1. Introduction
Water scarcity has become a critical issue for global agricultural sustainability, especially under climate change and population growth [1]. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, agricultural water accounts for about 70% of the available fresh water resources [2], while irrigation supports nearly 40% of global crop production [3]. Consequently, irrigation water use efficiency and agricultural water-saving are critical to ensuring agricultural sustainability and food security [4]. However, traditional irrigation methods such as flood irrigation, furrow irrigation, and sprinkler irrigation remain the primary means of irrigation. These methods suffer from inefficiencies and contribute to agricultural water wastage and soil degradation [5]. Due to outdated management practices, agricultural irrigation often relies on empirical operations, lacking accurate water measurement methods and leading to frequent occurrences of over-irrigation or insufficient water supply [6,7]. Additionally, imperfect water pricing policies further exacerbate the risk of water wastage [8]. In this context, how to improve agricultural water management and reduce irrigation water consumption has become a key focus of agricultural water resource research [9,10].
In recent years, agricultural water resource management technologies have continued to evolve. Irrigation management methods based on soil moisture, meteorological data, and crop growth conditions have been widely applied [11,12], but these methods rely on expensive equipment and complex maintenance, making them difficult to promote in large-scale agricultural production [13]. Flow meter-based irrigation monitoring methods can improve water measurement accuracy, but they are prone to measurement errors in low-lift pump stations and have high equipment acquisition and maintenance costs [14]. Additionally, while remote sensing technology for agricultural water monitoring is suitable for large-scale analysis, its long data update cycles make it difficult to meet real-time irrigation management needs [15]. UAV-based remote sensing provides flexible real-time monitoring capabilities yet faces challenges of high expenses and operational constraints during extreme weather [16]. Therefore, there is an urgent need for a low-cost, easy-to-implement water monitoring and management method suitable for large-scale agricultural irrigation.
The core of the electricity-driven water conservation control method lies in the water-electricity conversion during irrigation. Specifically, the water-electricity conversion coefficient for each irrigation device is determined through pumping tests prior to operation. This allows the calculation of water usage during irrigation based on electricity consumption data, ultimately enabling the adjustment of water and electricity pricing to incentivize farmers to conserve water.
It should be noted that while many existing irrigation water-saving control methods employ direct measurement techniques using flow meters or remote sensing combined with precipitation and evapotranspiration data—demonstrating high measurement accuracy [17,18,19,20,21]—the electricity-driven water conservation method offers lower implementation costs and maintains reasonable accuracy in low-lift applications such as plain areas. Furthermore, with recent advancements in big data processing, machine learning, and theoretical innovations, the precision of water usage measurements based on water-electricity conversion has progressively improved [22,23,24], providing a theoretical foundation for the implementation of this approach.
While the integration of irrigation facility electricity consumption with water pricing regulation has been proven effective in promoting water conservation policies [25], contemporary agricultural irrigation management systems predominantly employ technological approaches for equipment control. These systems incorporate specific irrigation techniques (e.g., drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation) with automated control systems to optimize water usage, thereby enhancing cultivation efficiency and conserving water resources [26,27,28,29,30]. Numerous studies have demonstrated that such irrigation systems significantly contribute to increased agricultural productivity and improved water use efficiency across diverse application scenarios [31,32,33].
However, the effectiveness of water-saving technologies employed in irrigation systems is contingent upon local farm characteristics, farmer attributes, socioeconomic conditions, and physiographic factors [34]. Consequently, these proven irrigation systems often cannot be directly transferred to other regions. Current research indicates that promoting the adoption of such irrigation management systems among farmers in certain areas typically requires complementary strategies such as economic subsidies [35], yet they may still fail to achieve anticipated water conservation outcomes [36]. For diverse environmental conditions, alternative approaches are often necessary. For instance, in some arid regions, the introduction of technologies like seawater desalination has demonstrated significant potential for conserving freshwater resources [37].
In China’s plain irrigation regions, following over 40 years of privatization reforms, irrigation water management has primarily been delegated to Water User Associations composed of individual farmers. However, these associations generally demonstrate weak water management capacities [38]. While constructing and improving hydraulic infrastructure represents an effective measure to enhance farmer participation, satisfaction, and water conservation outcomes [39], the core challenges in these plain irrigation areas lie not in inadequate infrastructure but rather in inefficient resource allocation, with some regions even experiencing overinvestment phenomena [40].
Furthermore, introducing additional technical equipment requires substantial capital investment, often imposing significant financial burdens on farmers. Compounding this issue is the generally low educational attainment among many farmers, which hinders their ability to effectively operate complex automated irrigation management systems. Given these constraints, simply adopting technical solutions like drip irrigation systems proves insufficient for achieving meaningful water conservation. Therefore, integrating water pricing policies becomes essential to incentivize individual farmers to conserve water.
The implementation of water pricing policies requires accurate statistics on farmers’ water usage. In regions with numerous farmers and concentrated irrigation activities, the water-electricity conversion-based measurement method generally offers lower costs and better stability compared with direct measurement using monitoring devices [41]. However, current research rarely utilizes the water-electricity conversion patterns in plain areas to develop irrigation water management methods from the perspective of electricity-driven water conservation.
Building upon these considerations, this study proposes an electricity-driven water conservation management method suitable for plain regions and establishes an agricultural irrigation management system to facilitate its implementation and enhance water-use efficiency. Compared with existing irrigation management systems that primarily rely on automated control equipment for drip or sprinkler irrigation technologies, the system developed in this study demonstrates the following distinctive features and advantages: (1). The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method proves to be both economically viable and operationally reliable in plain regions. The measurement model developed in this system utilizes pre-calibrated pump station water-electricity conversion coefficients to calculate irrigation water usage in real time. This innovative approach eliminates the need for installing additional metering devices or specialized irrigation equipment, thereby relieving farmers of any extra financial burdens. (2). The system demonstrates particular applicability in multi-user centralized irrigation districts, featuring user-friendly operation. Equipped with automated functions including data acquisition, real-time analysis, and remote control capabilities, the system enables farmers to monitor real-time water consumption and receive pricing notifications. Through mobile terminals, users can conveniently operate irrigation equipment remotely. Compared with existing automated irrigation management systems, this solution exhibits superior learnability, facilitating efficient and simplified farm management for end users. (3). The proposed system employs water pricing adjustment strategies to incentivize rational water usage among farmers, thereby enhancing water conservation effectiveness. In contrast to conventional systems that primarily focus on automated control equipment or optimization of specific irrigation techniques, our approach utilizes scientifically designed water pricing incentives to guide farmers in the judicious utilization of irrigation water resources.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Theoretical Basis of “Electricity-Driven Water Conservation” in the Agricultural Irrigation Coordination Management System
The theoretical foundation of the electricity-driven water conservation management approach is based on water-electricity conversion for water usage measurement. This method determines the water-electricity conversion efficiency of pumping stations through professional measurements, typically expressed using the water-electricity conversion coefficient T. The specific measurement procedure involves selecting sample pumping stations and recording both the electricity consumption E and corresponding water consumption Q during irrigation operations within a standardized time period. The water-electricity conversion coefficient can then be calculated using Equation (1):
(1)
After obtaining the water-electricity conversion coefficient of a pumping station through measurement, the water consumption for irrigation during a given period can be calculated by multiplying the electricity consumption of the pumping station by this coefficient. This water-electricity conversion-based metering method is particularly suitable for irrigation pumping stations in plain river network regions. Compared with traditional metering methods such as pipeline-contact electromagnetic flowmeters, the proposed approach offers several advantages: simple operation, no operational maintenance costs, high acceptance among farmers, and effective resolution of the 15-pipe-diameter length requirement issue for stable flow in low-lift pumping stations, a common challenge in plain areas.
2.2. Technical Basis of the Agricultural Irrigation Coordination Management System
The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method proposed in this study for plain areas is based on an agricultural irrigation coordination management system. This system can monitor the electricity consumption of water pumping in various pump stations in real time. After calculating the water consumption using the water-electricity conversion method, the system compares the results with preset irrigation water usage thresholds to determine whether the current irrigation behavior exceeds the water usage limits. It then remotely controls the gate switches of the pump stations, using electricity consumption information and pump station gate switch times to control the water usage for each irrigation and achieving intelligent control.
2.2.1. Basic Development Architecture of the Management System
This study proposes an irrigation management system based on the electricity-driven water conservation concept primarily designed for plain areas in Shuyang County, Suqian City, Jiangsu Province, China. To facilitate direct access by farmers through web browsers, the system adopts a browser/server (B/S) architecture.
The irrigation management information system was developed using a front-end and back-end separation architecture, with data exchange between components facilitated through JSON-formatted transmissions. The front end is developed using JavaScript, HTML5, and CSS technologies and supports mainstream browsers such as 360, Chrome, Edge, Safari, and IE10 and above. The server (back end) promptly responds to front-end requests and returns JSON data. The server must use a licensed database or a database without copyright disputes, supporting the storage, query, and statistics of tens of millions of records and ensuring fast data access and smooth system operation.
To facilitate operator queries, the system can establish electronic maps of irrigation pump stations and self-flowing canal systems, dynamically reflecting all information about the pump stations and canals on the map. The map can display the water supply range of each pump station and the irrigation canal system and automatically store uploaded map information in the associated database, meeting the requirements for information management of irrigation pump stations. The system uses JavaScript to write map application programming interfaces (APIs), creating feature-rich and highly interactive map applications that support PC and mobile browser-based map applications, including those with HTML5 features. Considering the practical needs of operators, the system also supports switching between satellite maps and traffic maps.
2.2.2. Data Transmission and Real-Time Collection Technology Basis of the Management System
During system operation, the electricity consumption generated by water pumping at various pump stations during agricultural irrigation is the main detection variable. Accurate detection and timely transmission of data from each pump station terminal to the system server are crucial for effective operation of the entire system.
Considering the relatively small data volume for remote transmission (primarily limited to electricity meter readings in most cases) and the need to maintain cost-effectiveness of communication modules, this study employs GPRS/CDMA wireless communication technology. This technology provides adequate bandwidth for data transmission while offering the advantages of low cost, wide coverage, and simple deployment, making it particularly suitable for this application scenario. Based on this communication solution, the system enables real-time monitoring of remote electricity meters and facilitates pump remote control. For specific pump station electricity meter data collection, the system can read the cumulative readings and instantaneous values of associated electricity meters in real time, observe real-time data changes, and synchronize with on-site observations. For later data analysis, the system automatically collects electricity consumption statistics by hour, day, month, and year.
Regarding data transmission reliability, network fluctuations and base station failures may potentially affect real-time transmission of irrigation electricity consumption data. However, each terminal meter in this study is equipped with data storage capacity for no less than 30 days, ensuring continuous operation until communication recovery. Furthermore, the electricity-driven water conservation system fundamentally achieves irrigation water control through electricity consumption management. Since electricity billing is typically conducted annually, temporary data transmission interruptions would not impact the final annual billing results.
Considering that some pump station gates and other facilities have long operating times, to prevent control commands for electricity meters from not being executed smoothly during system operation, the system is equipped with video monitoring functions to monitor all equipment in the pump station. It uses 4G network high-speed dome high-definition color cameras with full-angle, no-blind-spot monitoring, 360° horizontal and 180° vertical rotation, and precise stepper motor drives for smooth operation, accurately locating faulty equipment for timely maintenance.
2.2.3. Pre-Input Basic Data Information of the Management System
Normal operation of the management system requires the pre-input of comprehensive basic information, mainly consisting of two parts: the irrigation pump station directory and the self-flowing canal system directory. The irrigation pump station directory details the pump model, number of pumps, motor power, and water-electricity conversion coefficient of each recorded pump station. The self-flowing canal system directory, similar to the irrigation pump station directory, is used to edit, modify, store, and query information such as the effective control area, actual paddy field area, other non-irrigated areas, and paddy field irrigation quotas.
In terms of specific input operations, as mentioned earlier, one of the obstacles to implementing “electricity-driven water conservation” intelligent control is that the personnel involved in management are often limited by their education and knowledge levels, making it difficult to operate more complex systems. Based on this, the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method proposed in this study uses a system with a simplified process for inputting basic information, as shown in Figure 1.
As shown in Figure 1, the interface allows for modifying or deleting selected existing information or directly adding new pump station or canal system information to the system. The system also supports search functions to quickly find the pump station or canal system information that needs to be employed. To keep the page concise, the system only displays some key information (such as the name of the pump station or canal system and the effective control area) on the main page. Detailed information can be viewed by operators through the “view” button. Considering the professional competence of management personnel, complex operation software would make it difficult for them to input spatial information such as irrigation areas for all pump stations and canal systems under their jurisdiction into the system, thereby increasing the difficulty of implementing the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method in practice. Therefore, the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method proposed in this study does not require management personnel to have advanced map software information processing capabilities. Through the “area range delineation” and “canal path annotation” functions in the system, they can use a mouse to draw lines on the visual map provided by the system to annotate the spatial area information of pump stations and the path information of canals. The system’s server then calculates the area, perimeter, and canal length of the delineated regions in real time, facilitating operator operations.
In terms of data accuracy assurance, the irrigation management system developed in this study utilizes two categories of data, namely core data and auxiliary data: (1). Core data: The primary monitoring equipment can accurately record the electricity consumption of each irrigation device and upload the data to the system for calculating irrigation water usage. This enables water conservation through economic measures of water and electricity pricing control, with the entire process requiring no manual intervention. This approach fundamentally ensures the reliability of core data. (2). Auxiliary data: The spatial information of irrigation stations and canal systems is primarily used for visualization in management. The system provides satellite imagery basemaps to assist managers in area demarcation, with relatively lenient accuracy requirements. These data serve as references for decision making and do not affect the core water usage calculations.
2.2.4. Overview of the Management System’s Overall Framework
The “electricity-driven water conservation” control scheme proposed in this study ultimately takes specific electric irrigation stations as the basic objects for information input, remote monitoring, and information management operations [24,25,26,27,28]. The control scheme relies on a system that uses GPRS/CDMA communication technology over the Internet to obtain real-time irrigation electricity consumption data from the detection and transmission equipment of each electric irrigation station. For systems with pre-input data settings, based on the real-time irrigation electricity consumption data obtained from each pump station, the irrigation water consumption of each pump station can be calculated and compared with the preset water consumption threshold to determine whether the water usage exceeds the limit. Based on the water-saving analysis for each pump station, actions such as closing water gates can be taken. Finally, the results are returned to the management personnel through the front-end page for them to implement management measures. The system’s operational process framework is shown in Figure 2.
Through the agricultural irrigation coordination management system, management personnel can conveniently perform online real-time monitoring and intelligent management of each pump station’s equipment connected to the system. They can also use the connected video monitoring function to promptly maintain pump stations that experience faults. The use of this system significantly reduces the professional competence requirements for management personnel, facilitating promotion of the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method in plain areas.
2.3. Implementation Process Framework of the “Electricity-Driven Water Conservation” Control Method Based on the Irrigation Coordination Management System
The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method proposed in this study for plain areas fully utilizes the agricultural irrigation coordination management system, replacing the steps in the management method that are difficult to implement and operate manually with the management system and effectively reducing the operational difficulty for management personnel in executing this scheme. Specifically, the control method proposed in this study first uses the management system to calculate the irrigation water consumption of each pump station based on pre-input information such as the water-electricity conversion coefficient and self-flowing canal coefficient within the jurisdiction, as well as real-time collected irrigation electricity consumption data from each pump station after irrigation begins. The calculated water consumption is displayed on the system’s front-end visual interface for management personnel to observe. Additionally, the system automatically calculates the actual water consumption of all pump stations and compares it with the planned values, displaying the comparison results on the front end and providing early warnings for excessive water usage. This allows management personnel to remotely control water gates or pump station switches based on water consumption information, thereby controlling irrigation water usage by controlling the electricity consumption or irrigation duration for each irrigation. The entire method’s process is shown in Figure 3.
In the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method based on the agricultural irrigation coordination management system, the primary task for grassroots management personnel in daily operations is to remotely control the opening and closing of water gates during irrigation periods. Data pre-input is completed in advance by technical personnel in the system, significantly reducing the workload and difficulty. Additionally, the system provides video monitoring functions to assist management personnel in monitoring whether water switches are functioning properly, facilitating the maintenance of pump station facilities by grassroots management personnel and reducing maintenance difficulty. Considering that water consumption data and planned value information have positive reference significance for future water-saving work, calculation and proper storage of this data are important components of the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method. Since grassroots management personnel lack experience in operating complex big data systems, the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method proposed in this study uses the agricultural irrigation coordination management system to automatically and intelligently calculate water consumption data and corresponding planned water usage information, storing it in the server along with historical water consumption data for further analysis by technical personnel.
3. Results
The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method proposed in this study is simple to operate in practice, making it easy to promote in plain river network areas where grassroots management personnel have lower education levels. The method also has multiple functions, meeting various needs and being suitable for different plain river network environments.
3.1. Specific Operational Instructions for the “Electricity-Driven Water Conservation” Control Method Based on the Irrigation Coordination Management System
When implementing the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method, grassroots personnel mainly perform two tasks; one is to remotely control the opening of pump station water gates during irrigation periods and decide whether to close the water gates to control water usage based on the water consumption information returned by the system while also checking real-time monitoring footage to determine if any pump station facilities are damaged, and the other is to collect water consumption data. After connecting the electricity meters of each pump station to the system, management personnel can intelligently record data with a one-click meter reading operation.
3.1.1. Remote Water Gate Operation
The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method based on the agricultural irrigation coordination management system is simple to operate in practice. For grassroots operators, the main task is to remotely control the opening and closing of water gates at each pump station during irrigation and remotely observe if any facilities are damaged. In the system, management personnel can quickly view real-time data such as electricity meter readings for each pump station’s equipment and select the equipment that needs to be turned on or off from the pump station equipment list without needing to be on-site. At the same time, the system synchronously updates real-time monitoring information for each pump station, allowing management personnel to freely select and switch between clear monitoring screens for detailed observation. The specific operation interface is shown in Figure 4.
The control method based on the system significantly reduces the frequency of grassroots management personnel needing to operate equipment on-site. Management personnel can use smartphones or computers to connect to the system via a web page, obtaining real-time information online, making decisions based on the information feedback, and reducing the difficulty of implementing the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method in practice.
3.1.2. Intelligent Data Input
In the actual implementation of the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method, adjustments need to be made based on changes in the natural environment, facility construction, and policies and regulations. To make adjustments based on the objective environment, complete historical data is needed to study appropriate solutions. Therefore, regular calculations and storing data are important tasks for grassroots water facility management personnel. However, as mentioned earlier, grassroots management personnel often have lower education levels, making it difficult for them to perform complex data collection tasks. Additionally, the number of devices that need to be monitored in each irrigation area is large, and the types of data to be processed are complex, making it challenging for human resources alone to cope with the challenges brought by these complex objective factors. To address these issues, the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method proposed in this study fully utilizes the characteristics of the agricultural irrigation coordination management system, supporting intelligent data statistics and analysis. The specific operation process is shown in Figure 5.
Grassroots management personnel can use the system to automatically read the readings of connected electricity meters, and the system supports manual data correction to allow for manual measurement results to be used for correction when automatic detection equipment fails. Additionally, the system has the function of automatically converting irrigation electricity consumption into irrigation water consumption using the water-electricity conversion method. In specific operations, the system’s statistics function is first used to obtain the electricity consumption of the pump station. If the system’s automatic statistics results match the actual situation, then the “save” button can be clicked in the system to automatically calculate the water consumption and save the current pump station’s water and electricity data. If monitoring reveals obvious damage to the pump station’s equipment, then the pump station’s data needs to be manually measured, and the pump station’s electricity consumption information must be manually changed in the system. Finally, the “save” button is clicked to automatically calculate the water consumption information and save all data.
The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method proposed in this study fully considers the current conditions of water management in plain areas, significantly reducing the technical requirements for grassroots management personnel in the data collection process and ensuring that grassroots management personnel can master the method after simple training. Additionally, the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method considers the importance of historical data for future irrigation policy adjustments, storing a large amount of historical data in the system. Grassroots management personnel can also quickly query visual charts of annual irrigation water consumption and water-saving changes in the system, facilitating their understanding of the positive role of the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method in agricultural irrigation and promoting their proactive participation in agricultural irrigation water-saving efforts.
3.2. Functions Achievable by the Control Method Based on the Irrigation Coordination Management System
One of the core functions of the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method based on the agricultural irrigation coordination management system in plain areas is convenience for water quota queries. Grassroots operators can log into the system via mobile phones or computers in real time to quickly query the relationship between the actual irrigation water consumption and the planned amount for each pump station, enabling timely decision making and remote control of the water gate switches for each irrigation pump station.
Another important function of the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method is intelligent water price calculation. The theoretical basis of the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method is to calculate water consumption using the water-electricity conversion coefficient based on the electricity consumption of pump stations during irrigation. By comparing the actual water consumption with the planned amount, it can be determined whether a pump station is using excessive water. However, if the system only displays whether water usage exceeds the limit without implementing policies based on this indicator, then the water-saving measures will be ineffective. Therefore, another core aspect of the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method is to formulate appropriate strategies based on the water-saving and excessive water usage amounts calculated from the actual and planned water consumption, encouraging grassroots management personnel to save water. This is an important guarantee for the method to play a water-saving role in actual agricultural irrigation work. Under this guiding principle, this study uses economic strategies to influence farmers’ irrigation water usage decisions, linking water-saving behaviors with water prices. By rewarding water-saving behaviors and implementing a progressive pricing system for excessive water usage, the system intelligently calculates the final water prices for different regions, encouraging grassroots management personnel and farmers to save water during agricultural irrigation and promoting water-saving effectiveness in grassroots agricultural irrigation areas.
Convenient water quota queries and intelligent water price calculation are two important functions for effective promotion of the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method based on the agricultural irrigation coordination management system in plain areas. Grassroots management personnel can log into the system via mobile phones or computers at any time to view water consumption and pricing information, facilitating data lookup. When the annual cumulative water consumption exceeds 70% of the quota, the system interface displays a warning sign, and when it exceeds 100%, an alarm sign appears. The specific implementation of these two functions in the method is shown in Figure 6. These two important functions are the guarantees of the “electricity-driven water conservation” control method, helping to maintain transparency and openness in the actual implementation process and improving the acceptance of the method among grassroots operators and farmers.
To ensure that the operational interface of the irrigation management system aligned with the user requirements, this study incorporated functional layout suggestions from local managers (in Shuyang County, Suqian City, Jiangsu Province, China) during system development. It should be noted that the interfaces shown in Figure 1, Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure 6 have been translated from the original Chinese version to English solely for presentation purposes in this paper; the deployed system retains Chinese labels to accommodate local user preferences.
Since 2022, this study has conducted field usability tests of the system with local irrigation managers. The results (as of January 2025) indicate that approximately 80% of managers found the interface design intuitive with clear operational logic, effectively supporting electricity-driven water conservation management needs. The remaining participants (average age >50 years), while understanding both the operational procedures and management principles, recommended enlarging the display of key pricing data and the size of remote operation buttons. These findings validate the practical feasibility of the proposed management system and the effectiveness of its methodology.
3.3. Water-Saving Effectiveness of the Electricity-Driven Water Conservation Management Method
This study conducted an empirical evaluation of the proposed electricity-driven water conservation management method in typical agricultural areas of Shuyang County, Suqian City, Jiangsu Province, where the management scheme has been implemented since 2022. The implementation results demonstrate that the electricity-driven water conservation method significantly improved agricultural irrigation water use efficiency. As shown in Figure 7, a comparison between the actual water consumption (2020–2023) and planned water usage (2021–2023) clearly reflects the water-saving effectiveness of this approach.
As shown in Figure 7, water usage in the study area primarily concentrates during summer months (from June to September). Elevated temperatures and crop cultivation demands during this period lead to significantly higher irrigation water requirements compared with other seasons, often resulting in the actual water consumption exceeding planned allocations. To facilitate a comparison of water-saving effectiveness before and after implementing the electricity-driven water conservation management method, this study defines the water-saving rate according to Equation (2):
(2)
where represents the water-saving rate for the ith time period, denotes the planned water consumption for that period, and indicates the actual water consumption during the same period.This study calculated the monthly water-saving rates from 2021 to 2023 and annual aggregate water-saving rates using Equation (2). Table 1 presents comparative data of the monthly and annual water-saving rates in the study area before and after implementation of the electricity-driven water conservation management method.
As evidenced in Table 1, the annual water-saving rate in the study area demonstrated a year-by-year increasing trend following implementation of the electricity-driven water conservation management method, confirming its effectiveness. However, this upward trend gradually decelerated because adequate water consumption is essential for normal crop growth; when planned water allocations approach the minimum threshold required for crop development, further improvements in water-saving rates become limited.
Furthermore, the results revealed significant temporal heterogeneity in water-saving rates due to pronounced seasonal patterns in both precipitation and crop growth cycles within the study area. Before and during the initial implementation phase (first year), varying degrees of water overuse were observed across all months. With progressive optimization of control measures, excessive water usage has become primarily concentrated during summer peak demand periods. This evolutionary pattern confirms that the management method can be continuously refined through practical experience, with control precision improving alongside accumulated implementation knowledge. Nevertheless, current data indicate that the planned water allocation system still requires further refinement. Future research should focus on optimizing water quota methodologies to achieve more efficient water conservation while maintaining normal crop growth conditions.
4. Discussion
Compared with water-saving approaches that optimize water usage through modeling and strictly controlled irrigation operations [42,43,44], the electricity-driven water conservation management method is more straightforward and easier to implement. More importantly, this water-saving approach achieves conservation without compromising grain yields [45]. However, the current study has not yet incorporated factors such as climate [46] and crop structure adjustment [47] into the planned water allocation calculations and thus lacks a comprehensive theoretical basis for determining planned water consumption.
4.1. Advantages of the Electricity-Driven Water Conservation Management Method
The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method proposed in this study for plain areas, relying on a well-established agricultural irrigation coordination management system and a sound water price adjustment mechanism, has advantages such as low learning costs, ease of understanding, and convenient and timely measurement in actual implementation: (1). The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method based on the agricultural irrigation coordination management system has low learning and labor costs. For grassroots management personnel, it effectively reduces the workload of recording water usage information for pump station managers with lower educational levels and insufficient professional competence. On this basis, it ensures the accuracy of data collection, the real-time nature of the transmission process, the reliability of the storage process, and the convenience of the retrieval process. Technical personnel from water stations or county-level management departments can directly log into the system to remotely obtain electricity and water consumption information and pre-input various preset parameter information in the system. (2). The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method based on the agricultural irrigation coordination management system is convenient and timely in measurement, with transparent and open data. The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method uses informatized statistics, with the system transmitting the electricity consumption information of each pump station to the system in real time. Combined with the preset water-electricity conversion coefficient, the system performs water-electricity conversion calculations, publicly displaying the calculated actual water consumption, planned water quota, and other water-saving indicators in the system. When excessive water usage behavior is predicted or detected, the system promptly issues warning or alarm information and calculates the corresponding water usage fees for each pump station in real time, allowing grassroots management personnel to query relevant data. (3). The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method based on the agricultural irrigation coordination management system is convenient to operate and highly efficient, with stable operation of related equipment and technical support. The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method proposed in this study is primarily implemented through remote control in practice. Grassroots management personnel can log into the system via mobile phones or computers to operate the water gate switches of each pump station and collect data through the system. The system is connected to the monitoring equipment of each pump station, facilitating real-time remote monitoring of the pump station operation status and ensuring normal execution of the scheme. (4). The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method based on the agricultural irrigation coordination management system has a well-established mechanism and good water-saving economic benefits. The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method proposed in this study links water-saving (or excessive water usage) with water prices through economic means, incentivizing grassroots management personnel and farmers to save water during irrigation and achieving good water-saving results. (5). The “electricity-driven water conservation” control method based on the agricultural irrigation coordination management system enhances water-saving efficiency without compromising agricultural production or grain yields. Figure 8 illustrates the variation in total grain production in Shuyang County from 2018 to 2023 (data sourced from the Shuyang County People’s Government Statistical Yearbook). As shown in the figure, the total grain yield in the region has fluctuated within a narrow range in recent years, with an overall upward trend, demonstrating that the current water-saving control measures do not adversely affect regional grain production.
4.2. Limitations of the Electricity-Driven Water Conservation Management Method
Extreme climate events, such as floods and droughts, can significantly impact agricultural water usage, necessitating timely adjustments to water quotas in irrigation management systems. However, the proposed electricity-driven water conservation management method currently does not incorporate specific mechanisms to account for the effects of extreme climate conditions on planned water allocations. This omission is primarily based on the following three considerations.
First, in the study area (Suqian City, Jiangsu Province, China), relevant government departments have established a comprehensive emergency response mechanism for floods and droughts. Second, observational data indicate that the annual average precipitation in this region remained at an abundant level (>800 mm) during the 2016–2023 period. Finally, local water conservancy infrastructure (including large lakes and supporting hydraulic engineering projects) provides robust safeguards for water resource allocation.
Figure 9 displays the annual precipitation and water supply data obtained from the water resources bulletin of the study area (data source: Water Resources Bulletin of Suqian City, Jiangsu Province). Between 2016 and 2023, only two years in the study area were classified as dry years. Notably, even during periods of precipitation shortage, the water supply remained fully guaranteed. These findings clearly demonstrate that government agencies can promptly activate extreme climate response mechanisms and effectively utilize water conservancy facilities to allocate stored water resources, thereby ensuring an adequate total water supply for local farmers during dry years with insufficient precipitation.
From the perspective of water supply security, local farmers consistently obtained sufficient irrigation water during the study period. When analyzing the operational mechanism of the electricity-driven water conservation management method, it regulates farmers’ irrigation water usage through pricing strategies for electricity and water, rather than imposing rigid water restrictions. Farmers retain the freedom to access water even when exceeding allocated quotas. Consequently, the proposed management method has demonstrated significant effectiveness in the current study area.
It should be noted that, compared with irrigation management methods that strictly control water usage through technical means, the electricity-driven water conservation management method proposed in this study primarily relies on economic regulation measures to influence farmers’ irrigation behavior. In plain areas with relatively weak water conservancy infrastructure, the following limitations may emerge during extreme climate events. First, short-term inadequacies in water supply security may render economic regulation measures ineffective, as farmers tending to prioritize basic cultivation needs may disregard the increased economic costs from water price hikes. Second, relying solely on economic measures cannot fundamentally address water scarcity issues. Such circumstances may not only reduce overall irrigation efficiency but could also negatively impact grain yield stability due to inequitable water distribution. Therefore, future research should further refine the climate adaptability of the electricity-driven water conservation management scheme, particularly for plain regions with high climate sensitivity.
In addition to climatic factors, increased irrigation water usage is closely associated with both the expansion of cultivated areas and adjustments in cropping systems [47]. The irrigation management process requires balanced consideration of both water conservation benefits and food security requirements [48]. To maintain grain production levels, timely expansion of irrigated areas becomes a necessary measure. Consequently, when extending the electricity-driven water conservation management method to other plain regions, adaptive modifications should be incorporated according to local specific cultivation plans to enhance the method’s regional applicability.
5. Conclusions
The electricity-driven water conservation management method proposed in this study, which calculates water consumption through irrigation electricity usage and implements water pricing strategies, demonstrated significant water-saving effects in empirical research conducted in Shuyang County, Suqian City, Jiangsu Province. Compared with conventional extensive irrigation management, the system improved the water-saving rate from −1.71% to 0.09% after implementation, indicating its effectiveness in enhancing agricultural water use efficiency.
The advantages of this method include (1) operational simplicity, utilizing an intelligent platform to achieve water usage transparency while reducing labor management costs; (2) the capability for real-time remote regulation, meeting the mobile terminal usage needs (e.g., smartphones and computers) of grassroots managers; and (3) enhanced flexibility in water management through dynamic water pricing strategies compared with approaches relying solely on administrative measures or fixed quotas.
However, this method still has certain limitations. Extreme climate events may cause discrepancies between predetermined planned water allocations and actual demand. The current system implementing the electricity-driven water conservation management method was developed based on local agricultural irrigation experience, and its generalizability requires further validation across more plain regions (e.g., different climate zones or cropping patterns). Future research could optimize the calculation method for planned water allocations by incorporating meteorological data patterns and exploring its applicability in other plain regions.
Conceptualization, X.F.; methodology, X.F.; validation, X.F. and J.Y.; investigation, X.F. and J.Y.; resources, X.F. and J.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, X.F.; writing—review and editing, X.F. and J.Y.; visualization, J.Y.; funding acquisition, X.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Footnotes
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Figure 1 Pre-input information process and related interfaces.
Figure 2 Architecture of irrigation coordination management system.
Figure 3 Management method flow frame diagram.
Figure 4 Specific operation interface.
Figure 5 Intelligent data statistics.
Figure 6 Specific implementation interface of important functions.
Figure 7 Water-saving effectiveness display.
Figure 8 Total food production in Shuyang County (2018–2023).
Figure 9 Precipitation and water supply data for Suqian City over multiple years.
Comparison of water-saving effects before and after implementation of the electricity-driven water conservation management method.
| Time | 2023 | 2022 | 2021 |
|---|---|---|---|
| January | 2.74% | 8.59% | 4.39% |
| February | 8.52% | 0.69% | 5.26% |
| March | 4.58% | 7.20% | 1.14% |
| April | 6.13% | 0.40% | 2.65% |
| May | 0.75% | −6.22% | −2.89% |
| June | 0.11% | 5.50% | 1.40% |
| July | −12.75% | −4.94% | −11.16% |
| August | −7.31% | −5.40% | −11.59% |
| September | 6.81% | −0.13% | −5.82% |
| October | 1.03% | 3.23% | 1.33% |
| November | 2.34% | 1.77% | 3.09% |
| December | 4.57% | −6.36% | 4.60% |
| All year | 0.09% | 0.06% | −1.71% |
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1 School of Urban Construction, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, China; [email protected]
2 School of Transportation and Civil Engineering, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China