to leverage it to maximise learning pedagogically. These two domains are placed on equal footing, consistent with Björck and Johansson's (2019) assertion. Tutors would need to be guided by their MKOs (e.g., lectures, course and module coordinators) to ensure they understand the process and for this to happen. The theory-practice gap may be exacerbated in the absence of pedagogical content knowledge (as noted earlier) imparted to students by tutors.
All tutors acknowledged that while most students attended and engaged during tutorials, few did not. Participants also felt that group work yielded better engagement among students.
I think it was the group work tasks in the classroom because what happened is that I would take half of the class, and the lecturer would take the other half because it is quite a big group. So, now I would go to different groups and participate in their groups in terms of what is to understand with regard to the task and those types of things. (Participant A)
While it may be expected that students will present with varying levels of engagement, it might also be true that this difference in engagement might be rooted in motivation issues. South African university students have been found to present with distinct motivation orientations compared to those in more developed contexts, with some exceptions. These include but are not limited to their self-worth, family expectations, socio-economic status, parental education level and/or occupation, first-generation status, gender, race, and poverty alleviation (Jackson et al., 2024; Moosa & Aloka, 2023; Mtshweni, 2022; Van Zyl, 2016; Severiens & ten Dam, 2012). For example, in the Russian context, students' parental occupation and education have been reported not to influence children's decision to pursue university studies (Karabchuka & Roshchina, 2023). In Australia, Koshy, Dockery and Seymour (2019) found that children are less motivated to attend university in single-parent-led, low socio-economic circumstances. A context of disadvantage can, therefore, exhibit varied student motivation orientations. Given that the university where this study was conducted is historically disadvantaged and serves large numbers of those from previously excluded backgrounds, their motivations may provide key insights to tutorial and broader learning engagement. A student's level of motivation has been shown to directly correlate with their academic performance, wellbeing, and life satisfaction (Guiffrida et al., 2013; Nowell, 2017). External factors such as engagement with peers and staffare particularly positive to yield student motivation (Edgar et al., 2019). Since tutorials serve as spaces that maximise these interactions, finding out what motivates students to attend, learn, and engage may be a necessary exercise to overcome assessment-focused motives. Moreover, the value of tutorials as spaces where knowledge and skills are constructed may add to the urgency of addressing possible student motivation concerns.
If students attend tutorials primarily to prepare for an assessment task, there may be little incentive to engage in the process when there is no imminent assessment. Indeed, while most students were engaged during tutorials, tutors indicated that attendance was higher before tests and examinations. Additionally, tutors alluded to students who did not engage and appeared unmotivated in tutorials. Motivation is a complex concept influenced by several factors (Dube et al., 2012). Arguably, students who exhibit a more stable sense of self along with its naturally accompanying emotional and social skills are far more likely to be motivated and to succeed academically (Dube et al., 2012; Lucariello et al., 2016). It is, therefore, useful to contemplate how tutorials can be used more effectively to help guide and develop this enhanced sense of self and emotional and social skills to improve student learning and academic performance. Therefore, motivation issues may necessitate a shift from the overwhelming focus on disciplinary knowledge, which characterises tutorials in the faculty, to a tacit understanding of possible underlying issues of motivation.
Theme 3: Time and time-urgent behaviours
All tutors in this study expressed anxiety regarding time. Time was discussed in large class groups, while tutors also tended to perceive time as a valuable commodity during tutorials, practicals, clinical hours and lectures. Some tutors highlighted the need to keep to time; others expressed a need to caution against wasting it. Tutors felt compelled to be more available to students, thus highlighting time as a challenge.
So 1 think students tend to overstep in terms of time use and availability, in terms of what they are currently busy with, for example, completing a thesis for their PhD or working as an administrator. You have other roles, and they don't understand it. (Participant D)
Ok, especially for [Department], when | was also a second year, | could feel the pressure you don't have time because you are doing practicals and doing your theory at the same time. (Participant E)
Yes, because the time in the tutorial is more than the class. You know the class is mixed theoretical and practical. Sometimes you see how the tests, for example how that is, but you need time to practice that test, and you need someone to see how to practice that thing if it is right or wrong, so a tutorial, | think, just gives the student more time to understand more about the practice. (Participant H)
The quotes above show that tutors were preoccupied with time while expressing time-urgent behaviours. Time was conceptualised as participants' need to preserve time and guard against students wasting time. Time has long been viewed as a critical feature that can influence individual and team performance in environments where individuals and teams are under pressure (Druskat & Wolff, 1999; Perlow, 1999; Gersick, 1988, 1989). Time-urgent behaviours have historically been linked to individual-level outcomes and task performance (Waller, et al., 1999). More recently, Saraiva and Iglesias (2016) suggested that time urgency, as well as continued time pressures to finish specific tasks or reach goals, is often instrumental in generating feelings of stress and anxiety. This is also consistent with Szollos (2009), who describes time pressure as an urgency to finish a certain task. Furthermore, the ability of individuals to achieve high levels of performance has been linked to their perceptions of time.
All tutors in this study expressed the pressure felt throughout the South African higher education landscape and its global counterparts. In this context, universities are under continued pressure to address problems such as low retention, throughput, and high dropout rates while operating in an underfunded higher education system (Jackson, et al., 2024; Arnold & Bassett, 2022, European Union, 2019;). When the responsibility for addressing some of these concerns falls to tutors operating in uncertain and sometimes ambiguous contexts, the pressure to perform is substantial.
Researchers studying time urgency have previously suggested that individuals vary in their propensity to engage in several time-oriented behaviours. This variation includes overall attention to time, multi-tasking, impatience, punctuality, controlling deadlines, and task scheduling (Conte, et al., 1995; Waller et al., 1999). The varied roles played by tutors, in addition to managing their studies, make them susceptible to the negative consequences of these time-oriented behaviours, potentially making them more attentive to time and deadlines than others (Strube, et al. as cited in Waller et al., 1999). Focusing on tutors' knowledge and skills development may prove conducive to their and students' learning and teaching experiences. Also, considering that tutorials provide room for the co-construction of knowledge, focusing on pressures faced by tutees may only harm rather than enhance tutorial quality. Thus, while tutors in this study played important roles in supporting student learning, such as improving comprehension and disciplinary knowledge, simplifying concepts, answering questions, and problem-solving, caution is needed to ensure they are not overburdened implying additional support services to ensure that they are not overwhelmed by their expected roles. While there is no shortage of literature on time and time-urgent behaviours, the effects of these features have not been studied about tutors, particularly in the South African context.
Theme 4: Understanding of mentoring and tutoring
All tutors viewed mentoring as a continuous process that was not restricted only to the tutorial session and involved guiding students beyond the repetition of the course content. Moreover, all participants agreed that there existed a need for mentoring and tutoring to be explicitly integrated.
Mentoring, my understanding is that when you find like specialist students who are weak who say struggle in a certain area whereby you give them your own time. Then you try to guide them probably you guide them where they are struggling to understand the concept of a certain topic or a certain module... to me that is what it means by mentoring somebody to guide him or to try to help them to get to achieve their goals. (Participant J)
Tutorship actually entails direct teaching, direct tutorship expanding concepts and all that. Mentoring essentially has to do with guiding, guiding a student to understand concepts. Teaching is basically what tutoring stands for, while mentoring entails guiding a student. That is my understanding. (Participant F)
The tutors in this study seemed to exhibit varied understandings of mentoring and tutoring, where mentoring creates space for developing personal relationships that build support beyond the classroom (Rios-Ellis et al., 2015; Peyton et al., 2001). Even though tutoring was understood as a direct academic support strategy, tutors identified mentoring as a tool to combat failing students. This is at odds with views from the literature (see, for example, Grillo & Leist, 2014) that posit tutoring as a strategy for promoting student success. Tutors involved in this study felt that the mentoring relationship is characterised by personal concerns, extending beyond academic performance issues. For these tutors, then, mentoring is required to fulfil a personal need of students, which may contribute to the tutees' wellbeing. Secondly, tutors appear to appropriate mentoring with academically at-risk students. Mentoring was understood as involving care and concern, not only for students' academic outcomes but also for their wellbeing. This is consistent with more recent understandings in which students are thought to rely on peer mentors for support to adjust to university life (including a shiftin high school and being away from loved ones) (Moosa & Aloka, 2023). The time issue about mentoring was constructed as non-linear and, at times, non-existent, thereby contributing to the ethic of care as conceptualised by Tronto (1993).
According to Rios-Ellis et al. (2015), mentoring programmes are often developed to serve minority groups and/or students with lower marks who are struggling. The participants in this study reported that the mentoring component of their roles was often underutilised. Indeed, there is evidence that mentoring can promote values, resilience and academic success among under-served, underprivileged and under-represented students on campus (Wallace, et al., 2000). Much like some tutoring applications, mentoring can promote social cohesion and aid in providing redress for previously disadvantaged groups (Bettes & Burrell, 2014; Girves, et al., 2005). There is also evidence that participants who reflect on their participation in mentoring programmes stress the importance of personal preparation through workshops and additional training in order for mentoring to be successful (Heirdsfield et al., 2008). Mentoring is also mutually beneficial because the parties exchange knowledge, support and interests (Du Preez et al., 2013; Ravhuhali et al., 2024). As a flexible strategy, mentoring can be both formal and informal, involving face-to-face interactions over a defined period between more knowledgeable and less knowing peers (Masehela et al., 2014; Moosa & Aloka, 2023; Ravhuhali et al., 2024). By these accounts and tutors' responses, mentoring is as amenable to the constructivist approach, as tutoring. However, it appears to be underused in the context of the faculty concerned. This underutilisation of the mentoring role may explain some of the dilemmas faced by the tutorial programme in the present study. The lack of role clarification may also explain participants' obliviousness to mentoring. Whether tutors were encouraged or required to mentor was not made explicit by participants. A greater emphasis on the mentoring component coupled with training may address concerns related to social cohesion, social justice, and those at risk of failing and ultimately promote holistic student development.
6. Recommendations and conclusion
Tutors in this study reported that students were told to attend tutorials without a real explanation of what was expected or what role tutorials would play in their (students') learning, leading to different expectations and unsuccessful tutorials. The tutors' responses showed that the tutorial format did not lend itself to an informed, clearly structured, goal-oriented approach to highlight challenges, such as tutorials which became overly concentrated on content, as reported by tutors. A change in the format of tutorials to incorporate focusing on disciplinary, contextual and pedagogical knowledge and skills may benefit tutorial programmes in general. Tutor training can help alleviate the anxieties brought on by the pressures tutors face. As Sithole (2024) asserts, when tutors are well trained, the likelihood of their knowledge and skills acquisition is improved, leading to more confident and capable tutors. Including the contextual realities of their institution, the HE context and topics such as motivation can aid institutions in delivering more situated and responsive tutorials. Theory and pedagogy are too important to exclude from tutoring approaches. Any design, approach or strategy to improve tutorial practices which have in mind student success and/or improvement of academic performance should, therefore, be guided by appropriate theoretical and pedagogical frameworks.
One of the other key components of a tutorial is that it is student-centred, meaning that the student must play a central role in the interactions that guide the process. Therefore, they must be intrinsically and externally motivated to use the time and process in the tutorial for their learning, which is only possible if they have been prepared to use the tutorial session effectively.
We recommend models such as Ragonis and Hazzan's (2009) disciplinary-focused tutoring, which offers an approach that may facilitate and establish the pedagogical, disciplinary knowledge and skills used in disciplines (located in the health sciences) in which problem-solving is inherent. It aims to establish pedagogical knowledge and disciplinary skills by invoking a cyclical approach informed by guided learning principles, in line with current thinking about practical tutorials. The model is well suited to address the theory-practice dilemma while enabling the transfer of pedagogical knowledge which can resolve the distance between students' lack of integrating theory and practice. This tutoring model aims to equip tutors to practice disciplinary learning to promote pedagogical content knowledge. It may, therefore, harness and enhance related abilities and skills (Ragonis & Hazzan, 2009). This model may be complemented by problem-based learning (PBL), an approach that seems well-suited to address the challenges that tutors reported. PBL is a student-centred approach that can promote intrinsic motivation and self-directed learning (Wilkerson & Gijselaers, 1996).
Furthermore, Ragonis and Hazzan's (2009) model can be used to develop more innovative tutor approaches. Incorporating the principles of context-specific considerations as outlined in this model can make tutoring practice more appropriate. Moreover, the role of tutors in this faculty needs to be clearly defined. However, coming to a consensus on the most appropriate role for tutors may be more complicated than the current literature suggests, given variations in disciplinary, clinical and practical requirements involved in health science professional training. It may be helpful to explore how existing tutor roles may be modified around current trends in mentoring and tutoring, considering the potential teaching role tutors can fulfil.
Tutors were clearly perplexed about their roles, which seemed to stem from differences in their expectations of tutoring and tutorials, and the expectations of students and lecturers. Tutors' puzzlement regarding their roles seemed symptomatic of the lack of structure in the larger tutorial programme. The overlap between the roles of tutors in this study and graduate teaching assistants warrants more research investigation, especially when considering the lack of preparation and tutor support provided in this area. Recommendations included developing structured tutorial programmes guided by pedagogy, facilitation of tutor and student expectations and clear definitions of tutor functions, responsibilities, and continuous tutor training.
Acknowledgements and declarations
The authors confirm that no Al tools were used to conduct this research and prepare the manuscript. The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare. This research was supported by the University of the Western Cape's Learning and Teaching Funds.
Author contributions
AR and MR conceptualised the study. BA collected the data. BF conducted the analysis. AR and MR checked the accuracy of the analysis. BF led the initial manuscript draft. AR, BA, BF, and MR approved the final manuscript.
References
Ajani, K. & Moez, S. 2011. The gap between knowledge and practice in nursing. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15: 3927-3931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.396
Arnold, N., & Bassett, R. M. 2022. Steering tertiary education: Towards resilient systems that deliver for all. World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/394931632506279551. https://doi.org/10.1596/36328
Arco-Tirado, J. L. Fernandez-Martin, F. D. & Hervas-Torres, M. 2020. Evidence-based peer-tutoring program to improve student's performance at the university. Studies in Higher Education, 45(11): 2190-2202. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1597038
Birt, L., Scott, S., Cavers, D., Campbell, C. & Walter, F. 2016. Member checking: A tool to enhance trustworthiness or merely a nod to validation? Qualitative Health Research, 26(13): 1802-1811. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732316654870
Bjórck, V. & Johansson, К. 2019. Problematising the theory-practice terminology: A discourse analysis of students' statements on work-integrated learning. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 43(10): 1363-1375. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2018.1483016
Bland, A., Topping, A. & Wood, B. 2011. A concept analysis of simulation as a learning strategy in the education of undergraduate nursing students. Nurse Education Today, 31: 664-670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2010.10.013
Borneuf, A.M. & Haigh, C. 2010. The who and where of clinical skills teaching: A review from the UK perspective. Nurse Education Today, 30(2): 197-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/. nedt.2009.07.012
Boyatzis, R.E. 1998. Transforming Qualitative Information: Thematic Analysis and Code Development. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. 2006. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2): 77-101. https://doi.org/0.1191/1478088706qp0630a
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. 2013. Successful Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide for Beginners. London: Sage.
Budge, S. 2006. Peer mentoring in post-secondary education: Implications for research and practice. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 37(1): 73-87. https://doi.org/10.1080/107 90195.2006.10850194
Buetow, S. 2010. Thematic analysis and its reconceptualisation as saliency analysis. Journal of Health Services Research and Policy, 15(2): 123-125. https://doi.org/10.1258/ jhsrp.2009.009081
Bettes, S. & Burrell, K. 2014. Findings of, and Reflections on, the Gender, Lifelong Learning and Social Class (GLAS) Project. A UK Partnership Based Perspective. Revista Internacional de Organizaciones, 12: 11-26. https://doi.org/10.17345/rio12.11-26
Cant, R.P. & Cooper, S. 2009. Simulation-based learning in nurse education: systematic review. Journal of Advanced Learning, 66(1): 3-15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2009.05240.x
Chadha, D. 2013. Reconceptualising and reframing graduate teaching assistant (GTA) provision for a research-intensive institution. Teaching in Higher Education, 18(2): 205-217. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2012.696537
Clarence, S. 2016. Peer tutors as learning and teaching partners: a cumulative approach to building peer tutoring capacity in higher education. Critical Studies in Teaching and Learning, 4(1): 39-54. https://doi.org/10.14426/cristal.v4i1.69
Conte, J.M., Landy, F.J. & Mathieu, J.E. 1995. Time urgency: conceptual and construct development. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(1): 178-85. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0021-9010.80.1.178
Creswell, J.W. & Creswell, J.D. 2017. Research design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. London: Sage.
Cupido, X.M. & Norodien-Fataar, N. 2018. Teaching assistants - a hit or a miss: the development of a teaching assistant programme to support academic staffat a university. Perspectives in Education, 36(1): 14-29. https://doi.org/10.18820/2519593X/pie.v36i1.2
D'Cruz, H. & Jones, M. 2004. Social Work Research: Ethical and Political Contexts. London: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446294963
Delany, C. & Molloy, E. (eds). 2009. Clinical Education in the Health Professions. Elsevier Australia: Elsevier.
De Met, N. & Bezuidenhout, A. 2018. An importance-competence analysis of the roles and competencies of e-tutors at an open distance learning institution. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 34(5): 27-43. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.3364
Druskat, V.U. & Wolff, S.B. 1999. Effects and timing of developmental peer appraisals in self-managing work groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84: 58-74. https://doi. org/10.1037/0021-9010.84.1.58
Dube, C., Kane, S. & Lear, M. 2012. The effectiveness of students redrafting continuous assessment tasks: The pivotal role of tutors and feedback. Perspectives in Education, 30(3): 50-59. https://doi.org/10.38140/pie.v30i3.1769
Du Preez, R., Steenkamp, L.P. & Baard, RS. 2013. An investigation into a peer module mentoring programme in economic and management sciences. International Business and Economics Research Journal, 12(10): 1225-1238. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/85448. https://doi.org/10.19030/iber.v12i10.8133
Eaton, M.D. 2015. Bridging the experiential learning gap: an evaluation of the impacts of Ulster university's senior student tutoring scheme on first year students. Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice, 12(2): 1-15. http://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol12/iss2/6. https:// doi.org/10.53761/1.12.2.6
Edgar, S., Carr, S. E., Connaughton, J., & Celenza, A. 2019. Student motivation to learn: Is self-belief the key to transition and first year performance in an undergraduate health professions program? BMC Medical Education, 19: Article 111. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12909-019-1539-5
European Union. 2019. Education and training monitor. European Commission. https:// education.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/document-library-docs/volume-1-2019-education-and-training-monitor.pdf
Faroa, B.D. 2017. Considering the role of tutoring in student engagement: Reflections from a South African university. Journal of Student Affairs in Africa, 5(2): 1-15. https://doi. org/10.24085/jsaa.v5i2.2699
Gazula, S., McKenna, L., Cooper, S. & Paliadelis, P. (2017). A systematic review of reciprocal peer tutoring within tertiary health profession educational programs. Health Professions Education, 3(2): 64-78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hpe.2016.12.001
Guiffrida, D. A., Lynch, M. F., Wall, A. F., & Abel, D. S. 2013. Do reasons for attending college affect academic outcomes? A test of a motivational model from a self-determination theory perspective. Journal of College Student Development, 54(2): 121-139. https://doi.org/10.1353/ csd.2013.0019
Gersick, C.J.G. 1988. Time and transition in work teams: toward a new model of group development. Academy of Management Journal, 3: 9-41. https://doi.org/10.2307/256496
Gersick, C.J.G. 1989. Marking time: Predictable transition in task groups. Academy of Management Journal, 32: 274-309. https://doi.org/10.2307/256363
Girves, J.E., Zepeda, Y. & Gwathmey, J.K. 2005. Mentoring in a post affirmative action world. Journal of Social Issues, 67(3): 449-479. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00416.x
Goodlad, S. 1997. Responding to the perceived training needs of graduate teaching assistants. Studies in Higher Education, 22(1): 83-92. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079712331381151
Gordon, E.E. 2009. 5 Ways to Improve Tutoring Programs. Phi Delta Kappan, 90(6): 440-445. https://www.pdkmembers.org/members_online/publications/archive/pdf/k0902gor.pdf. https:// doi.org/10.1177/003172170909000614
Grillo, M.C. & Leist, C.W. 2014. Academic support as a predictor of retention to graduation: new insights on the role of tutoring. Journal of College Student Retention Research Theory and Practice, 15(3): 387-408. https://doi.org/10.2190/CS.15.3.e
Gynnild, V., Holstad, A. & Myrhaug, D. 2008. Identifying and promoting self-regulated learning in higher education: roles and responsibilities of student tutors. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 16(2): 147-161. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611260801916317
Handley, R. & Dodge, N. 2013. Can simulated practice learning improve clinical competence? The British Journal of Nursing, 22(9): 529-535. https://doi.org/10.12968/bjon.2013.22.9.529
Heirdsfield, A.M., Walker, S., Walsh, K. & Wilss, L. 2008. Peer mentoring for first-year teacher education students: the mentors' experience. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 16(2): 109-124. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611260801916135
Jackson, K. Faroa, B.D. Augustyn, N.A. & Padmanabhanunni, A. 2023. What motivates South African students to attend university? A cross-sectional study on motivational orientation. South African Journal of Psychology, 53(4): 565-575. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 00812463231196297
Karabchuk, T., & Roshchina, Y. (2023). Predictors of student engagement: The role of universities' or importance of students' background? European Journal of Higher Education, 13: 327-346. https://doi.org/10.1080/21568235.2022.2035240
Kim, S. C., Jillapali, R. & Boyd, S. 2021. Impacts of peer tutoring on academic performance of first-year baccalaureate nursing students: A quasi-experimental study. Nurse Education Today, 96: 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2020.104658
Koshy, P., Dockery, A. M., & Seymour, R. 2019. Parental expectations for young people's participation in higher education in Australia. Studies in Higher Education, 44(2): 302-317. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2017.1363730
Layton, D. & McKenna, S. 2015. Partnerships and parents-relationships in tutorial programmes. Higher Education Research and Development, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2015 .1087471
Lincoln, Y.S., & Guba, E.G. 1985. Naturalistic Inquiry (Vol. 75). Beverly Hills: Sage. https://doi. org/10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosn006
Lucariello, J.M., Natasi, B.K., Anderman, E.M., Dwyer, C., Ormiston, H. & Skiba, R. 2016. Science supports education: The behavioral base for psychology's top 20 principles for enhancing teaching and learning. Mind, Brain, and Education, 10(1): 55-67. https://doi. org/10.1111/mbe.12099
Mashau, P. & Nyawo, J.C. 2021. The use of an online learning platform: A step towards e-learning. South African Journal of Higher Education, 35(2): 123-143. https://doi.org/ 10.20853/35-2-3985
Miika, M., Zorgati, М.М. & Mezni, Е. 2022. The impact of tutor expertise on the students' scores in active learning methods: a meta-analysis. Journal of Advances in Medical Education and Professionalism, 10(4): 235-245. https://dx.doi.org/10.30476/JAMP.2022.94450.1589
Morton McKay, T. 2016. Do tutors matter? Assessing the impact of tutors on first-year academic performance at a South African university. Journal of Student Affairs in Africa, 4(1): 53-64. https://doi.org/10.14426/jsaa.v4i1.144
Moosa, M. & Aloka, P. J. 2023. Motivational factors as a driver for success for first-year students at a selected public university in South Africa. Student Success, 14(1): 21-34. https:// doi.org/10.5204/ssj.2415
Mtshweni, B.V. 2022. Adjustment and socio-economic status: How do these factors influence the intention to drop out of university? South African Journal of Psychology, 52(2): 262-274. https://doi.org/10.1177/00812463211059141
Nowell, C. 2017. The influence of motivational orientation on the satisfaction of university students. Teaching in Higher Education, 22(7): 855-866. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2 017.1319811
Nowell, L.S., Norris, J.M., White, D.E. 8 Moules, N.J. 2017. Thematic analysis: striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16: 1-13. https://doi. org/10.1177/1609406917733847
Okoro, C. & Phiri, N. 2023, June. Institutional influencers and support for tutoring in a South African higher education institution. In 9th International Conference on Higher Education Advances (HEAd'23) (1113-1121). Editorial Universitat Politécnica de Valência. https://doi. org/10.4995/HEAd23.2023.16361
Outhred, T. & Chester, A. 2010. The experience of class tutors in a peer tutoring programme: a novel theoretical framework. Journal of Peer Learning, 3(1): 12-23. https://files.eric.ed.gov/ fulltext/EJ1153313.pdf
Park, C. 2004. The graduate teaching assistant (GTA): Lessons from North American experience. Teaching in Higher Education, 9(3): 349-361. https://doi.org/10.1080/1356251042000216660
Parker, M.A., Ashe, D., Boersma, J., Hicks, R. & Bennett, V. 2015. Good teaching starts here: Applied learning at the graduate teaching assistants institute. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 45(3): 84-110. https://doi.org/10.47678/cjhe.v45i3.187546
Penprase, B.E. 2018. The fourth industrial revolution and higher education. In N. Gleason (ed), Higher education in the era of the fourth industrial revolution. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.25073/0866-773X/89
Perlow, L.A. 1999. The time famine: Toward a sociology of work time. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44: 57-81. https://doi.org/10.2307/2667031
Peyton, A.L., Morton, M., Perkins, M.M. & Dougherty, L.M. 2001. Mentoring in gerontology education: new graduate student perspectives. Educational Gerontology, 27(5): 347-359. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601270152053384
Phillips, H. N. & Condy, J. 2023. Pedagogical dilemma in teacher education: Bridging the theory practice gap. South African Journal of Higher Education, 37(2): 201-217. https://doi. org/10.20853/37-2-4610
Ragonis, N. & Hazzan, O. 2009. A tutoring model for promoting the pedagogical-disciplinary skills of prospective teachers. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 17(1): 67-82. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611260802658553
Ravhuhali, F. Tshililo, T.Y. Mboweni, H.F. & Muthivhi, K.M., 2024. Reflections and experiences of mentors, tutors, and writing consultants on enhancing student learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. South African Journal of Higher Education, 38(2): 274-292. https://doi. org/10.20853/38-2-6134
Ricketts, B. 2011. The role of simulation for learning within pre-registration nursing education - a literature review. Nurse Education Today, 31(7): 650-654. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.nedt.2010.10.029
Rios-Ellis, B., Rascón, M., Galvez, G., Inzunza-Franco, G., Bellamy, L. & Torres, A. 2015. Creating a model of Latino peer education: weaving cultural capital into the fabric of academic services in an urban university setting. Education and Urban Society, 47(1): 33-55. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124512468006
Roux, C. 2009. Holistic curriculum development: tutoring as a support process. South African Journal of Education, 29(1): 17-32. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v29n1a229
Saraiva, R. & Iglesias, F. 2016. Cooperation under pressure: time urgency and time perspective in social dilemmas. Time and Society, 25(2): 393-405. https://doi. org/10.1177/0961463X15577271
Severiens, S. & ten Dam, G. 2012. Leaving college: A gender comparison in male and female-dominated programs. Research in Higher Education, 53(4): 453-470. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11162-011-9237-0
Schunk, DH. 2012. Learning theories: An Educational Perspective. (6th ed). Boston: Pearson. https://www.pearson.de/media/muster/ext/9781292033860.pdf
Scully, NJ. 2011. The theory-practice gap and skill acquisition: an issue for nursing education. Science Direct, 18: 93-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colegn.2010.04.002
Sithole, M.P. 2024. Perceptions of tutors on tutor training at a University of Technology. The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning, 19(1): 50-63. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ ejc-jitl1-v19-n1-a4. https://doi.org/10.17159/ijtl.v19i1.18852
Sithole, M.P. & Gumede, P.R. 2022. Sustaining a tutorship programme at a university of technology: A systems approach. Perspectives in Education, 40(3): 224-240. https://doi. org/10.18820/2519593X/pie.v40.i3.15
Sukrajh, V. 2018. The use of peer teaching to promote active learning amongst senior medical students. (Unpublished Master's thesis). Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa.
Sukrajh, V. & Adefolalu, A.O. 2021. Peer teaching in medical education: highlighting the benefits and challenges of its implementation. European Journal of Education and Pedagogy, 2(1): 64-68. https://doi.org/10.24018/ejedu.2021.2.1.52
Szollos, A. 2009. Toward a psychology of chronic time pressure: conceptual and methodological review. Time and Society, 18: 332-350. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961463X09337847
Tronto, J. 1993. Moral Boundaries: A Political Argument for An Ethic of Care. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X18000417
Underhill, J. & McDonald, J. 2010. Collaborative tutor development: Enabling a transformative paradigm in a South African University. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 18(2): 91-106. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611261003678853
Vaismoradi, M. Turunen, H. & Bondas, T. 2013. Content analysis and thematic analysis: implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study. Nursing and Health Sciences, 15(3): 398-405. https://doi.org/10.1111/nhs.12048
Valler-Jones, T. Meechan, R. & Jones, H. 2011. Simulated practice- a panacea for health education? British Journal of Nursing, 20(10): 628-631. https://doi.org/10.12968/ bjon.2011.20.10.628
Van Zyl, A. Dampier, G. & Ngwenya, N. 2020. Effective institutional intervention where it makes the biggest difference to student success: The University of Johannesburg (UJ) Integrated Student Success Initiative (1551). Journal of Student Affairs in Africa, 8(2): 59-71. https://doi. org/10.24085/jsaa.v8i2.4448
Vygotsky, L.S. 1962. Thought and Language. MIT Press, Massachusetts Institute of Technology: John Wiley and Sons. https://doi.org/10.1037/11193-000
Vygotsky, L. 1978. Interaction Between Learning and Development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L.S. 1987. The Collected Works of L.S. Vygotsky (vol. 1). In: R.W. Rieber & A.S. Carton (Eds.). New York: Plenum Press.
Wallace, D. Abel, R. & Ropers-Huilman, B. 2000. Clearing a path for success: Deconstructing borders through undergraduate mentoring. The Review of Higher Education, 24(1): 87-102. https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2000.0026
Waller, M.J. Giambatista, R.C. % Zellmer-Bruhn, M. 1999. The effects of individual time urgency on group polychronicity. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 13: 244-256. https://doi. org/10.1108/02683949910263765
Weatherby, K. Clark-Wilson, A. Cukurova, M. & Luckin, R. 2022. The importance of boundary objects in industry-academia collaborations to support evidencing the efficacy of educational technology. TechTrends, 66(5): 784-797. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-022-00705-0
Wenger, E. 1998. Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, Identity. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CB09780511803932
Wilkerson, L. & Gijselaers, H. 1996. New Directions for Teaching and Learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1002/t1.37219966803
Wilson-Strydom, M. 2010. Traversing the chasm from school to university in South Africa: A student perspective. Tertiary Education and Management, 16(4): 313-325. https://doi.org/10. 1080/13583883.2010.532565
Wilson-Strydom, М.С. & Hay, H.R. 2010. In S. Mahlomaholo, D. Francis & M. Nkoane (Eds.), Praxis towards sustainable empowering learning environments in South Africa (pp. 239-252). Bloemfontein, South Africa: African Sun Media.
Yusuf, B. N. M. & Ahmad, J. (2020). Are we prepared enough? A case study of challenges in online learning in a private higher learning institution during the COVID-19 outbreaks. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(5): 205-212. https://doi.org/10.14738/ assrj.75.8211
Copyright University of the Free State, Faculty of Education 2025