Bridging theory and practice: how open distance learning fosters ESL teachers’ professional growth in Malaysia

Abstract

Purpose

This research aims to investigate the role played by open distance learning (ODL) in supporting the professional development of in-service teachers in the field of English as a Second Language (ESL) at a Malaysian higher education institution. In a rapidly evolving educational landscape, continuous professional development is essential for teachers, particularly for underqualified in-service educators. ODL offers a flexible and accessible pathway that allows teachers to simultaneously pursue academic qualifications while fulfiling their professional and personal responsibilities.

Design/methodology/approach

This study employed a qualitative case study design to examine how ODL influences pedagogical practices. Data were gathered through in-depth interviews with four in-service ESL teachers enrolled in an undergraduate Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL) programme delivered via ODL.

Findings

A thematic analysis of the interview data revealed several key insights. The flexibility of ODL allowed participants to balance their work, study and personal responsibilities, although effective time management was critical for success. The programme facilitated the integration of theoretical knowledge with classroom practices and improved instructional strategies. However, some participants found it challenging to apply abstract theories in real-world teaching contexts. Although ODL enabled the immediate implementation of newly acquired techniques, an inadequate technological infrastructure hindered this process. Expert guidance was valuable, yet limited face-to-face interaction posed challenges for some educators.

Practical implications

The findings offer valuable insights for policymakers and ODL institutions. They highlight the need for strengthened institutional support, improved technological infrastructure and enhanced interactive learning opportunities.

Originality/value

This study highlights the need for enhanced support systems, targeted professional development strategies and policy measures to improve teachers’ effectiveness.

Introduction

Teachers’ professional development is a critical component of Malaysia’s efforts to enhance educational quality, aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNICEF, 2020). To address the shortage of qualified English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers, the Malaysian Ministry of Education has authorised private institutions to offer Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL) programmes via open distance learning (ODL). This initiative enables in-service teachers to obtain formal qualifications while continuing their teaching responsibilities (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2023). As a flexible and accessible mode of teacher professional development (TPD), ODL caters to working educators, allowing them to upskill without disrupting their employment (Ooi and Othman, 2023). It employs a blended learning model that integrates online instruction with face-to-face sessions, thereby providing a cost-effective and efficient pathway for career advancement (Bhandigadi et al., 2021).

With increasing emphasis on English proficiency in Malaysia, enhancing the quality of ESL instruction remains a national priority (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2023). ODL offers an alternative to traditional face-to-face training by enabling teachers to engage in continuous learning while maintaining their teaching roles. Research highlights several benefits of ODL, including self-paced learning, access to digital resources and collaborative engagement (Goktepe and Kunt, 2021). However, concerns persist regarding digital literacy barriers, limited interaction with peers and mentors and the overall effectiveness of online training in improving classroom practice.

This study examined the role of ODL in fostering the professional growth of in-service ESL teachers at a Malaysian higher education institution. Given the increasing need for continuous professional development, particularly among underqualified educators, ODL provides opportunities for teachers to integrate theoretical knowledge into their practical teaching strategies (Beach et al., 2021). However, its impact on teaching competencies remains an area of critical inquiry. By addressing this research question, How does ODL impact in-service ESL teachers’ professional growth?, this study contributes to the discourse on technology-mediated teacher education and offers recommendations for enhancing ESL teacher training programmes in Malaysia.

Teacher professional development

TPD is broadly defined as “activities to support teachers in improving their needs related to their work as teachers” (El Islami et al., 2022, p. 2). Prior to the rise of ODL, traditional TPD often consisted of face-to-face workshops and training sessions (Othman and Senom, 2020). However, these sessions required teachers to leave their schools for extended periods, resulting in logistical and time-management challenges. Research by Ooi and Othman (2023) highlighted the limitations of such traditional approaches and stressed that teachers were unable to integrate new skills into their classroom practices because of their inability to transfer and apply the knowledge they had acquired. Furthermore, Mohd Yaakob et al. (2020) emphasise the need for differentiated TPD strategies to cater to diverse teacher needs. They argue for a shift away from one-size-fits-all approaches, highlighting how varying age groups may require different forms of support, ranging from technological training for senior teachers to pedagogical and content knowledge development for younger educators. Over the past two decades, ODL has gained traction as the preferred method of TPD in Malaysia. This trend can be attributed to factors such as the growing teacher population, increasing demand for trained educators and recent acceleration due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Sirat et al., 2020). International studies by de Oliveira et al. (2018) and Mkwizu and Ngaruko (2020) highlighted several benefits of ODL, including flexibility, accessibility of content, affordability and self-paced learning. These advantages make ODL an attractive option for working adults, particularly in-service teachers juggling work, family and studies (Bhandigadi et al., 2021).

Impact of TPD via ODL

It has been established that ODL can positively impact teacher development in several ways. Studies by Bhandigadi et al. (2021) and Mkwizu and Ngaruko (2020) demonstrated the effectiveness of online courses, workshops and learning modules in enhancing teachers’ job-related skills and knowledge. Lim et al. (2014) and Yu (2018) further emphasised the link between teachers’ knowledge and their classroom practices. Furthermore, the flexible nature of ODL allows for an individualised learning approach (Datt and Singh, 2021), catering to the specific needs of teachers and potentially leading to improved classroom instruction. Integrating online technological tools into ODL programmes can foster innovative teaching methods and encourage the adoption of new pedagogical practices. Additional research (Beach et al., 2021; Guilbaud et al., 2021) also suggests that ODL can positively influence teachers’ classroom practices by promoting innovative instructional approaches, potentially leading to improved student outcomes. These findings highlight the potential of ODL as a valuable learning mode for TPD, offering working educators flexibility and accessibility for continuous professional growth.

A study by Mohd Yaakob et al. (2020) involving over 300 teachers in Kelantan, Malaysia, revealed that teachers’ professional development needs vary across generations of in-service teachers. The research concluded that senior teachers often face technological challenges, while younger teachers require assistance in improving their pedagogical content knowledge and skills. This finding suggests that a uniform approach to TPD is ineffective. In addition, research by Abdullah and Said (2022) highlighted the importance of online facilitators to establish successful online learning. They emphasised that for effective ODL, instructors must demonstrate empathy and provide constructive feedback to motivate learners. This enhances learners’ knowledge construction and boosts their confidence and self-efficacy. These studies indicate the importance of TPD and the viability of online TPD in Malaysia. However, research specifically exploring the impact of ODL on the professional development of in-service ESL teachers within the Malaysian context remains limited, and it is this area that this research attempts to address.

Conceptual framework

Guskey’s (2000) multi-level evaluation framework provides a structured approach to assessing how ODL impacts in-service ESL teachers’ professional growth in Malaysia. His model evaluates teacher development across multiple levels, making it well-suited for examining both knowledge acquisition and classroom application within ODL-based programmes. First, Guskey’s (2000) framework aligns with ODL’s role in enhancing pedagogical knowledge and skills (Lim et al., 2014; Yu, 2018). Research suggests that ODL enables teachers to bridge theory and practice by offering structured learning experiences that improve instructional strategies (de Oliveira et al., 2018; Datt and Singh, 2021). This directly addresses whether ODL equips teachers with relevant and applicable knowledge for their professional development.

Second, the model highlights the importance of evaluating the transfer of learning to classroom practice. While ODL allows teachers to immediately apply new strategies, factors such as school support and resource availability significantly influence its successful implementation (Sirat et al., 2020). Examining these external factors ensures that ODL-based training is not only effective at an individual level but also supported institutionally.

Additionally, applying Guskey’s (2000) framework to the Malaysian context also helps address localised challenges. International studies emphasise ODL’s benefits (de Oliveira et al., 2018; Mkwizu and Ngaruko, 2020), yet research on Malaysian teachers (Mohd Yaakob et al., 2020) highlights the varying needs of different teacher generations. Evaluating organisational support and programme adaptability in Malaysian schools can reveal whether ODL effectively meets these diverse needs. By integrating Guskey’s model, this study assessed whether teachers gain new knowledge and whether they can implement it successfully with sufficient school support. This deeper analysis enhances teacher effectiveness and ultimately improves student outcomes in Malaysia.

MethodologyResearch design

This study used a qualitative interpretive methodological framework, specifically employing a case study approach to gain a comprehensive understanding of the professional development of in-service teachers. The case study method offers a structured framework for examining complex educational phenomena, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of participant experiences, contextual influences and knowledge applications (Creswell, 2013). Given that this investigation focused on in-service ESL teachers pursuing teacher education through ODL, this design was selected for its ability to generate significant, contextually informed insights into how teachers apply theoretical knowledge in their teaching practices.

This methodological framework is situated within the constructivist paradigm, which asserts that individuals actively construct subjective interpretations of their realities and experiences concerning specific objects or phenomena (Creswell and Creswell, 2018). This study examined how the realities of in-service ESL teachers, grounded in their lived experiences, significantly shape their professional development narratives. The case study method has emerged as an effective means of exploring educational innovations and classroom practices, making it a suitable choice for investigating TPD through ODL, as supported by Merriam (2009) and Creswell and Creswell (2018).

Participants

Four in-service ESL teachers who underwent teacher education via ODL were purposively selected to participate in the study. This sampling strategy was chosen to ensure acquisition of a substantial amount of relevant data, as suggested by Yin (2011). Participants were selected based on their status as active students enrolled in a TESL undergraduate programme at an ODL institution. They worked concurrently as ESL teachers in private international primary schools in Selangor, Malaysia. Two of the participants’ highest educational qualifications were their Malaysian Certificate of Education or Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM), the Malaysian equivalent to O Levels; the other two had a diploma that was not in the field of education. Participants were chosen based on their experience as working teachers without prior pedagogical training to ensure they could provide rich insights into the impact of ODL on their professional growth. All four participants were fluent in English, but English was not their native language. This study focused on investigating each participant’s learning experience to obtain a deeper and more holistic understanding of their learning experience. Their classroom practices were based on their own experiences during their schooling days and on observing their colleagues and mentors. Pseudonyms were assigned to each participant to protect anonymity. It was a coincidence that all participants were female, as gender was not a criterion for their selection.

Table 1 provides an overview of each participant’s demographic information, including their gender, age, years of ODL study experience, highest educational qualification and teaching experience. As each participant had at least three years of ODL learning experience through the teacher education programme while working as an in-service ESL teacher in a private international school, they would have experienced the full extent of the ODL mode of delivery. This comprised utilising various technological tools such as the Learning Management System and Microsoft Teams for their studies as well as the in-service ESL teacher aspect of teaching in a private international school. Therefore, they are well-positioned as rich resources to contribute to the study by sharing their learning experiences. Consequently, by employing this approach and sampling strategy, the information provided by the participants will help the aim of the study by presenting a glimpse of TPD via the ODL phenomenon. Creswell and Creswell (2018) posited that four participants would be sufficient to identify emerging themes across cases, supporting the rationale behind selecting this specific number of participants for the study.

Ethical considerations

Before the research commenced, approval was obtained from the University’s Ethics Committee to ensure adherence to ethical guidelines. The researchers provided comprehensive explanations to the participants regarding the study’s objectives, potential risks and the handling and security of their data. Participants were made aware of the voluntary nature of their participation, with the option to withdraw at any point without facing prejudice or penalties. All participants signed informed consent forms, and pseudonyms were assigned to maintain confidentiality. Participants were assured that their data would only be used for the study and not without their explicit consent.

Data collection and analysis

Following Cohen et al. (2018), in-depth interviews were chosen as the research instrument, allowing participants to articulate their interpretations of and perspectives on their experiences. The utilisation of in-depth interviews proved beneficial, as it facilitated the researchers’ understanding of the underlying mechanisms and rationales behind the impact of TPD via ODL on the learning experience and classroom practices of these in-service ESL teachers, which aligned with the case study approach advocated by Yin (2011).

All four participants willingly consented to audio recording of their interviews via Microsoft Teams, a multimedia platform providing secure recording and automatic transcription capabilities. Semi-structured interviews were conducted, and a set of carefully prepared questions adapted from Senom’s (2016) study focused on eliciting participants’ viewpoints and evaluations of the impact of TPD via ODL. To ensure the validity of the questions, two graduated TESL alums piloted the interview questions and changes were made based on their feedback before the individual interviews were conducted. The researchers conducted interviews lasting between 60 and 90 min, with the option of modifying the questions to accommodate the emerging developments during the interview process. While the sample size was small, data saturation was reached, meaning that no new themes emerged from additional interviews (Daher, 2023). Small samples are standard in qualitative research, particularly in studies focusing on lived experiences (Yin, 2011).

Upon completion of the interviews, the transcripts were generated using Microsoft Teams’ transcription tool and subsequently reviewed by the researchers to ensure accuracy and authenticity. The transcripts were then shared with the participants for member checking, ensuring the veracity of the transcriptions. A thematic analysis was employed to examine the impact of ODL on ESL teachers’ professional development. Inductive coding was used to generate themes from the participants’ transcripts using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) guidelines. The initial codes were identified through careful reading and re-reading of the data, capturing unique experiences related to professional growth. The codes reflecting similar learning experiences in ODL by participants were grouped into broader themes. This ensured that the emerging themes that formed the data were aligned with the participants’ perspectives. A comparative analysis across data sources was conducted to identify convergence and divergence, enhancing validity and intercoder reliability while addressing the research question. By employing this rigorous data collection and analysis methodology, this study aimed to gain insights into the impact of ODL-based TPD on the teachers’ pedagogical competence and practices in Malaysia.

Findings and discussions

The results of this study were categorised into four main themes: flexible management of work-life-study demands, bridging theory and practice, applying knowledge to practice and learning from readily available experts. Figure 1 provides a visual summary of the themes that emerged in this study. Each theme was presented in detail and was supported by direct quotes from the participants.

Flexibility in managing work-life-study demands

A prominent theme that emerged from the participants’ reflections on the impact of ODL on their professional development was its capacity to accommodate simultaneous commitments to work, family and study. This aligns with prior research indicating that ODL benefits adult learners who seek to upskill themselves while fulfiling their personal and professional responsibilities (de Oliveira et al., 2018). The four participants in this study were engaged in full-time employment as ESL teachers at private international schools. They were enrolled part-time in a TESL undergraduate programme to obtain their teaching qualifications. Given the inherent challenges of balancing multiple roles, ODL emerged as a crucial enabler of their educational pursuits without requiring them to compromise their existing obligations.

Dawn underscored the convenience of online learning, particularly in light of her demanding workload and family responsibilities. She highlighted how ODL eliminated the need for commuting, allowing her to seamlessly integrate study into her daily routine. As she observed:

Because of the workload and time with family … I don’t have to.. like get ready straight away, take one hour of my time just to drive and go and come back online. I just have to log in, and the class is there ready, and I can attend classes.

Her experience reflects findings from previous studies indicating that the time-saving aspects of ODL are particularly beneficial for working professionals as they reduce logistical barriers to education (Mkwizu and Ngaruko, 2020).

Similarly, Sunny emphasised the financial and temporal advantages of ODL. She noted that attending in-person classes requires extensive travel, incurring both time and financial costs. Instead, ODL offered a cost-effective alternative, enabling her to focus on her studies while minimising unnecessary expenses. She remarked:

I do not need to travel so far to Cheras, from Klang to Cheras which is so very far, and I can save all my petrol money and time.

This observation aligns with Mohammad and Kamran’s (2023) research, which found that cost-effectiveness is a significant factor in adult learners’ preference for ODL because financial constraints often deter working professionals from pursuing higher education in traditional settings.

For Meryl, the flexibility of ODL was particularly valuable in balancing domestic responsibilities with academic pursuits. Unlike conventional face-to-face learning, ODL allowed her to fulfil household duties before dedicating time to her studies. She shared:

I come home, I cook, you know, it’s the cleaning up the dishes and everything like, you know, spending time with family, and then only, you know, I do my studies when all that is taken care of.

Previous research supports her experience, suggesting that the ability to integrate study with domestic and caregiving responsibilities is a critical determinant of persistence in distance education (Kara et al., 2019).

Vicky’s reflections further illustrate the necessity of ODL for in-service teachers seeking to meet their evolving professional requirements. She recounted that the Malaysian government mandated all teachers to obtain a recognised teaching qualification regardless of whether they taught in private or public schools. For her, ODL allowed her to fulfil this requirement without interrupting her career or financial stability. As she explained:

[The government] started to be very strict that teachers should have at least a degree, and at that point or moment, I did not have a degree. I only had my diploma. So I think, OK, I better start doing my degree while working … and also, I’m sure it will help me in my career in future.

Her account aligns with findings from Ooi and Othman (2023), who indicate that policy-driven requirements often serve as catalysts for educators to pursue additional qualifications. In such contexts, ODL has emerged as a pragmatic and sustainable avenue for professional advancement without necessitating career breaks or financial strain.

The participants’ experiences collectively reinforce the argument that ODL offers a viable and strategic pathway for in-service ESL teachers to attain higher qualifications while effectively managing their work-life-study balance. Consistent with the existing literature, their reflections highlight ODL’s inherent flexibility, accessibility and cost-effectiveness, making it a compelling option for educators seeking professional development without disrupting their livelihoods (de Oliveira et al., 2018; Mkwizu and Ngaruko, 2020).

Bridging theory and practice

Another important theme emerging from the participants’ reflections was their ability to integrate pedagogical theories and linguistic concepts acquired through ODL into their classroom practices. This aligns with the broader discourse on teacher education, underscoring the importance of bridging theoretical knowledge with practical applications to enhance instructional efficacy (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017). Notably, none of the four participants had received formal pedagogical training before entering the teaching profession. Consequently, their initial instructional strategies were primarily influenced by personal schooling experiences and informal observations of colleagues and mentors. However, through their ODL studies, they developed a more structured understanding of grammar and the theoretical foundations that underpin effective teaching practices.

Dawn provided a compelling example of how exposure to courses, such as Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis, deepened her comprehension of grammatical structures. She explained that these courses not only helped her internalise grammatical rules but also enabled her to contextualise them within authentic language use. Reflecting on this experience, she stated:

You see, we cover pragmatics, discourse analysis, and all that. I would say that the application of understanding the lesson is quite in-depth. Grammatically speaking, the words, vocabulary, and all that form the theoretical part, which I am reading and truly learning from.

Her experience is consistent with the findings of Borg (2005), who argued that teachers’ engagement with theoretical linguistic concepts fosters a more nuanced understanding of language structures, enhancing their ability to teach language more effectively.

Similarly, Meryl noted that her ODL studies allowed her to recognise the theoretical underpinnings of instructional strategies employed by experienced teachers. Before enrolling in the programme, she observed various classroom practices without fully understanding their pedagogical rationales. She elaborated:

It’s very helpful in that, you know, at school, you can see the teaching happening and understand what lies behind it—the theory. In terms of the theoretical part, I feel I can recognise, for instance, what is happening in pedagogical usage within the class. I can identify when a teacher is employing Perennialism or Constructivism. I am familiar with these theories and can comprehend what is taking place.

This reflection aligns with Shulman’s (1987) concept of pedagogical content knowledge, which highlights that effective teaching is not just about knowing the subject matter but also about understanding the theoretical foundations that shape how we teach it. By recognising educational theories in action, Meryl was able to refine her teaching approach, moving beyond intuitive practice to a more intentional, theory-driven methodology.

Sunny’s experience further illustrates the transformative role of ODL in bridging the gap between theory and practice. Before enrolling in the Principles and Practices in English Language Teaching course, she had limited awareness of key educational frameworks such as the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) and the Primary School Standard Curriculum (Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah, KSSR). Although these frameworks were integral to her instructional planning and assessment, she did not fully grasp their significance until her ODL studies provided her with a clearer understanding of their role in curriculum development. She reflected:

This is the blueprint of the government, CEFR. Because you have KSSR, all the syllabus and what is the syllabus, you know, the difference between … syllabus and curriculum. I didn’t even know about this, and I think in degree only I know.

Sunny’s realisation highlights a common challenge among in-service teachers who enter the profession without formal training. Yu (2018) suggests that structured teacher education programmes, such as those offered through ODL, play a pivotal role in equipping teachers with the requisite knowledge to align classroom instruction with curriculum standards and assessment frameworks.

Vicky also emphasised how her ODL coursework, particularly the curriculum and assessment module, enriched her understanding of differentiated assessment strategies. She gained profound insights into the need for multi-tiered evaluation methods to accommodate students with diverse cognitive abilities. She explained:

They [the course] actually taught us how to prepare questions according to the children’s understanding … How are you supposed to, you know, prepare questions for them.. This is how you should assess your child because not all students have the same level of thinking or understanding. So you know you should have a different method of planning your system, planning your questions for them.

Her reflections align with existing literature emphasising that assessment literacy is a critical competency for educators, enabling them to implement fair and effective evaluation practices that cater to diverse learning needs (Barani and Ghonsooly, 2025). Vicky was able to refine her approach by engaging with theoretical frameworks on assessment, ensuring that her evaluation strategies were more inclusive and responsive to student variability.

Collectively, the participants’ experiences highlight the vital role of ODL in connecting theoretical knowledge with practical applications in teacher education. Consistent with prior studies, their reflections suggest that structured exposure to pedagogical theories enables teachers to critically analyse and refine their instructional approaches, ultimately leading to more informed and effective classroom practices (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Yu, 2018). Integrating theoretical insights into real-world teaching enhances professional competence and fosters deeper engagement with curriculum planning, instructional design, and student assessments.

Applying knowledge to practice

Another key theme emerging from the participants’ reflections was their ability to immediately apply the knowledge acquired through ODL studies to their classroom practices. This finding aligns with research emphasising the role of continuous professional development in enhancing teaching effectiveness, particularly in classroom management, differentiated instruction, assessment strategies and lesson planning (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017). The participants reported a noticeable improvement in their instructional approaches, demonstrating how the theoretical insights gained through ODL were directly translated into practical teaching strategies.

Sunny highlighted the practical impact of her ODL coursework, particularly in addressing the students’ diverse learning needs. She noted that she lacked the theoretical foundation and instructional strategies necessary to effectively support students with varying abilities prior to her formal studies. However, after completing several subjects in her TESL program, she became more proficient in selecting appropriate teaching tools, materials and strategies to enhance student engagement and learning outcomes. Reflecting on this transformation, she stated:

Doing my degree has been incredibly enlightening. I have learned a great deal about different situations, types of students, and the effective approaches we need to adopt. Furthermore, I’ve gained insights into learning materials, styles, and strategies—all of which I acquired through my degree. It has truly made a considerable impact on my teaching practice.

Her experience reflects the findings of Alshaikhi and Khasawneh (2024), who emphasised that teacher education programmes significantly enhance educators’ ability to implement differentiated instruction and improve student engagement and learning outcomes. Similarly, Vicky described how her Curriculum Assessment course in the ODL programme enhanced her understanding of student assessment. Before her studies, she lacked a structured approach for evaluating student learning. However, she developed a more systematic and effective assessment framework through her coursework that she immediately incorporated into her teaching. She explained:

Curriculum Assessment taught me a great deal. Honestly, the proper way of assessing students, as in, yes, during their school studies, was the time when I truly learned, oh, this is how I should assess the students … how to assess these children properly, you know, in a proper and systematic way. Until I started engaging in that curriculum assessment, I really grasped it well and used it as an example for my learning skills.

Her reflections align with research by Barani and Ghonsooly (2025), who emphasised the critical role of assessment literacy in enabling teachers to design and implement effective formative and summative assessments. Understanding assessment principles allows educators to tailor evaluation methods to students’ cognitive abilities, thereby fostering a more inclusive and equitable learning environment.

Dawn also underscored the value of integrating technology into classroom instruction, mainly through the mobile applications introduced during her ODL courses. Before enrolling in the programme, she was unaware of digital tools that could enhance student engagement and learning experiences. However, through her coursework and lecturer recommendations, she discovered applications such as Quizizz, which she found highly effective in promoting interactive learning. She reflected:

They tell us, OK, you can use this app to teach, for instance … OK, Quizizz. I’ve not known about Quizizz before, so it helps me.

Meryl also described how her ODL studies influenced her instructional design, particularly distinguishing between teacher-centred and student-centred learning. Prior to her formal training, she relied heavily on teacher-directed instruction; however, she later recognised the benefits of incorporating student-centred strategies to foster engagement and active learning. She reflected:

I realised that, you know, having a teacher-centred class isn’t necessarily effective … sometimes it must be teacher-centred, as you know. But, I mean, children get bored if you’re the one talking all the time, right? When I prepare my lessons, I try, for the most part, to make them student-centred, like you know, where they construct their own learning.

Her observations align with constructivist learning theories, which suggest that student-centred instruction enhances cognitive engagement and promotes deeper learning (Vygotsky, 1978). The study by Sherley et al. (2024) further supports this, arguing that shifting from teacher-centred to student-centred approaches results in greater student autonomy, motivation and critical thinking.

These findings align with existing research, particularly the work of Lim et al. (2014) and Yu (2018), which highlights the impact of professional development programmes in equipping teachers with the knowledge and skills necessary to refine their pedagogical approaches. However, the results of this study contrast with the findings of Yook and Lee (2016), who reported that teachers often struggle to translate theoretical knowledge into practical applications due to contextual constraints such as institutional resistance, rigid curricula and lack of mentoring support. Participants’ reflections in this study suggest that ODL serves as a crucial mechanism for bridging the gap between theory and practice, providing educators with actionable insights that can be immediately implemented in classroom settings.

Learning from readily available experts

Another significant theme that emerged from the participants’ experiences was the opportunity to learn directly from experts in the field of education through their ODL courses. While conventional learning environments also provide access to subject-matter experts, in-service teachers often struggle to engage with academic professionals because of the demands of their work and family responsibilities. However, ODL offers structured and flexible access to highly qualified lecturers with extensive teaching experience and expertise in various educational disciplines. This accessibility reassures in-service teachers that they receive instruction from reputable experts, which in turn enhances their confidence in the credibility and relevance of their learning. Research suggests that expert mentorship and modelling play a critical role in shaping teachers’ professional growth, particularly in distance education settings (Yu, 2018).

Sunny emphasised the professionalism and expertise of her ODL lecturers, highlighting the accuracy and depth of the information they provided. She expressed appreciation for their knowledge:

They are teaching professionally, they are teaching with a good lot of good facts.

Her sentiments align with the findings of Darling-Hammond et al. (2017), who emphasise that access to knowledgeable instructors significantly influences teachers’ confidence in applying new pedagogical concepts. Similarly, Meryl reflected on the invaluable guidance she received from her educational technology lecturer, who meticulously taught the foundational principles of lesson planning. She found that his structured approach was particularly beneficial for developing her lesson plans, ultimately improving her instructional effectiveness. She expresses her gratitude, stating:

Mr Yap, who taught us Educational Technology, spent much time teaching us the ABCDE of drawing up lesson plans. So yeah, he helped me with that. And then understanding the various ways of teaching.

This aligns with studies that highlight the role of structured instructional support in enhancing teachers’ lesson planning and implementation (Kho et al., 2020). Research indicates that exposure to clear, methodical lesson-planning frameworks contributes to teachers’ ability to design coherent and engaging instructional sequences (Lumbreras and Rupley, 2020).

Dawn also noted the impact of her lecturers’ pedagogical approaches, notably when one lecturer modelled effective teaching strategies during lessons. By delivering lectures like she would conduct a school class, the lecturer provided Dawn and her peers with practical teaching methods that could be directly applied in their classrooms. Dawn recalled:

There was this one lecturer who had previously been a teacher. When she entered the classroom, her delivery resembled that of a school teacher. She shared various techniques with us, like using exit tickets, and how we could apply these methods when teaching children.

This observation is consistent with Vygotsky’s (1978) social learning theory, which suggests that learning is more effective when individuals engage in guided interactions with more knowledgeable others. The ability to observe expert teaching in action reinforces best practices and provides a practical framework for teachers to emulate in their own classrooms.

Beyond formal instruction, participants also benefited from observing their lecturers’ teaching methods during online classes. The lecturers shared theoretical knowledge and demonstrated effective teaching strategies in real time, providing participants with valuable insights into classroom management, instructional delivery and student engagement. Vicky, for instance, found these observations to be particularly useful as she adapted her lecturers’ instructional techniques to suit her own classroom environment. She explained:

Based on … from the lecturers who have been teaching us, you know? We observed how they teach, and naturally, we want to adopt their methods and carry them forward to school, trying to adapt accordingly. Since the students learning there are adults, we certainly need to adjust our approach to teaching younger learners.

Vicky’s reflections highlight the importance of cognitive apprenticeship, in which learners acquire professional expertise by engaging with and modelling expert behaviours (Mancilla and Frey, 2020). This finding is further supported by studies demonstrating that teacher education programmes incorporating mentorship and observational learning significantly enhance the transfer of pedagogical knowledge to practice (Korthagen, 2016).

These findings reinforce the critical role of expert guidance in teacher education, aligning with research that underscores the importance of mentorship and modelling in professional development (Lim et al., 2014; Yu, 2018). By directly engaging with experienced educators, in-service teachers not only acquire theoretical knowledge but also develop practical teaching competencies through observation and real-time applications. Thus, the structured accessibility of expert instruction in ODL plays a crucial role in enhancing teachers’ pedagogical competence and instructional effectiveness.

Limitations of the study

Qualitative case studies offer valuable, context-specific insights into a phenomenon; however, limitations exist. The dataset used in this study was small (n = 4). Despite this, the validity and reliability of the data are maintained, as qualitative research often reaches saturation points with small sample sizes (Daher, 2023), as seen in all four cases. However, this study’s small and specific sample size restricts its transferability and generalizability. Gender biases from the data are also possible, as all participants were female, but that was not the researchers’ intent; it was merely coincidental. Nevertheless, this study offers insight into the impact of ODL on TPD in Malaysia.

Implications

The insights gained from this study highlights the significant impact of ODL on the professional growth of in-service ESL teachers in Malaysia. While ODL offers numerous advantages, such as flexibility, accessibility and opportunities for the immediate application of knowledge, its effectiveness can be further enhanced through targeted interventions. Based on the challenges and insights shared by participants, several key recommendations have been made to improve ODL as a sustainable and impactful model for TPD.

Strengthening institutional support

One primary challenge faced by in-service educators in ODL programmes is balancing their professional responsibilities, academic commitments and personal obligations. While ODL provides flexibility, participants reported that insufficient institutional support from their respective schools hindered their ability to fully optimise their educational experience. Research has shown that workplace support plays a crucial role in facilitating teachers’ engagement in professional development (Adnan and Ahyan, 2024; Vrazhnova et al., 2021). To mitigate this issue, educational institutions should introduce adaptable work arrangements that allow teachers to allocate time for their academic coursework without compromising their instructional duties. Such measures could include reducing administrative burdens, modifying class timetables or granting study leave to teachers engaged in ODL-based professional development.

Furthermore, ensuring access to a robust digital infrastructure is crucial for enhancing the ODL experience. Participants cited difficulties in implementing technology-enhanced pedagogy due to inadequate digital infrastructure within their schools. This aligns with prior research indicating that limited digital access can constrain the effectiveness of distance learning (Boumaaize et al., 2024). Addressing this disparity requires policymakers and educational institutions to invest in improved Internet connectivity, advanced digital learning tools and professional development workshops focused on technology integration. Ensuring that educators have the necessary digital resources will not only improve their engagement with ODL content but also empower them to adopt innovative teaching strategies in their classrooms (Yusof, 2022).

Enhancing peer-to-peer engagement

Although ODL facilitates self-directed learning, a lack of direct peer interaction can lead to feelings of isolation, as reported by the participants in this study. This aligns with research suggesting that social learning and collaborative engagement are fundamental to effective professional development (Hung, 2020; Uçar et al., 2024). While the participants benefited from the expertise of their lecturers, they expressed a need for structured peer engagement and mentorship. To address this, ODL programmes should incorporate virtual mentoring networks that foster continuous professional discussions, exchanges of best practices and peer support.

The establishment of online communities of practice (Yusof, 2022) can further enhance teacher learning by facilitating knowledge exchange, collaborative problem solving, and co-construction of instructional strategies. Digital platforms such as discussion forums, virtual study groups and live question-and-answer sessions with experienced educators can promote engagement and motivation among ODL participants (Uçar et al., 2024). By strengthening these peer-to-peer learning opportunities, ODL institutions can replicate the advantages of in-person professional development while leveraging the flexibility of online education.

Developing interactive learning modules

Another challenge reported by the participants was the difficulty in translating theoretical concepts acquired through ODL into practical classroom applications. This concern is consistent with studies that indicate that professional development programmes must bridge the gap between theory and practice to be truly effective (Yook and Lee, 2016; Omar and Hashim, 2021). While ODL provides essential pedagogical knowledge, the absence of experiential learning opportunities and immediate feedback can hinder educators’ ability to apply theoretical insights to real-world teaching contexts.

To address this, ODL courses should integrate interactive, practice-oriented learning modules that provide experiential learning opportunities. One effective strategy is case-based learning, in which educators analyse authentic classroom scenarios and develop instructional strategies informed by theoretical principles (Sherley et al., 2024). Additionally, simulated teaching environments, such as virtual classrooms that allow teachers to practice lesson planning, assessment design and student engagement techniques, can significantly enhance their ability to implement ODL-acquired knowledge in their teaching practices (Li et al., 2023; Liu and Lim, 2024).

In short, while ODL presents a viable model for professional development, its effectiveness can be maximised by addressing institutional challenges, fostering peer collaboration and incorporating interactive learning experiences. Strengthening institutional support through flexible work arrangements and improved access to digital infrastructure will ease the burden of in-service teachers juggling multiple responsibilities. Enhancing peer-to-peer engagement through structured mentoring networks and collaborative learning communities can create a more dynamic and supportive learning environment. Finally, developing interactive, practice-oriented learning modules will ensure that teachers seamlessly integrate theoretical knowledge into their teaching practices. By adopting these strategic recommendations, ODL may develop into a more significant and lasting framework for teachers’ professional growth, eventually benefiting both instructors and their pupils.

Conclusion

This study highlights the significant role of ODL in advancing in-service ESL teachers’ professional development. ODL offers a flexible and structured learning environment, enabling educators to refine their pedagogical skills while balancing work and personal commitments. Key findings demonstrated that ODL facilitates accessibility to higher education, bridges theoretical knowledge with classroom practice and provides immediate opportunities for instructional applications.

A major strength of ODL is its flexibility, which allows teachers to pursue professional qualifications without disrupting their careers or personal responsibilities. This aligns with research that emphasise the benefits of flexible learning for working professionals (de Oliveira et al., 2018; Mkwizu and Ngaruko, 2020). Additionally, ODL serves as a bridge between theory and practice, deepening teachers’ understanding of pedagogical frameworks and enhancing their instructional strategies. Participants reported improved teaching effectiveness, including the adoption of student-centred approaches, digital tools and differentiated assessment methods.

Another critical advantage of ODL is the structured accessibility to expert instruction. Participants valued the mentorship and pedagogical modelling provided by experienced lecturers, reinforcing the role of guided learning in professional development (Korthagen, 2016). However, challenges such as limited face-to-face interactions, technological barriers and institutional support gaps highlight areas for improvement.

Future research should explore the long-term impact of ODL on teaching efficacy and student outcomes. Future studies could also address the challenges related to digital infrastructure, learner engagement and programme scalability. As education continues to evolve alongside technological advancements and policy reforms, ODL remains a viable and impactful model for TPD, equipping educators with the skills required to navigate the complexities of modern ESL instruction.

Author Affiliation

Figure 1

Emerging themes from thematic analysis. Source: Authors’ own work

Table 1

Participants’ demographics

Pseudonym	Gender	Age	Years of ODL study experience	Highest education qualification	Years of teaching experience
Dawn	Female	37	3 years	SPM	5 years
Meryl	Female	48	4 years	Diploma	4 years
Sunny	Female	44	5 years	SPM	12 years
Vicky	Female	45	6 years	Diploma	23 years

Source(s): Authors’ own work

References

Abdullah, Z. and Said, M.N.H.M. (2022), “Instructor attribute and feedback to empower mature learners in ODL education”, International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 129-137, doi: 10.3991/ijet.v17i03.27277.

Adnan, M.F. and Ahyan, N.A.M. (2024), “Implementation of Open Distance Learning (ODL) programs for postgraduate studies in Malaysia: a systematic literature review”, International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 3878-3887, doi: 10.6007/ijarped/v13-i3/22722.

Alshaikhi, T. and Khasawneh, M. (2024), “Enhancing teacher competence in differentiated instruction for English language learners with disabilities: a professional development intervention”, World Journal of English Language, Vol. 15 No. 1, p. 101, doi: 10.5430/wjel.v15n1p101.

Barani, R. and Ghonsooly, B. (2025), “Examining the e-assessment literacy of Iranian English as a foreign language teachers”, Journal of Research in Curriculum Instruction and Educational Technology, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 379-307, doi: 10.21608/jrciet.2025.404432.

Beach, P., Favret, E. and Minuk, A. (2021), “Online teacher professional development in Canada: a review of the research”, Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, Vol. 47 No. 2, pp. 1-23, doi: 10.21432/cjlt27948.

Bhandigadi, P., Ooi, L.H. and Chew, B.L. (2021), “ODL in Malaysia: current perspectives and challenges”, in Bordoloi, R. and Das, P. (Eds), Open Higher Education in the 21st Century, Nova Science, pp. 171-200.

Borg, S. (2005), “Teacher cognition in language teaching”, in Johnson, K. (Eds), Expertise in Second Language Learning and Teaching, Palgrave Macmillan, London, doi: 10.1057/9780230523470_10.

Boumaaize, Z., Bouhaba, A., Guider, H., Lafraxo, M.A., El Madhi, Y. and Hami, H. (2024), “E-learning challenges and trainee teacher engagement: lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic”, European Psychiatry, Vol. 67 No. S1, S547, doi: 10.1192/j.eurpsy.2024.1135.

Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2006), “Using thematic analysis in psychology”, Qualitative Research in Psychology, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp. 77-101, doi: 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.

Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2018), Research Methods in Education, 8th ed., Routledge, London, doi: 10.4324/9781315456539.

Creswell, J.W. (2013), Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 4th ed., SAGE Publications, London.

Creswell, J.W. and Creswell, J.D. (2018), Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, Sage, Los Angeles.

Daher, W. (2023), “Saturation in qualitative educational technology research”, Education Sciences, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 1-14, doi: 10.3390/educsci13020098.

Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M.E. and Gardner, M. (2017), Effective Teacher Professional Development, Learning Policy Institute, Palo Alto, CA.

Datt, G. and Singh, G. (2021), “Learners’ satisfaction with the website performance of an open and distance learning institution: a case study”, International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 1-20, doi: 10.19173/irrodl.v22i1.5097.

De Oliveira, M.M.S., Penedo, A.S.T. and Pereira, V.S. (2018), “Distance education: advantages and disadvantages of the point of view of education and society”, Dialogia, Vol. 1 No. 29, pp. 139-152, doi: 10.5585/dialogia.n29.7661.

El Islami, R.A.Z., Anantanukulwong, R. and Faikhamta, C. (2022), “Trends of teacher professional development strategies: a systematic review”, Shanlax International Journal of Education, Vol. 10 No. 2, pp. 1-8, doi: 10.34293/education.v10i2.4628.

Goktepe, F.T. and Kunt, N. (2021), “‘I’ll do it in my own class’: novice language teacher identity construction in Turkey”, Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Vol. 41 No. 3, pp. 472-487, doi: 10.1080/02188791.2020.1815648.

Guilbaud, T.C., Martin, F. and Newton, X. (2021), “Faculty perceptions on accessibility in online learning: knowledge, practice and professional development”, Online Learning Journal, Vol. 25 No. 2, pp. 6-35, doi: 10.24059/olj.v25i2.2233.

Guskey, T.R. (2000), Evaluating Professional Development, Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Hung, Y.H. (2020), “Exploration of teachers’ personal practical knowledge for teaching controversial public issues in elementary school classrooms”, Journal of Social Studies Research, Vol. 44 No. 3, pp. 281-289, doi: 10.1016/j.jssr.2020.04.001.

Kara, M., Erdogdu, F., Kokoç, M. and Cagiltay, K. (2019), “Challenges faced by adult learners in online distance education: a literature review”, Open Praxis, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 5-22, doi: 10.5944/openpraxis.11.1.929.

Kho, S., Lim, K.M. and Rupley, W.H. (2020), “The role of structured instructional support in enhancing teachers’ planning and implementation of lessons”, Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 113 No. 5, pp. 358-370, doi: 10.1080/00220671.2020.1727390.

Korthagen, F. (2016), “Inconvenient truths about teacher learning: towards professional development 3.0”, Teachers and Teaching, Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 387-405, doi: 10.1080/13540602.2016.1211523.

Li, K.C., Wong, B.T. and Chan, H.T. (2023), “Teaching and learning innovations for distance learning in the digital era: a literature review”, Frontiers in Education, Vol. 8, 1198034, doi: 10.3389/feduc.2023.1198034.

Lim, K.M., Zhang, L. and Rupley, W.H. (2014), “The effects of professional development on teachers’ pedagogical practices”, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 41, pp. 1-10, doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2014.03.007.

Liu, M. and Lim, C.A. (2024), “A conceptual framework for open distance learning of economics in Malaysia”, Proceedings of The International Seminar on Business, Economics, Social Science, and Technology, Vol. 4 No. 1, doi: 10.33830/isbest.v4i1.4840.

Lumbreras, A. and Rupley, W.H. (2020), “Coherent and engaging instructional design: a framework for effective teaching”, Educational Psychology Review, Vol. 32 No. 3, pp. 541-559, doi: 10.1007/s10648-020-09512-4.

Mancilla, R. and Frey, B. (2020), “A model for developing instructional design professionals for higher education through apprenticeship”, The Journal of Applied Instructional Design, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 1-8, doi: 10.51869/92rmbf.

Merriam, S.B. (2009), Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.

Ministry of Education Malaysia (2023), Malaysian Educational Statistics 2023, Ministry of Education, Malaysia, available at: http://repo.iain-tulungagung.ac.id/5510/5/BAB2.pdf

Mkwizu, K. and Ngaruko, D. (2020), “Implied benefits of open and distance learning in Tanzania: a qualitative approach on its benefits in Tanzania”, Global and Local Distance Education, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 80-89.

Mohammad, R.F. and Kamran, M. (2023), “Examining the efficacy of online learning in nurturing students’ learning: an analysis of students’ experiences”, Asian Association of Open Universities Journal, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 218-232, doi: 10.1108/AAOUJ-11-2022-0163.

Mohd Yaakob, M.F., Don, Y., Sufi, I. and Yusof, M.R. (2020), “Teachers’ professional development level across cohort of generations in Malaysia”, International Journal of Instruction, Vol. 13 No. 4, pp. 443-456, doi: 10.29333/iji.2020.13428a.

Omar, N. and Hashim, H. (2021), “A survey on the acceptance of e-learning for professional development amongst English as a second language (ESL) teachers in Malaysia”, Creative Education, Vol. 12, pp. 1027-1039, doi: 10.4236/ce.2021.125075.

Ooi, L.H. and Othman, J. (2023), “Challenges faced by ESL in-service teachers enrolled in a teacher education programme via open distance learning in Malaysia”, Asian Association of Open Universities Journal, Vol. 18 No. 2, pp. 121-131, doi: 10.1108/AAOUJ-12-2022-0173.

Othman, J. and Senom, F. (2020), Professional Development through Mentoring: Novice ESL Teachers’ Identity Formation and Professional Practice, Routledge, London.

Senom, F. (2016), “The native speaker programme: a qualitative study on novice esl teachers’ knowledge, identity and practice”, Unpublished PhD thesis, Universiti Malaya.

Sherley, C., Wong, M. and Agee, M. (2024), “Student-centered learning: bridging the gap between theory and practice”, International Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 112, 101800, doi: 10.1016/j.ijer.2023.101800.

Shulman, L.S. (1987), “Knowledge and teaching: foundations of the new reform”, Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 57 No. 1, pp. 1-22, doi: 10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411.

Sirat, M., Alias, A.K., Jamil, H., Saad, W.Z., Yusoff, M.S.B., Shuib, M., Selvanathan, M., Muftahu, M., Ghasemy, M. and Mohamed, M. (2020), Flexible Learning Pathways in Malaysian Higher Education: Balancing Human Resource Development and Equity Policies, Commonwealth Tertiary Education Facility.

Uçar, M., Güler, E. and Koçdar, S. (2024), “Societal bonds in virtual spaces: exploring the sense of community in online student communities at Anadolu University’s Open Education System”, Asian Association of Open Universities Journal, Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 264-281, doi: 10.1108/AAOUJ-11-2023-0128.

UNICEF (2020), “Review of education management information systems (EMIS) that track individual student data- Malaysia”, UNICEF East Asia and the Pacific Regional Office (EAPRO), available at: https://www.unicef.org/eap/media/6021/file/EMIS%20malaysia.pdf

Vrazhnova, M.N., Anastasov, M.S. and Nikiporets-Takigawa, G.Y. (2021), “Impact of professional self-improvement on the effectiveness of teachers in distance education”, Revista Tempos e Espaços em Educação, Vol. 14 No. 33, e16159, doi: 10.20952/revtee.v14i33.16159.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978), Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes, Harvard University Press, Massachusetts.

Yin, R.K. (2011), Qualitative Research from Start to Finish, Guilford, New York.

Yook, S.Y. and Lee, J. (2016), “Factors influencing teachers’ ability to apply theoretical knowledge in practice: a study of professional development contexts”, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 60, pp. 152-162, doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2016.06.006.

Yu, W.M. (2018), “Critical incidents as a reflective tool for professional development: an experience with in-service teachers”, Reflective Practice, Vol. 19 No. 6, pp. 763-776, doi: 10.1080/14623943.2018.1539652.

Yusof, S.M. (2022), “Increasing learner engagement in an ODL environment: the OUM experience”, Tenth Pan-Commonwealth Forum on Open Learning. doi: 10.56059/pcf10.631.