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Introduction
A large number of studies have been conducted over time to evaluate and utilize agricultural by-products that would otherwise be discarded. Among these by-products, the leaf of the evergreen olive tree (Olea europaea L.) have been the subject of considerable interest and study for centuries. Olive leaf extracts are a rich natural source of bioactive compounds, including oleuropein, tyrosol, and hydroxytyrosol. These compounds exhibit a range of biological activities, including antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-quorum sensing properties [1].
The field of green chemistry, which seeks to recover phenolic compounds from plants, plays a significant role in the pursuit of sustainable development [2, 3–4]. The concept of green chemistry entails the development of novel chemical reagents and reaction conditions in chemical synthesis, with the objective of promoting resource efficiency, energy efficiency, product selectivity, simplicity of operation, health and environmental safety [5, 6–7]. The applications in question are utilized across a range of industrial sectors, including energy, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, food, waste recycling, and treatment [8]. Green extraction methods, such as microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), have been employed as effective, modern, and rapid approaches that reduce the use of organic solvents and increase extraction efficiency [9]. Furthermore, these extraction methods offer a substantial opportunity for the extraction of plants with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-carcinogenic, as well as beneficial cardiovascular effects [10].
The antimicrobial activities of a variety of plant species have been the focus of significant research in recent years. Nevertheless, the focus of the scientific community has now shifted towards identifying plant-derived compounds that can effectively regulate biofilms and virulence factors in pathogenic microorganisms, rather than acting upon them directly. In this specific context, there has been a concerted effort to isolate naturally occurring anti- quorum sensing (QS) agents, owing to their specificity and comparatively reduced toxicity [11, 12]. Several plant extracts, essential oils, and nanoparticle-based formulations [13] have been extensively studied for their efficacy in counteracting biofilm formation-related issues [14]. The biofilm formation is the underlying cause of the significant impact that pathogenic microorganisms have on the health and life of organisms. The impact of QS-regulated biofilm formation is significant in various food industries. It leads to many concerns, including food spoilage, disease outbreaks, biofilm-associated deaths, and a burden on the...