Barriers and Facilitators to Accessing Primary and Secondary Education for Students With Disabilities in the Central Gondar Zone, Ethiopia

Abstract

In Ethiopia, there is low enrollment of children and youth with disabilities in the education system. Lack of access to early childhood, primary, and secondary education can reinforce cycles of poverty, limiting access to future employment opportunities and opportunities for independent living. Moreover, with children with disabilities out of school, there can be negative repercussions on their guardians due to lost productivity related to caregiving responsibilities. It is critical to better understand specific barriers faced by children and their families, as well as facilitating factors, to help increase access to education in alignment with Article 24 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. To that end, we conducted 35 semi-structured interviews with students with disabilities and their families in the Central Gondar Zone of Ethiopia to explore their experiences of barriers and facilitators to accessing government, private, or church schools. Findings reveal five critical factors affecting education access: (a) attitudes of family members, students, and community/society; (b) key individuals influencing access to education; (с) family and student advocacy and savviness; (d) material and financial support to access schools; and (e) institutional readiness. Participants also proposed recommendations to enhance access to public education. These findings provide insights to alleviate barriers and foster inclusivity in the primary and secondary education systems.

Headnote

Abstract

In Ethiopia, there is low enrollment of children and youth with disabilities in the education system. Lack of access to early childhood, primary, and secondary education can reinforce cycles of poverty, limiting access to future employment opportunities and opportunities for independent living. Moreover, with children with disabilities out of school, there can be negative repercussions on their guardians due to lost productivity related to caregiving responsibilities. It is critical to better understand specific barriers faced by children and their families, as well as facilitating factors, to help increase access to education in alignment with Article 24 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. To that end, we conducted 35 semi-structured interviews with students with disabilities and their families in the Central Gondar Zone of Ethiopia to explore their experiences of barriers and facilitators to accessing government, private, or church schools. Findings reveal five critical factors affecting education access: (a) attitudes of family members, students, and community/society; (b) key individuals influencing access to education; (с) family and student advocacy and savviness; (d) material and financial support to access schools; and (e) institutional readiness. Participants also proposed recommendations to enhance access to public education. These findings provide insights to alleviate barriers and foster inclusivity in the primary and secondary education systems.

Key Words: students with disabilities, education access, Ethiopia, Africa, inclusive education, primary, secondary schools, barriers, facilitators

Introduction

In Ethiopia, as in many other countries, disability puts individuals at a disadvantage because of misconceptions, negative attitudes, lack of resources, and poor policy framework and implementation (Breffka et al., 2023; Ndlovu, 2023). Many children in Ethiopia are exposed to various vulnerabilities due to low community awareness of child rights (Tefera et al., 2015). For example, children with disabilities are more likely to sustain violence or abuse (Boersma, 2013; Okyere et al., 2019; Tefera et al., 2015), and very few attend formal schooling (Humanity & Inclusion, n.d.; MoE, 2016). In rural Ethiopia specifically, disability has long been perceived as a manifestation of parents' or ancestors' sins or an outcome of demonic possessions that lend to justifying isolation or stigmatization of persons with disabilities (Beyene & Tizazu, 2010; Diassa & Dano, 2021; Singal & Muthukrishna, 2014). It is not uncommon to find families who either hide their children with disabilities or limit their outside-of-the-home activities-including schooling-for fear of bearing community stigma or their children sustaining psychosocial or verbal abuse by peers, community members, or teachers (Sarton & Smith, 2018).

Further, despite improvements over the years, many Ethiopian teachers do not feel comfortable including children with disabilities in their classes (Ginja & Chen, 2021). As a result, many children with disabilities who enroll in schools do not benefit due to limited institutional capacities and resources, as well as physical inaccessibility and cultural barriers (МОЕ, 2016; Schiemer, 2017). Additional barriers to inclusive education (i.e., students with disabilities learning alongside those without) in Ethiopia include families not being aware of available schools or believing that children with disabilities could only attend segregated schools designed for children with disabilities (Franck & Joshi, 2017; Hirpa, 2021). Literacy rates are another barrier; according to the 2007 census in Ethiopia, 64.1% of adults (aged 15 and above) were illiterate (African Child Policy Forum, 2011).

Ethiopias education system includes primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Primary education focuses on basic literacy and numeracy, while secondary education extends to Grades 9-12, leading to tertiary (higher) education access. Primary education is compulsory in Ethiopia, meaning that all children are required to attend school. Students in the higher secondary level in Ethiopia have the option to choose between natural sciences and social sciences as their focus (Teferra et al., 2018). Private schools in Ethiopia, funded by tuition fees, play a crucial role in the country's education system, though they sometimes focus on profits alongside their educational goals (Woldetsadik et al., 2017).

Special education in Ethiopia has shifted from a segregated model to a more inclusive approach, aiming to integrate students with diverse needs into mainstream classrooms. The number of schools in Ethiopia has increased significantly in recent years, with primary and secondary schools experiencing 8% and 17% growth, respectively, from 2015-16 to 2019-20 (UNICEF, 2021). These schools are intended to accommodate students with various disabilities, including physical, sensory, intellectual, and developmental disabilities (Miillegger & Chapman, 2024). While inclusive education has been a priority, the implementation of policies has been poor, and children with disabilities face significant challenges in accessing and benefiting from education. Inclusive education has seen notable progress in recent years, especially in relation to students with disabilities (Yorke et al., 2023); however, inaccessible infrastructure poses a challenge for children with disabilities to access education (Beyene et al., 2023). Despite the Ethiopia Federal Ministry of Education's introduction of the "Special Needs Education Programme Strategy" in 2005, limited progress has been made in implementing inclusive education due to financial challenges, a lack of accurate data on children with special needs, and inadequately qualified teachers (Semela, 2014). Financial investment, improved identification processes, disability-friendly schools, attitudinal changes, and training and support for teachers and professionals are needed to promote inclusive and special needs education in Ethiopia (Yorke et al., 2023).

Ethiopias education system is progressing towards inclusivity and equity for students with disabilities despite challenges, but many are left without access to schooling (Tefera et al., 2015). It is critical to draw from the lived experiences of students with disabilities and their family members to understand barriers and facilitators to access primary and secondary education and identify ways to improve educational access. As such, this article explores the following research question: What do family members and students identify as barriers and facilitators to accessing kindergarten to Grade 12 (K-12) education for students with physical, sensory, and intellectual disabilities in Gondar, Ethiopia?

Methods

Data Collection

This study was reviewed and approved by Ethiopian and Canadian institutional ethics review boards prior to the commencement of any contact with participants. We completed 35 in-person, semi-structured interviews (20 students with disabilities, 15 family members) in four kebeles (Ethiopias smallest administrative units) in the Central Gondar Zone of Ethiopia: in Gondar, QolaDiba, Delgi, and Chilga. As the availability of community resources varies between kebeles, we purposively selected these locations for participant recruitment to represent diversity in available community resources to support access to education - including the University of Gondar Community-Based Rehabilitation (CBR) program, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and governmental organizations that have interventions to support educational access. We also sampled purposively from these kebeles to obtain diverse experiences based on residential patterns- urban, rural, and semiurban-as well as the typical socioeconomic status of individuals in a particular location. Table 1 provides further details about the study sites.

We identified students with disabilities (age 15+) and family members of children with disabilities through the CBR networks and other disability and social service professionals working in the study sites, as well as through local school principals and teachers. Once members of the research team were connected via telephone with families, they explained the study and, if they were willing to participate, arranged a time to meet in person in a convenient location (e.g., in participants' residences, school compounds, or offices) and complete informed consent prior to the completion of the interview.

This study included 35 participants, including 20 students with disabilities and 15 family members of students with disabilities. Of these, 15 students and their family members came from the same households. For the other five students, we did not interview a family member because we were not able to locate their family members. These students lived in rented houses in semiurban or urban areas for higher secondary education, while their families resided in remote villages. Tables 2 and 3 offer further participant details.

Students with disabilities and family members were interviewed separately to encourage open and confidential conversations and to capture their unique perspectives on shared events (Reczek, 2014). Different interview protocols were developed for each group, with questions tailored to reflect their specific roles. Each protocol included six primary questions, most of which were followed by several subquestions. Despite the tailored approach, the interview questions generally focused on key areas, including experiences accessing education, support that enabled access, available community resources to promote inclusion, barriers to access, and experience with family-school-community collaboration. Each interview lasted approximately one hour and was facilitated by one of the Amharic-speaking co-authors (BMA, GS, MAG, SD, or MA). Some co-authors who conducted interviews also have lived experience with disability, and this helped to establish rapport and understanding with research participants. We conducted, audiorecorded, and transcribed the interviews in Amharic (the language spoken at home in the region) and then translated the transcripts from Amharic into English.

Data Analysis

To analyze the data, all co-authors read a selection of the transcripts and generated initial descriptive codes (Miles et al., 2014). Meeting as a full team in person, we discussed these initial codes and questions that arose from our study of the data. Talking through our initial descriptive codes and finding quotes to support each, we negotiated clear definitions and wrote a detailed codebook. Then, two team members independently completed the coding of all transcripts using the established codebook using NVivo software. The two coders, one from the U.S. and one from Ethiopia, met to discuss and amend the codes (we added one code and clarified the definitions of a few others). Using this refined codebook, one researcher took the lead on coding all family interviews, and one researcher took the lead on coding interviews with students with disabilities to complete first cycle coding (Miles et al., 2014). We met virtually to discuss the data once first cycle codes were completed and to generate pattern codes that threaded together the codes into overarching themes. We presented these themes to the authorship team along with supporting data in outline form. We agreed that these themes represented the data, and we present them in the findings section that follows.

Positionality

In this study, we acknowledged our positionality and the influence it may have on our research focus, methodology, and data interpretations (Yip, 2024). Our research team consisted of researchers from Ethiopia, Canada, and the U.S., several of whom are fluent in Amharic and all of whom are fluent in English. Our research team included individuals with extensive professional and academic expertise in disability studies and inclusive education, comprising Ethiopian students with disabilities, educators from North America and Ethiopia, and community-based rehabilitation leaders from Ethiopia. Ethiopian team members' backgrounds fostered a deep understanding of the context and empathy towards the participants' experiences. Having representation from North American team members enabled us to probe potentially taken-for-granted assumptions of the Ethiopian team members and translate to a more global audience. To enhance the credibility of our findings, we maintained reflexivity throughout the study, critically examining how our tacit knowledge, assumptions, values, and potential biases might shape the research (Cutcliffe, 2003). For example, the research team met monthly via Zoom to discuss the data. During these meetings, we made time for questions and explanations of data and our interpretations.

Findings

Participants identified the following five factors that facilitated or impeded access to K-12 education: (a) attitudes of family members, students with disabilities themselves, and society; (b) key individuals influencing access to education; (с) family and student advocacy and savviness; (а) material and financial support to access schools; and (e) institutional readiness. Additionally, participants offered recommendations for improved access to public education.

Attitudes of Family Members, Students With Disabilities Themselves, and Society

Participants indicated that positive attitudes towards both education and disability facilitated access to education for students with disabilities in the Central Gondar Zone. This included both family and societal perceptions or attitudes about education for children with disabilities. Having high expectations for children with disabilities was a facilitating factor noted by participants. On the other hand, negative attitudes towards both education and disability hindered the inclusion of students with disabilities in public education settings. This included families' limited perceptions or attitudes about education for their children with disabilities, hiding their children in the home because of stigma associated with disability, perceiving tion as not to their children, and fear that their children would be made vulnerable by attending school. Societal perceptions of children with disabilities, including low expectations and stigma, also hindered their access to education.

Many participants explained that there was an outdated way of thinking about disability and indicated that a different conceptualization of disability would be preferable. One mother (F5) stated:

You know our society. People... say, "What is wrong with her?" But, she hears them talking behind her as she passes by them. They constantly harass her. I encourage her to not be afraid of them and talk to them freely.

Participants indicated that teachers and school administrators must be more cognizant of the need to educate all students, including those with disabilities, instead of having what one participant considered to be a lack of concern and awareness. Furthermore, people with disabilities need employment opportunities to help maintain positive attitudes toward education. As one participant noted, it is challenging to maintain inspiration and motivation to pursue education if there are little to no employment prospects afterward. One parent (F3) explained that the challenging attitudes described above are slowly changing to be more positive: "Many people are giving up hiding their children, saying that 'this is the will of the Creator." In addition to describing how attitudes can affect education access of students with disabilities, participants also described the strong influence that key individuals had on overcoming negative attitudes and accessing public education.

Key Individuals Influencing Access to Education

Participants identified numerous key individuals who facilitated access to public education for students with disabilities. Many participants explained that these individuals helped them have high expectations, taught them how to support their child with a disability, and provided encouragement. The key individuals sometimes helped enroll the student with a disability in school, provided necessary accommodations to access school, or supported students or families in other ways. Key individuals were both part of the formal social welfare system in the country or were less formally established as supports and more external to the established system.

Formal Helping Individuals

Many formal helping individuals, working in their capacity as paid employees of organizations, identified and assisted children with disabilities who were not attending school. They accomplished this by going door-todoor and gaining trust in the community. One of the most prevalent groups of individuals highlighted by participants were CBR workers employed by the University of Gondar, who provide community-level rehabilitation support and help connect people to specialized services when needed. The power of these individuals cannot be overstated, as they were often the only people identified as helping families of individuals with disabilities, as stated by a parent (F2): "[CBR worker, A.] is the only one who visits me. She is the one who helps me." Another parent (F9) stated, "[CBR workers] are ones who helped him to be considered as human. There is no one except them." One student (S7) stated, "There is no support from any organization at all. It is only [staff members of the CBR program] who are fighting for us." CBR workers gain trust with families and encourage them to send their children to school. Another parent (F13) explained that her child "was disabled when she was born. However, I didn't do anything until CBR workers came to find her house to house. It is after that and with their support that she went out of the house."

CBR workers helped families gain skills to care for their children with disabilities. One parent (F3) explained that the CBR worker:

Teaches us to keep calm, to take good care of the children, to work towards their needs, and to keep them strong and healthy. She is the one who made him do sports. She often advised him to run every morning. She is the one who is trying hard for the improvement of everyone' life.

Another parent explained that the CBR worker also helped her to start saving money, which can help alleviate financial burdens associated with education. Furthermore, participants identified that CBR workers advocated for them, helping them obtain access to schools and the assistive devices they needed to participate in the schools (e.g., a wheelchair). One student (S15) told us that after trying to enroll in a local school without success:

CBR sent [my local school] a letter that said: "We ask you politely to accept him. Otherwise, we will report you to the district educational office" Following this, a committee was organized in the school that discussed my issue and the committee gave me a week of trial time.

Participants recognized health extension workers as another valuable formal support for individuals with disabilities and their families. When health extension workers go door-to-door, meeting with families in their homes, they gain trust within the population and, as a result, learn about people with disabilities who may be hidden away from the public. One family member (F5), who is also a health extension worker, stated, "When we go door-to-door, we find many types of disabled people. We find many hidden things....Since we know all the houses in the town, there is nothing that can be hidden from us. We get everything."

Participants also discussed organizations of persons with disabilities (OPDs) and individuals who work for them as key to supporting their access to school. Workers from OPDs helped individuals and their families understand that it is possible to attain an education as a person with a disability. When sharing about a member of the OPD who worked as a shoeshine boy and was a good student who graduated from a university and was employed afterward, a student (54) noted: "He is well-paid. ..I want to be like him" OPD workers also advocated for support and access for participants. One student (S10) stated, "[ The OPD member] went to the school and told them about me."

Participants identified advocates with disabilities in the religious sector who were key supports to them as well. For example, one parent (F4) recalled that a religious father in his neighborhood had been born paralyzed but had gone to school and succeeded in the church. When the participant's child "lost his health...at the age of 9 or 10," he started to refuse to go to school. The participant sought the help of the religious father, who shared his own experiences with exclusion as well as the support given to him by key people in his life. This religious leader encouraged the parent to keep the child in school and not to see physical disability as a barrier to education.

Natural Helping Individuals

Participants also identified key individuals who supported access to school for individuals with disabilities but did so due to a relationship with the individuals and families, not because it was an expectation of their professional role. These natural supporters included friends, family members, and individuals who have experience with disability.

Several individuals with disabilities identified their friends as critical to their ability to physically access school. One student (S7) told us:

I have very good friends. We are like brothers. They take me places and get me home. We are like family... we come to school together when there are tutorial classes. That is how my friends are supporting me in my schooling. It is all because of them that I continued going to school. I couldn't have done it on my own.

Participants discussed, in particular, the support of their friends in physically getting to and around school. Students who used wheelchairs sometimes benefitted from friends pushing their chairs to help them get to and around the school. One mother (F5) explained that her daughter got tired walking to school, so

I told her and her friend to come together and walk slowly. When they go to school, I tell them to set off early so that they won't be in a hurry. The teachers let them in even if they are late for class because they know us and understand the situation.

Another parent (F7) explained that she used to carry her daughter to school, but now "good people have started to bring her from school by bicycle, and some are carrying her piggyback." Another parent (F2) explained:

Before he was given a wheelchair by the school administration, he used to walk with one leg hanging on. Later, the school gave him a wheelchair, and now he uses it to go to and come from school. His schoolmates help him on his way to school or home by pushing the wheelchair.

Yet another parent (F13) described how her daughter faced challenges both on the way and within the school due to uneven pathways. Her daughter's friends helped by lifting her and assisting her into the classroom. The route to school included slopes and rocky terrain, adding to the difficulties.

Participants also expressed that their family members offered them informal support. For example, one student (S15) explained that their mother fell ill and could no longer support them:

It is my sister who is responsible to support me. It is she who gives me different care, like she washes my body, she washes my clothes, and she generally helps me to keep my hygiene as a student. Unless we go to school with proper hygiene, there are psychological pressures students impose on you even though they do not tell you explicitly. Generally, for me to go and come to school and from school on time, to attend my classes attentively equal with my peers, the role of my sister is very significant.

Numerous participants also explained extraordinary lengths that their parents took to ensure their access to school. One participant explained that her mother carried her to school on her back since they did not have a wheelchair. Another parent explained how he did not have the means to buy a wheelchair, but he was able to work out a deal in which he made an exchange of cattle that they owned for a wheelchair so that the child could go to school independently. In addition to key individuals, participants also noted internal strengths and abilities that enabled them to access school- in particular they discussed their advocacy skills.

Family and Student Advocacy and Savviness

The ability of families and students to advocate facilitated access to education. In addition to advocating for their needs, participants also demonstrated savviness in navigating resources and knowledge of available opportunities, as well as perseverance and a strong goal orientation. At times, individuals with disabilities needed to advocate for their own right to education, even if their parents disagreed. In contrast, we also heard about attempts at advocacy that did not succeed.

Participants indicated that enrollment was at times difficult. Participants expressed that age requirement policies were unclear (e.g., often children with disabilities are enrolled in school at a later age than their peers) and required advocacy efforts to navigate. Parents reported that they needed to be savvy in order to advocate for their children, a challenge further compounded by Ethiopia's high illiteracy rate. One mother (F12), a widow, explained:

Children whose fathers died were being supported, but I did not know about it; I am illiterate. Although people knew that the government was helping orphans, they did not want to tell me. People are envious; they tell me after the opportunity passes.

Some instances of advocacy were successful, and often this success seemed to align with the savviness of the family. One parent (F11) described putting her son in four schools and having him run into difficulty at each school. Some of these schools were private, and some were run by the government. Her son had a physical impairment, did not talk, and had difficulty regulating his emotions, sometimes becoming violent when others teased him for walking with a limp. The son failed his exams at the end of the year and was singled out by the teacher for his low mark. The child was discouraged, and the mother went to see the teacher. The teacher stated that he did not know the child had a disability. This advocacy helped the child receive the support he needed to succeed and also connected the teacher and the family so they could align their support for the child.

Another student (S15) shared this story, demonstrating his mother's strong advocacy on his behalf, even if it was not yet enough to gain him transportation to school:

The first challenge was that there was a [community] belief that I can't learn.... For example, first I went to [an] elementary school for registration, but they refused my request. However, my mother insisted...she took a support letter from the CBR program. Still, they refused to allow me to join the school. They said I may damage some school properties and infrastructure, and that anyone who moves with a wheelchair may face different positive and negative misfortunes. Finally, they suggested that the school which includes inclusive students is [another] elementary school [and I should go there].... Nevertheless, my mother was living here in kebele 14 [and] the distance from here to there is a great challenge for me.

The perseverance explained to us was often made possible by an orientation to achieve specific goals. One example of perseverance and a strong goal orientation was a student (S3) who lost her vision due to a reaction to "traditional medicine" when she was a child. She advocated to her family to enroll her in school, but her family "did not want me to get out of home and be seen." Finally, at age 12, her older sister found a school that could accommodate visually impaired students; it was a two hour walk from their village, but the older sister arranged for student housing for her younger sister with visual impairment. Despite being left alone to fend for herself during a period of civil unrest ("When problems arise, the first victims are the disabled ones. And even at that time, when everybody was going out leaving us alone, only we, the disabled people, are left here alone," S3), this student continued in school. She did not have access to materials in braille or a screen reader, so she relied on listening and having friends read aloud for her. Her teacher accused her of cheating because she needed to have an exam read aloud to her and have her answers scribed by a friend, but she was given no alternative.

Participating students with disabilities also expressed the need to advocate for their right to go to school within their own families. "I was denied or deprived of my right [to education], but...I wanted to learn like my brothers and sisters....I decided that I will learn; I have to beg someone and continue my education" (S3). This participant continued by explaining how she supported herself despite her family's desire for her to return home instead of continuing her education. Another participant shared that because she had limited support from her family, she sewed and sold materials to pay for her own needs while in school. At times, advocating for their education meant leaving their families. This student (S5) explained how she did this:

I left my family, and I am here in this district hoping the government and other organizations will help me as much as possible. Otherwise, I don't have any family here. It's the local people who help me with the market. If it were not for them, I wouldn't have come here. My family's intention was to keep me with them in the village without letting me go to school because I grew up in a home where education is thought to be worthless for physically disabled people. That's why I abandoned them and started living here with people whom I had not known before.

The accounts of these participants highlighted how families and students played an important role in advocating for education. Their perseverance and savviness were key in navigating resources and policies. Alongside advocacy, participants indicated that it was essential to have material and financial support to enable them to attend school.

Material and Financial Support to Access Schools

Support to get to school and pay for necessary supplies was noted by participants as an important factor for their ability to access schools. Participants expressed that proximity to school, access to transportation, family economic means, and access to funding and materials facilitated access to education, and, conversely, their lack hindered access.

Some students shared that they had to travel far distances to attend school. Some students had to live in towns far from their families, often staying with relatives or even alone in rented houses. Frequently, the trip to school was exhausting, and participants were exhausted just by getting to school. One student (S7) explained that "transportation is another challenge. It is expensive, and I have to board a Sinotruk [heavy-duty truck manufactured in China] to go home or get back here. I have to spend 2.5 hours each way." Many participants identified that a wheelchair facilitated their ability to access school. One participant pointed out that a wheelchair alone was not good enough; additional assistance was still needed to push the wheelchair.

Attending school also required material support and basic needs being met. Participants identified their labor contributions to making a living as an issue in accessing education. One student (S15) explained that he did not register for school until he was eleven years old because:

I was born and grew up in a rural community.... This rural community has no intention to send you to school, but it needs you to care for cattle, since I was not living with my biological parents....Since I was a servant (living with my uncle), they wanted me to work, but they sent their own children to school.

When financially struggling families need support for their children with disabilities, they occasionally receive some financial support or the purchase of some school supplies. The financial support is equivalent to a bar or two of soap per month, and the school supplies may be pens, exercise books, or notebooks. In addition, some families and students mentioned receiving student housing when they needed to be away from their families to attend school. A few participants mentioned receiving some food support, as well. Some participants also explained that they received a wheelchair or crutches from the government. Many participants explained that they had been "forgotten." A few participants mentioned that they had received support from NGOs such as Birhan Lehetsanat (Light for the Children) and World Vision that provide children with learning materials. In addition to needing material and financial support to attend school, students and family members also discussed the critical importance of the educational institution being ready to include students with disabilities as well.

Institutional Readiness for Educating Students with Disabilities

Participants noted the importance of institutional readiness, which included teachers' willingness to include students with disabilities and ensure that students with disabilities were valued members of the school community. This readiness also involved providing physical access to all spaces and offering appropriate assistive materials and accommodations in the classroom.

There were varying degrees of teacher preparation and willingness to educate students with disabilities. After fighting for enrollment, one parent (F2) expressed a common sentiment with this explanation: "after [the challenges of] registration, there was a problem with the teachers." One student (S5) summed it up for us like this: "Obviously, human personality is different, and therefore, while some teachers wholeheartedly assist the disabled to learn well and achieve their end goals, others ignore them and do little to bring them to a better position."

As the previous quote indicates, there was a great deal of variability of institutional readiness, including teacher attitudes and behavior, across and within individual schools. For example, one mother (F15) told us:

No sooner had she got registered than her teachers complained that she was too much of a nuisance to attend lessons. When one of her teachers told me not to bother her to come to school and to keep her at home, instead, the other one came close to me and said, "Don't worry. I am here to help her. Send her to school. She should learn to write her name."

The relationship teachers fostered with families was an important part of institutional readiness. We heard about educators who helped families have hope and high expectations, like this mother (F13) shared: "The teachers cared for her happily, and they used to encourage me to have hope for her. They used to say, 'Help her; she will achieve what students without disabilities can achieve. Really the teachers encouraged me."

Unfortunately, such uplifting relationships were not ubiquitous. There were numerous examples of teachers excluding or even harming students with disabilities. For example, one mother (F12) stated, "One of the teachers even said that he would not get into the classroom in my child's presence and asked me to take him out of the classroom. He added that he would rather retire than teach in the presence of this student." A number of participants made claims of corporal punishment and physical abuse of teachers toward students with disabilities in the classroom. We also heard about families being shut out of educational decision-making and feeling frustrated yet powerless about how their child was treated. This mother (F2) shared a powerful example:

There were times [the teacher] beat him. One day, he went to school wearing a pair of canvas shoes. It didn't have a bad smell, but this teacher embarrassed him by saying, "Why do you come wearing canvas shoes?" I was about to cry when he told me what she said to him. She puts all the blame on him for any misbehavior committed by students. For example, she hits him when the other kids mess up. And since she is his teacher, I did not want to tell her off, and therefore, I preferred to keep quiet lest I should offend her.

Perceiving students as individuals and having high expectations for them were critical components of institutional readiness for inclusive education, and having low expectations was a strong barrier to education. One student told us about his teacher encouraging him to leave his inclusive school to attend a school for students with disabilities. The student (S15) told us that the teacher said, "you should go there because it is very difficult for you to keep up with students without disabilities. It is that school which concerns you. It is meaningless for you to stay in this school." One mother (F2) reflected on the low expectations from teachers toward her child, explaining that "they do not check his progress, maybe because they think that he doesn't know or speak about what is going on around." This mother (F2) also expressed her frustration with the lack of support from teachers:

Even in school, there is nothing special teachers do to support him. It may be because they feel he doesn't know anything, I don't know. I feel hurt because of him a lot [because of how others treat him]. They are trained for this, but I don't know why they behave like this. Even if he doesn't talk, his mental capacity is good. The teachers don't understand this, and it is their problem, they just think he doesn't know. Because of that they do not [support] him.

One participant (S3) attributed lack of institutional readiness to knowledge rather than attitude. She explained that only the special needs teacher understood their needs, while others were not well-informed. The participant noted challenges in keeping up with notetaking because writing in Braille is slower than handwriting, making it hard to match the pace of her peers.

Some of our data also indicated that institutional readiness might vary, depending on the nature of the student's impairment. For example, a parent of a child with an intellectual disability (F3):

tried to explain his problems to the teachers so that they would tolerate and encourage him. No one has registered him to join any club. No one cares about him. The hearing-impaired and visually impaired students even do not want him to work with them. They are on their own. Regarding mentally impaired ones, there is nobody to organize them, and he has no friends.

Once students could enroll in schools and physically access the school building, they needed to be able to access all components within the school (e.g., classrooms, bathrooms). This presented a challenge for many participants. We heard from a participant (S15) who explained that "many teachers gave me tests in upper buildings many times," and he could not access them in his wheelchair. At one primary school, a student (S5) explained:

There are only three or four classes that are suitable for the disabled. Others have a lot of ups and downs. Offices too are not comfortable for us to get to and communicate with the teachers or the school principals.

Another student (S7) explained that:

There is only one class in the school that is accessible to me. Otherwise, I sometimes have to stay outside while my classmates are in class or my friends have to carry me with my wheelchair and get me in. The school is not accessible because persons with disabilities were not considered when it was constructed. Even when I was assigned to a special class of high achievers, I took exams outside of the class because the class was not accessible.

There were also some facilitating factors improving physical accessibility within school campuses. For example, we heard from a student (S15) about CBR workers who built ramps at their school. "As a result, it is comfortably built for wheelchair entrance. After that, my friends helped me when I entered and exited."

Another factor of institutional readiness, according to participants, is access to materials like assistive technology, wheelchairs, and general school supplies. Some participants explained that the school buys supplies like "exercise books, pens, luggage, and a uniform," though that was not always the case. We also heard of some students having access to Braille, wheelchairs, crutches, white canes, and slate stylus to support their education. Other students, like this one (S3), when asked what they were given, stated, "No, not much, we don't have anything."

Recommendations for Improved Access to Public Education

Participants also shared recommendations about improving access to public education. First and foremost, participants recognized that the whole society needs to be more inclusive and that rural areas need to be prioritized when trying to understand and address educational inequities. Specifically, public perceptions of people with disabilities need to be improved in order to facilitate their inclusion in education. Participants highlighted that individuals with disabilities benefit when families, teachers, and community members had high expectations, provided moral support, and encouraged students to follow their dreams. Related to having high expectations for individuals with disabilities is creating a society in which their outcomes are valued enough to invest in their education and employment prospects. We include specific recommendations participants shared with us in the following subsections.

Shift Mindset About Disability

Participants recommended that community members must treat students with disabilities humanely to enable education access. A student (S3) shared this example: "I think it would be better if the community at least came out and... [led] us in the correct direction if we are lost and going in the wrong direction. To me, it would also be better if they should encourage us, accompany us, and give us good advice rather than insulting us."

Many participants spoke about being hidden by their families (or hiding their children), being told to hide by community members, and being treated as less than full citizens due to their disabilities. Participants asserted that governmental and nongovernmental agencies should work together to find individuals with disabilities and deliver the support and services they need. In particular, participants recommended that agencies should focus on people with disabilities with poor and/or rural backgrounds, as these are the populations that tend to hide people with disabilities and do not have access to support and services. One student (S20) said:

Rural people do not think that children with disabilities can be highly educated. Many people with disabilities are kept hidden in their houses. Their parents think that the family will be insulted if these children come out, so they hide them in houses.

A specific recommendation from one student (S12) with a visual impairment was to

make a survey both in rural and urban areas and identify people who are in need of special support.... Parents of people with disabilities do not give attention to letting their children go to school. NGOs mostly prefer to work in big cities and not in rural districts.

This student (S12) also emphasized the need for targeted support for visually impaired children in rural areas:

It is better for governmental and/or nongovernmental organizations to go to the rural area where a large number of visually impaired children are concealed in their parents" huts. Particularly, female visually impaired children do not receive necessary support. Their parents hide them, fearing that they would become pregnant and give birth if sent to towns for education.

Participants highlighted that changing societal perspectives and raising awareness about possibilities are key to increasing the inclusivity of education. Two participants called this "awareness creation." Another student (S11) pointed out that community members need to "realize that persons with a disability can reach a higher position and are qualified for responsibility. The most important thing that I expect is that the perception of society should be changed." One student (S13) said:

I think that if the families have that kind of awareness and understanding and know that the disabled person will learn and change and achieve a lot of serious things, the family will have positive pressure and good attitude towards the learning of the disabled individuals.

Design a More Inclusive Society

Inclusion in education cannot be expected without inclusion in the rest of society. Participants mentioned the importance of creating accessible infrastructure and including people with disabilities in the government. They indicated that it is also critical that public spaces are accessible for people with disabilities. Increasing public accessibility would enable people with disabilities to move around freely, without relying on others. One student (S13) said:

Poles should be stood in the right place, and roads can be fixed; potholes are covered and repaired in a systematic manner. Again, there are many disabled people who walk in wheelchairs, not for us, and I suggest that the ground floor is for them. If the government pays attention to it and fixes it, then the society and the disabled person will change, and the country will grow.

Participants indicated that this accessibility should expand to schools. One student (S11) pointed out that policy requires accessibility in educational structures, but "these things are put on paper, but practically they don't exist at all." Even though "there is an understanding that classes should be constructed in a way that is convenient for persons with disability, they are built in inaccessible ways. In short, "the government makes the law, yet it doesn't enforce and put it into practice down to the lower level of administration" (S5).

Additionally, participants identified that leadership must be inclusive of people with disabilities to break down barriers to education access. Participants called for including individuals with disabilities in public positions. They also pointed out that regional government meetings at the kebele level are not accessible/open to people with disabilities. One student (S13) shared: "Specially, the government should pay attention to people with disabilities. For example, even now, when we have a meeting, people with disabilities are not included even in kebele meetings."

Increase Access to Basic Support Needs, Materials, and Training

Participants indicated that to better enable access to education for students with disabilities, those students and their families need assistance to support their basic needs and necessary school materials. Furthermore, participants recommended that NGOs focus on facilitating education for students living in poverty, as shared by this student (S15): "From my experience, many children with disabilities are not getting the opportunity to enroll in school because their families live in poverty so that they can't help them to learn. As a result, NGOs... should help these children." One way to support students with disabilities, and especially students with disabilities living in poverty, is to provide support for basic needs that enable them to participate in education. One student (S13) said, "There is the issue of life, at least what we need right now is the need for food. That is what affects us so much. There is the issue of house and clothes." Participants also noted that charity organizations and philanthropists could provide food and cash to students to enable their ability to attend school.

In addition, participants expressed the need for access to updated educational and mobility materials. Some examples of specific educational materials mentioned include: a digital recorder, Braille paper, stylus, Dictaphones, wheelchairs, and white canes. One student (S5) specified, "I need. ..textbooks. Secondly, one of my wheelchairs has broken down. I got this one fixed when the other one broke down, but someone stole it as soon as it was fixed." A student (S17) who has a visual impairment stated, "It will be better if the other organization gives us additional white canes, because as I told you, it is very difficult to move on this unleveled road. As a result, our canes are broken." Numerous participants explained that they needed access to technology and training on using it. We heard from a student (S11): "The government and organizations should connect disabled people with technology. Since we are far from technology, we are the first victims." Specifically, participants with visual impairments underscored the inequity when students take tests on the computer, but students are not trained in or given access to braille computers, especially in rural areas. A student (S12) said, "In rural areas there are a lot of people who do not even know how to use the memory card of a mobile phone." One student (S3) explained that they do not even advocate for braille computers at times because they are not aware of the possibilities.

Discussion

This study explored barriers and facilitators to accessing education from the perspective of students with disabilities and their family members in the Central Gondar Zone, Ethiopia. Participants identified that key individuals, such as formal support providers (e.g., CBR workers), friends, and family members had great influence to enable access to education for youth with disabilities, but they also identified that if key individuals, such as immediate family members, are not supportive of the child with a disability accessing education, this can be a critical barrier as well. These findings align with a previous study by Aldersey and colleagues (2024), which discussed both helpful contributions and harmful attitudes of key individuals, affecting their decision to continue or discontinue their education. Future interventions to enable access to education for children with disabilities in Gondar might seek to build upon strong natural support systems already in place in the country (e.g., encouraging peer support networks, implementing mentorship initiatives with community leaders with disabilities) and target interventions at the family and community levels to mitigate the stigma of disability and promote the value of education for children with disabilities.

An important contribution of this study is the empirical evidence generated by students with disabilities and their families, which indicated the strong value of CBR programming for these families in the Gondar region. CBR, a strategy for community development that assists in the identification of individuals with disabilities, supports their human rights, and promotes awareness to the community about disability (Deepak et al., 2014; Khasnabis & Heinicke Motsch, 2010), has historically lacked evidence as to the effectiveness and impact of its approach (Mason et al., 2017). Thus, findings such as those from this study can be useful in illuminating the value and impact of CBR and its particular contributions. In this instance, of particular value to our participants were CBR workers identifying children with disabilities who were hidden in the homes and not actively participating in the education system, encouraging families and supporting with advocacy to get the students enrolled into the school system, and helping families to access important assistive devices that students needed for full participation. Studies from other contexts have also demonstrated the value of CBR in fostering school enrollment, breaking down barriers, and ensuring that individuals with disabilities can access public education (e.g., Khasnabis & Heinicke Motsch, 2010; Lalu et al., 2023). This finding may imply that local, provincial, and federal governments might increase investments in CBR as one strategy to support students with disabilities and their families to access local public schools and succeed once there (e.g., through support for environmental accessibility, accommodations, and assistive device provision).

In addition to CBR workers, this study demonstrated that using local health extension workers in the community could be another effective way to identify children with disabilities and advocate for their access to education. In Ethiopia, there is a community level healthcare program called Health Extension Program, designed in 2003 under the Federal Ministry of Health to achieve universal health coverage, primarily among rural populations (but it has extended to urban settings too). Practically, the Health Extension Program is implemented by health extension workers, who are members of the local community, often females. The Health Extension Program is deeply embedded within the community and provides primary level preventive interventions at the household/community level and some curative services at health-posts such as first aid, family planning, and referral services to health centers. Health extension workers are deployed at kebele level (the lowest unit of geographic administration), mostly two to three health extension workers per kebele. They are expected to know each family member of the households within her designated catchment area. Given that they are typically of the local community and hold significant amounts of community trust, and in recognition of the role of education as a social determinant of health, health extension workers should be seen as a vital resource for identifying individuals with disabilities and enabling their access to education (e.g., through identification, referrals, and advocacy; Iqbal, 2023).

Studies have begun to explore the role of community health extension workers in supporting disability inclusion in Ethiopia (e.g., Asher et al., 2021; Igbal, 2023; Tilahun et al., 2019). This potential avenue to increase education access could also address the participant recommendation to focus efforts in rural areas first, given these workers' embeddedness in rural spaces. The Government of Ethiopia might consider what additional training and support might be offered to further enhance these workers' capacity to support the educational rights of children with disabilities. Future research might apply the vast existent literature on disability training for health workers (e.g., Rotenberg et al., 2022) to understand what might work to best enable Ethiopian health extension workers to identify and refer children with disabilities in the community to enable them to access education. Some work to this end has already begun on a small scale; for example, Tilahun and colleagues (2019) tested an intervention to educate Ethiopian health extension workers about children with autism, in particular.

Participants also shared that they or their family member with a disability was able to access public education by individual perseverance, savviness, and advocacy. For example, mothers would fight for enrollment of their child with a disability in the local school and would engage other advocates to ensure they did not take "no" for an answer. While a large body of studies has addressed self-advocacy for students with disabilities in higher education (Abera & Negassa, 2019; Abrahams et al., 2023; Tedla, 2017), this study highlighted the importance of both family advocacy and self-advocacy for students with disabilities at the primary and secondary education levels. Family advocates, both individually and collectively through parent associations, have been recognized as crucial for championing the right to inclusive education, securing services for students with disabilities, facilitating educational progress, and supporting other families of children with disabilities by sharing information and resources (Aldersey, 2012; Burke et al., 2022; Chatenoud & Odier-Guedj, 2022; McConkey et al., 2016). This study also drew attention to situations where families had limited perceptions on educating children with disabilities, requiring students to advocate for their right to education within their own families. Advocacy involves collaboration among families, schools, and communities to address barriers and drive system improvements, with teachers playing a crucial role in creating a positive atmosphere and building strong partnerships with parents (Chatenoud & Odier-Guedj, 2022; Greenbank, 2023). Franck and Joshi (2017) indicated that tackling stigmatization and discrimination is a difficult but essential first step for promoting inclusive education in Ethiopia and that schools can encourage parents to enroll their out-of-school children through community outreach activities. Future research could further investigate strategies and support systems to eliminate negative attitudes towards persons with disabilities and strengthen advocacy efforts.

Furthermore, students and families in the study indicated that they needed material and financial support to access local public schools, and that the lack of such support was a significant barrier. To attend school, some students had to travel long distances, live far from their families, and face financial difficulties, often relying on minimal support from the government or NGOs. This study addressed the need for providing transportation support, addressing students' basic needs, and providing financial assistance to economically disadvantaged families. Similarly, previous studies have identified inadequate materials, transportation, and financial support as barriers to students' access to education in Ethiopia (African Child Policy Forum, 2011; Franck & Joshi, 2017; Tefera et al., 2015).

Participants indicated that institutions that were welcoming, prepared, and equipped to welcome students of diverse abilities were a critical factor in enabling access to schools for students with disabilities. Institutions that were ill-equipped or directly in opposition to the inclusion of students with disabilities, on the other hand, created great barriers. These findings align with the work of Abebe and colleagues (2023) and Abrahams and colleagues (2023), who also identified critical institutional and societal barriers to inclusion in education. A particularly pressing challenge highlighted in the current study was physical inaccessibility both within schools and on the way to them. Students reported difficulties accessing various parts of their schools, such as classrooms, offices, and exam locations. Similarly, Gaurav and colleagues (2024) found that children with physical disabilities in a Mumbai school faced accessibility barriers. Their study highlighted the need for accessible school spaces and emphasized the value of informal areas, such as corridors and gardens, in fostering social engagement (Gaurav et al., 2024). They advocated for inclusive school design that integrates student perspectives in shaping learning environments (Gaurav et al., 2024). Beyond in-school challenges, the current study also addressed the challenges that students encountered in reaching school as part of the broader issue of limited educational access. In addition to physical accessibility, participants in the current study emphasized the importance of teacher attitudes, knowledge, and expectations of students with disabilities as well as positive relationships between teachers and families. Supportive teacher behaviors, such as encouraging students and maintaining high expectations, contrasted sharply with negative attitudes and low expectations. These experiences highlighted the necessity of creating an inclusive school community where students with disabilities feel valued, supported, and have a sense of belonging. According to Carrington and Robinson (2006), fostering an inclusive school community means valuing and respecting their members while ensuring a safe environment for sharing views, raising awareness, and building skills collectively. Future research is needed to explore strategies to build an inclusive school community for students with disabilities in Ethiopian schools through collaboration among students, educators, families, and community partners.

While Ethiopia has made strides in recognizing the importance of inclusive education, there remain challenges to overcome. These include the need for comprehensive teacher training and reversing negative attitudes towards inclusive pedagogy (Allday et al., 2013; Florian & Beaton, 2018; Ginja & Chen, 2021; Siska et al., 2019), the lack of accessible teaching materials (Ginja & Chen, 2021; Sika et al, 2019), the absence of teacher and family relationships, and a void of accountability and transparency amongst different stakeholders (Bekele Abdi, 2017; Katsui et al., 2016). Although teacher education is clearly a critical component of institutional readiness, it is not enough to leave access and quality education to the whims or inclinations of individual teachers. Ethiopia has a Special Needs Education/Inclusive Education Strategy (MoE, 2012) and a Master Plan for Special Needs Education/Inclusive Education in Ethiopia 2016-25 (MoE, 2016) that aim to promote inclusive and quality education for students with disabilities in line with the provisions of the country's Constitution and its Education and Training Policy. The Special Needs Education/Inclusive Education Strategy, specifically, identifies key strategic pillars, including strengthening educational management and administration, capacity building, strengthening partnerships, and establishing functional support systems. Although it is critical that this strategy and plan exist, it is also essential that they are implemented and monitored (Bekele Abdi, 2017). To that end, policies must have accountability mechanisms to enable enforcement (Aldersey & Turnbull, 2011). The policy can offer the guiding vision and values and detail specific mechanisms for implementation, and it will be the responsibility of all to act to ensure that the institutional environment is appropriate to welcome and enable excellence from students with disabilities. Further research could explore strategies to achieve actualization of existing Ethiopian policy mechanisms for education of students with disabilities. In addition, the fulfillment of educational supports and the advancement of technologies such as mobile apps, computer, or digitalized services are paramount for the inclusion of students with disabilities in Ethiopia, and future research could further explore the practicalities of how to improve access to these supports in this context.

Recommendations and Limitations

This study provided a range of recommendations to improve access to public education in Gondar, including working to change public attitudes toward disability and inclusion, holding high expectations for students with disabilities, and increasing access to basic support needs, materials, and teacher training. School and community leaders should actively advocate for the rights and inclusion of persons with disabilities. One way to inspire change is by sharing success stories of individuals who have achieved despite their disabilities. These stories challenge stereotypes, reduce stigma, and foster an environment of empowerment. Community leaders, such as village chiefs, elders, and religious figures, play a key role in changing community attitudes and supporting initiatives for people with disabilities (McConkey et al., 2016). Collaborating with community leaders can greatly impact public perceptions and help eliminate discriminatory practices (McConkey et al., 2016). Considerations of intersectionality were also brought up by participants while discussing recommendations, indicating that geographic location (rural vs. urban), gender, nature of impairment, and income level can affect ability to access education. They, therefore, recommended that interventions and support prioritize those further behind as a result of intersecting layers of inequities.

This study is not without limitations. For example, some participants were recruited with support from a local CBR program, and this may have led to more people identifying CBR workers as critical supports than if we had not used this program as a recruitment partner. Nevertheless, we still believe this is a critical finding that exemplifies the role and potential for CBR to improve education access for students with disabilities (particularly those in rural areas). Additionally, given that the interviews were conducted in Amharic and we are presenting results in English, it is likely that there has been a loss in nuance when translating some ideas and concepts. We have mitigated this by having professional translators translate and verify the work. We also had an Amharic speaking author co-lead the data analysis in Amharic, and had the Amharic-speaking authors review and verify certain direct quotes with the original audio and Amharic transcripts whenever we had doubts about the accuracy of the translation or the ability of the translation to capture the idea provided by the participant.

Conclusion

Access to education is a right for all children. Children with disabilities are often denied this right in Gondar, Ethiopia, and in many other contexts globally. It is our hope that our data sheds light on some barriers and facilitators faced by students with disabilities and their families, and that local, regional, and federal governments in Ethiopia, along with their partners such as international NGOs might apply participant and author recommendations, so that we might fully realize the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4, to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education for all.

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Heather M. Aldersey is a professor at Queen's University, School of Rehabilitation Therapy in Kingston, Canada. Her research interests explore global perspectives on family support, community based rehabilitation, and inclusive education. Correspondence concerning this article may be addressed to Dr. Heather M. Aldersey, 228 Louise D. Acton, 31 George St., Kingston, ON, K7L 3N6 or email [email protected]

Shana Haines is a professor of education at the University of Vermont. Her research focuses primarily on family-professional partnership and inclusive education.

Bilen Araya is a final year Ph.D. candidate in rehabilitation science at Queen's University in Kingston, Canada. Her research interests include the experiences of individuals with disabilities and rehabilitation within reproductive and maternal health.

Xiaolin Xu is a research coordinator at Queen's University's School of Rehabilitation Therapy in Kingston, Canada. Her research interests include disability-related supports, community-based rehabilitation, and inclusive education.

Gebrekidan Shibabaw is Mastercard Foundation Scholar at University of Gondar in Ethiopia and a second year L.L.M. (Master's degree) candidate in human rights law. His research interest centers on disability rights and advocating for human rights and disability rights.

Mohammedsani Ali Gultime is a first year Master's degree candidate in business administration at Emerald International College, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. His research interest areas are exploring and advocating for inclusive educational and work environments, the participation of persons with disabilities, and equal opportunities.

Ansha Nega Ahmed is a final year doctoral candidate in rehabilitation science, School of Rehabilitation Therapy, Queen's University. Her research interests include exploring and supporting the participation of persons with disabilities, occupational rehabilitation, community-based rehabilitation, and inclusive employment.

Grace Lucille Francis is an associate professor of special education at George Mason University. Her research interests include the influence of expectations on the transition to adulthood and family support policies and practices that result in a high quality of life for individuals with extensive support needs.

Andrew Nguyen is a research project manager in the Health Services and Policy Research Institute (HSPRI) at Queen's University. He has a Master's degree in physical activity epidemiology.

Solomon Dawud is a lecturer and program coordinator in the DELL and Community-Based Rehabilitation (CBR) program at the University of Gondar in Ethiopia. He is interested in research on care and support for Highly Vulnerable Children Care and Support, CBR, and Community-Based Inclusive Development (CBID).

Mikyas Abera is an assistant professor of sociology at the University of Gondar, Ethiopia. His research interests include educational sociology, inclusion, inclusive urban spaces, science, and gender.