Assessing research self-efficacy and attitudes among medical students: a quasi-experimental study evaluating the impact of a structured training program

Abstract

Background

Exposure of medical students to research improves their scientific output and future involvement in research. This is particularly important for Africa, where, despite the high disease burden, the continent contributes only 2% of the global research output. An important approach to address this is early introduction of students to research. This study aims to assess the effects of a training organized by the Federation of African Medical Students’ Associations, on self-efficacy and attitudes of medical students to research.

Methods

A pre- and post-training cross-sectional survey of medical students who participated in the research training was conducted. Ethical approval and informed consent were obtained. Data was collected using pre-tested self-administered questionnaires, and was descriptively analyzed. The Clinical Research Appraisal Inventory-12 scale was used to investigate self-efficacy, and the Attitudes Towards Research scale was used to assess attitudinal changes. Mann–Whitney U test, and Independent Samples t-test were used to compare pre- and post- intervention scores.

Results

A total of 223 students from eleven African countries who registered for the training were enrolled. However, 152 completed the intervention. Age range was 15–40, with peak age being 21–25. Male to female ratio was 1:1.1. Majority (67%) of the participants were from Nigeria, and in their fourth year (27%). The scores of all six self-efficacy factors increased after the intervention with statistical significance. These included designing and collecting (27.3% to 57.0% p < 0.001); reporting, interpreting, and presenting (28.4% to 60.3% p < 0.001); conceptualizing and collaborating (32.7% to 63.2% p < 0.001); planning (31.8% to 60.7% p < 0.001); funding (21.3% to 53.7% p < 0.001); protecting (33.6% to 65.7% p < 0.001). Positive attitudes towards research increased significantly after the intervention with a mean score of 74.6% to 81.0% (p = 0.001), while negative attitudes decreased (48.9% to 42.9% p = 0.003).

Conclusion

Structured research training improves the self-efficacy and attitudes of students towards research, and thus should be incorporated into curricula. There is a need for longitudinal studies to further establish the long-term effects of early exposure of medical students to research.

Background

Medical research is known as the art of utilizing scientific methods to investigate human diseases, develop strategies for preventing and treating illnesses, promote overall health, and ultimately improve patient care [1]. It is essential that all medical practitioners are involved in research in some way, for several reasons evident in literature [2, 3]. Research training refers to the process of providing education and training to individuals to develop their research skills and abilities. It is an essential part of medical education that aims to equip future healthcare professionals with the skills required to conduct and interpret research effectively [4].

Research training has been shown to improve scientific output, encourage the students to get interested in research, and thus promote a research centered practice [4]. The students are able to build up their research knowledge and skills which are relevant to patient care [5]. It has been found that curriculum based research training programs among medical students improve their research productivity, performance, and intent to participate in research in the future [4, 5]. For example, establishing research hubs that offer structured research training, foster collaboration, and create opportunities for sharing research and innovations has been shown to cultivate a research-oriented culture among Nigerian medical students [6]. Also, in the United States of America, Duke and Stanford have continually integrated rigorous scholarly activities in their curriculum, promoting the development of advanced research capabilities and leadership skills among medical students [7].

Africa is faced with several unique and complex health challenges, making the ability to carry out effective research valuable [8]. It is said to produce only 2% of the global research output, yet it contributes the greatest percentage of global disease burden [8, 9]. An important approach to address the poor research output is early exposure of African medical students to research, as this contributes to future involvement and success in research [10], which translates to enhanced evidence-based medicine, improved patient care, better career progression, and development of critical thinking skills [11]. The majority of Africa’s health problems are unique and under-researched [12]. By ensuring the future practitioners are research-oriented, gaps in patient care can be addressed by evidence-based solutions [13, 14]. Furthermore, there is a need for evidence which influences patient care in our region to be generated by researchers in African contexts, to reduce reliance on findings from other settings which might not be applicable to care of patients in Africa [13, 15]. The advantages attributed to building an early strong foundation in research make the development important for African medical students, enhancing their contribution to advancing the science of medicine and addressing pertinent health challenges [6].

There are limited studies evaluating the effectiveness of research training in enhancing the research capacity of medical students in Africa [16]. Such studies also assessed cohorts of students from a single institution [16], and have been focused on evaluating the attitudes, perception, and barriers facing medical students regarding participating in research [17,18,19]. Furthermore, studies have only yet employed a post-study design and not compared students’ knowledge before and after a research training [16]. Our study aims to fill this gap in the literature by utilizing a pre- and post-training assessment approach to evaluate the effectiveness of a research training program which was organized by the Federation of African Medical Students’ Associations (FAMSA) [20], on self-efficacy and attitudes of medical students to research. Findings of this study will inform respective stakeholders, and contribute to development of targeted interventions in enhancing African medical schools’ research capacity, towards enhancing overall healthcare in the continent. Our findings can also serve as foundational work to further construct research training programs that enable the development of positive attitudes towards research and improve self-efficacy among medical students.

Methods

Study settings and design

The research training was conducted online to accommodate African medical students across different countries. This study was a cross-sectional survey designed as a quasi-experimental study with independent samples, using a pre- and post-training assessment to compare the self-efficacy and attitude towards research of the students prior to and following the training. Self-efficacy, which is an individual’s belief in their ability to perform a particular specialised behaviour [21] is a very useful indicator of the individual’s willingness and ability to actually perform the task in question [22]. The term ‘attitude’ is defined as ‘a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor [23]. It has been shown that previous exposure to research work positively influences attitudes of medical students toward research [24]. To show that similar effects could be achieved through research training, it was therefore important for us to conduct an assessment of self-efficacy and attitudes of participants of the study before and after the training. Higher self-efficacy, as well as a more positive attitude toward research among medical students following the training would not only be proof of its effectiveness, but also a positive indicator of the readiness of medical students to perform research as students, and later as physicians.

Intervention

Overview of FAMSA

The Federation of African Medical Students’ Associations (FAMSA) is a non-political and independent organization bringing together individual medical students’ associations across Africa [20]. As an organization recognized by the World Health Organization and the African Union, FAMSA is the official international forum for African medical students. The Standing Committee on Medical Education and Research (SCOMER) is one of FAMSA’s five Standing Committees, and it is mandated with improving and coordinating research and educational activities among African medical students [20].

Program description

The SCOMER Research Training Program was a structured program open to all medical students in Africa, designed to enhance research skills and foster a positive research culture among African medical students. The training sessions, delivered in English, covered the following key areas: Introduction to Scientific Research in Medicine, Primary Study Designs, Artificial Intelligence in Scientific Research, Conceptualization of Research Ideas, Research Proposal Writing, Research Methodology, Scientific Reviews, Abstract Writing, Conference Poster and Oral Presentation, Ethics of Medical Research, Art of Publication of Research Findings, Getting Started as a Medical Student, Undergraduate and Postgraduate Opportunities, with the overall aim of boosting students’ confidence in conducting research and improving their perceptions of its value. The detailed program outline is provided in the “section A” of the supplementary material.

Program implementation

A three-week research training program titled “Identifying Research Questions, Knowledge Gaps, and Proffering Solutions through Publications” was conducted virtually via Zoom to accommodate participants from different countries and time zones. It ran between August 9th and August 24th, 2024, on weekends at 9 AM GMT and 4 PM GMT for each session. The program featured experienced facilitators (Acknowledgements), who effectively guided participants through their respective topics and answered relevant questions during the training.

Study population

The study focused on African medical students who participated in the research training organized by FAMSA SCOMER. These students came from diverse medical schools and academic levels across the continent. The sample included all students who registered for the training program and gave their consent to participate in the study.

Sampling technique

A volunteer sampling technique was utilised for the study. Only students who enrolled for the training and provided informed consent were eligible and included.

Data collection and management

Data collection involved pre- and post-intervention questionnaires, which were administered via Google Forms. The overall aim of the questionnaires was to assess research self-efficacy, attitude towards research, and general demographic data. To achieve clarity, relevance, and reliability, the questionnaires underwent pretesting on a sample of individuals whose characteristics were similar to those of study participants. Through feedback obtained from the pretest, it became possible to clarify questions so that they became more aligned with the objectives of the study. All participants had signed informed consent before filling the questionnaires, having read and agreed on the terms and conditions of the research, and participated in the training program. The questionnaire was in English, and no translation was provided because the training was conducted in English, and all participants were English speakers. The Google Form was set to allow only one response per person to prevent duplicate submissions.

All data collected was securely stored in a password-protected spreadsheet on a cloud-based platform to promote data security and accessibility. After completing data collection, the data was cleaned and verified for completeness and accuracy. This involved addressing any missing data, inconsistencies, or outliers to promote the reliability and validity of data analysis.

Data was analyzed, and intervention group scores pre- and post-intervention were compared. Inferential and descriptive statistical tests were employed in order to ascertain the significance of any change that was identified. The results of the study were presented in a logical, concise report, with the use of tables, figures, and graphs to report results in an effective manner. The findings’ implications and their significance in relation to the research question were discussed, enhancing the overall insight into the influence of research training on medical students.

Statistical analysis

The quantitative data was descriptively analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 20. For each of the demographic variables, the frequencies and valid percentages were calculated. The mean percentage was calculated by taking the average of the relevant items and multiplying by 100. For each of the 12 quantitative components under each of the two assessments made: research self-efficacy using CRAI-12 tool and participants’ attitudes towards research, the mean percentage, standard deviation and average likert score were calculated. This was also calculated for each subscales under both assessments. Cronbach’s alpha was calculated to determine the internal consistency of both assessments. To select the appropriate tests, a test of normality using the Kolmogorov Smirnov test was conducted for the data of each of the 12 components under both assessment, and for their individual subscales. Scores of the independent data that were not normally distributed were compared using Mann–Whitney U tests; and for normally distributed independent data, Independent Samples t-test was used to compare the scores, pre- and post- intervention. The scores for each subscales under both assessments were further stratified by gender. The significance level was set at 0.05. Because we did not employ unique identifiers to match the pre- and post-training responses of each participant, we treated the two sets of data as though they were from two separate groups of individuals. As a result, we used independent sample tests, either the Mann–Whitney U test (for non-normally distributed data) or the independent t-test (for normally distributed data) to compare the two groups. The research self efficacy and attitude towards research data were both non-normally distributed, and this was indicated in the table of results. Missing data were then removed on a pairwise basis for concerned variables.

Eligibility criteria

Inclusion criteria

African medical students enrolled in a recognized medical school were eligible to enroll for the training.

Participants who attended at least 80% of the training sessions were included in the post-training survey.

Exclusion criteria

Students enrolled in the training but who did not provide informed consent to participate in the study.

Study instruments

For this study, we adopted the use of a shortened version of the Clinical Research Appraisal Inventory (CRAI-12), developed by Robinson et. al [25]. The CRAI-12 is a shorter version of the original CRAI [26]. It aims to provide an alternative which is less time-consuming, yet as reliable as the original. It consists of 6 factors as compared to the original instrument’s 10 domains, and comprises just 12 items (two items per factor), hence the name, “CRAI-12”. Appendix 1 shows the details of the factors and items assessed. The study instrument is provided in the “section B” of the supplementary material.

The use of a 11-point likert scale

A likert scale is a type of rating scale used to collect responses of questionnaire respondents to closed-ended questions. Commonly used likert scales include the 4-point, 7-point and 11-point likert scale. The more the number of points, the more opportunity a respondent has to make a more specific choice. So, under most circumstances, an 11-point likert will produce a more accurate response than a 7-point or 4-point likert.

Attitudes Towards Research (ATR) scale

The Attitudes towards Research (ATR) scale was developed by Papanastasiou [27] to evaluate various dimensions of students’ attitudes to research. The ATR scale has a Cronbach’s alpha score of 0.948 which is very satisfactory [27]. Hence, It was adapted for use in this study to assess both positive and negative attitudes towards research. Details of the factors assessed for both positive and negative attitudes are outlined in Appendix 2.

Ethical considerations

Ethical approval and consent to participate

Ethical approval was sought and obtained from the University of Ibadan; University College Hospital Ethics Committee (UI/UCH EC), Ibadan, Nigeria (Reference Number: UI/EC/25/0061). Throughout the study, ethical considerations were paramount. Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained for all participant data. Informed consent was obtained from all participants before data collection, ensuring that they were fully aware of their rights and the study’s purpose. The study was conducted in adherence to the declaration of Helsinki.

Confidentiality of data

No names or other personal identifiers were used on the surveys to protect confidentiality. None of the information obtained is traceable to the study participants.

Translation of protocol to the local language

The study questionnaire was written in English. There was no need to translate to the local dialect for this study population.

Beneficence to participants

No incentives were given to participants for taking part in this study.

Risks to participants

There were no direct risks or hazards involved for participants in this study.

Voluntariness

Participation in this study was completely voluntary without coercion and there was no punishment for refusing to participate. Participants were free to withdraw from the study at any time.

Results

Participants’ demographics and academic backgrounds

The study began with 223 students, and Table 1 shows the study population’s characteristics. The sample’s demographics include age, gender, academic program, and year of study. Of the 223 students who were initially enrolled, 152 (68.16%) completed both the pre- and post-tests, for an attrition rate of 31.84%.

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The following are the demographic details of the participants: The majority of participants (64.0%) were between the ages of 21 and 25 prior to the intervention. With 69.1% of individuals in the same age group, this tendency continued after the intervention. Males made up 46.6% and females 52.9% prior to the intervention. Following the intervention, males made up 48.0%, and females 51.3%.

Prior to the intervention, Nigeria accounted for the largest percentage of participants (67.3%), followed by Uganda (9.0%) and Tanzania (7.2%) (Fig. 1). Nigeria continued to hold the majority (67.1%) after the intervention, followed by Uganda (10.5%) and Kenya (8.6%). Additional results, including remaining nations, are provided in Fig. 1. The majority of participants were in their third year (22.0%) and fourth year (23.8%) prior to the intervention. The largest group (27.0%) after the intervention was the fourth year. 48.0% of the participants had previously been exposed to research. After medical school, a sizable majority (81.2% before and 82.9% after the intervention) indicated interest in following a career in research.

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Research self-efficacy

The study used the CRAI-12 scale to measure participants’ research self-efficacy before and after the intervention as shown in Table 2. All six factors: designing and collecting; reporting, interpreting, and presenting; conceptualizing and collaborating; planning; funding; and protecting, showed significant improvement, with p-values below 0.05. Table 2 offers an overview of these domains, while detailed results on each item of the factors can be found in Appendix 1.

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Stratified analysis of research self-efficacy by gender

Considering all CRAI-12 factors, males and females consistently demonstrate statistically significant improvements in self-reported clinical research efficacy, suggesting the intervention was effective for these groups. Details of each of the factors assessed for both males and females, pre and post intervention, are detailed in Appendix 3.

Attitudes towards research

The intervention resulted in significant changes in attitudes among participants, as illustrated in Table 3 below. The positive segment showed an overall improvement in positive orientation towards research, while the negative segment showed a notable decline in previously held misconceptions. Additional details of the components assessed in each segment can be found in Appendix 2.

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Stratified analysis of attitudes towards research by gender

Positive attitudes towards research increased significantly for both males (77.1% vs. 84.1% p = 0.016) and females (72.2% vs. 78.8% p = 0.011). Negative attitudes decreased significantly among male participants (48.8% vs. 42.0% p = 0.014), while females demonstrated a non-significant decline in negative attitudes after the intervention (48.9% vs. 44.1% p = 0.135). (Appendix 4).

Reliability analysis

The Cronbach’s alpha for participants’ self-reported clinical research efficacy increased from 0.968 (pre) to 0.976 (post), indicating high internal consistency. Similarly, for attitudes towards research, the alpha remained stable, with a slight decrease from 0.823 (pre) to 0.810 (post).

Discussion

Research training programs play a vital role in facilitating the commencement of students’ research careers. In a Nigerian survey of 421 undergraduate medical students, more than half of the respondents admitted to being hindered from research by the lack of adequate knowledge of research and training on statistics, worsened by an absence of institutional workshops for research education [28]. We had a 31.84% attrition rate, where 152 out of 223 participants completed the intervention. Notably, all participants aged 36 to 40, as well as 16 of 19 first-year students, were lost to attrition. The significant total attrition rate shows a need to improve retention strategies and optimize research training to actively involve learners. However, these strategies may require specific attention to participants at the extremes of age or study years. To avoid participant loss in future studies, there should be more frequent follow-up and better communication. An analysis of Distance Learning programmes in Nigeria also suggested the provision of learner support systems in the form of e-counselling to provide practical and psychotherapeutic support for learners [29]. Our study population’s characteristics were very stable before and after the intervention. The majority of the students were aged 21 to 25 years, with a minimal alteration in the gender ratio showing a rise in male representation. The students involved in the study were from 11 African countries, the majority being from Nigeria. The largest percentage consisted of fourth-year medical students, whose number after the intervention remained steady, showing that the intervention was appropriate for this student population. Although participant numbers from some of the countries were low (e.g., n = 2, 1 or 0), prior or post intervention; their inclusion is needed for assessing the effectiveness of the training program. This is because the goal of our study was geared towards evaluating the impact of research training on medical students, rather than drawing inferences on a country basis. Fifty percent of the students had prior research experience, which aligns with Abusamak et al.’s cross-sectional findings that 51.7% of female students and 48.3% of male students had previous experience [30]. The results from another cross sectional study conducted by Achi et al. showed that just 8.1% of the students had research exposure before [31].

Our study demonstrates an increase in the ability of the training participants to conduct research by identifying knowledge gaps, selecting a topic area, determining the appropriate sample size to ensure generalisability and statistical significance of data, and designing strategies for collecting and analysing research data according to reproducible best practices. The maximum change was in the research funding factor in which participants’ ability increased by a percentage of 152.1%. Equipping participants to acquire grant funding is particularly important to solve the asymmetry in research funding and disease burden for Africa [32]. Furthermore, empowering them to obtain grants will enable the participants, as African medical researchers, to improve the volume of indigenous global health studies, prevent parachute research, and ensure timely translation [32]. Additionally, the participants demonstrated an increased interpersonal collaborative ability to set and communicate realistic project goals and ensure their achievement by modifying the constitution of their research teams if necessary. These teamwork skills for coordination, communication, adaptability, decision-making and leadership have been correlated with an increased academic performance in undergraduate students [33].

The increase in the theoretical knowledge and real-life application of research methods among the participants is comparable to the outcome of the research training programme at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa [16]. Following this 3-year-long community-based programme, the 212 participating undergraduate medical students had an improved performance of 69% in the post-test over their 57% mean scores in the pre-test. The FAMSA Research Training achieved a higher comparative increase in the pre-test and post-test via a virtual training, reinforcing the potential of virtual learning for African medical education. However, unlike the programme, due to a limitation in time, the FAMSA Research Training programme could not accommodate the supervised involvement of participants in hands-on research writing, which would have provided an objective assessment of their research capabilities [16].

In our study, attitudes toward research improved at a group level, with positive attitude scores increasing from 74.6% to 81.0% and negative attitude scores decreasing from 48.9% to 42.9%. This reflects a considerable attitudinal change and reduction in perceived barriers. Similar group-level improvements have been reported in other research training interventions [34,35,36]. For example, a paired-sample study at the American University of Beirut showed that early, structured exposure to research enhanced students’ outlook on research [31]. Additionally, systematic reviews have concluded that programs with mentorship, resources, and structured guidance significantly enhance medical students’ research competence [37, 38]. Future interventions should consider additional components targeting anxiety and confidence, particularly in areas such as statistical analysis and project execution.

The reduction in negative attitudes to research in this study is consistent with findings from a cross-sectional study done at Tanta University, Egypt. It observed that integrating research training into the undergraduate medical curriculum decreased challenges to research participation among students [39]. A narrative review also established addressing the challenges such as time constraints and lack of mentorship as critical for cultivating positive attitudes toward research among medical students [40]. However, persistent challenges were noted in aspects such as research-related anxiety and insecurity about data analysis. This indicates that emotional and technical elements of research anxiety are in need of further targeted interventions. This finding agrees with a study that identified the absence of sufficient knowledge in research methodology and confidence as key challenges among medical students [41]. Interventions to ease anxiety about statistics and data analysis have not been carried out in African institutions. However, a study found a mindset intervention to be a useful tool for reducing statistics anxiety among undergraduate students [42].

The gender-stratified analysis revealed that both males and females benefited significantly in the positive segment, while improvements in the negative segments were observed more in male participants. In agreement with this, studies have reported that there is a gender difference in attitude toward research: while female students report a higher knowledge score, they are likely to face barriers [43, 44]. The high reliability scores, as evidenced by Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.968 and 0.823 at pre-intervention, demonstrate the robustness of the self-report measures. Further, the slight increase in reliability following the intervention demonstrates stability in the findings.

Despite the increasing recognition of the need for medical students to be involved in research, student research in Africa continues to face challenges [45]. Among these is the low level of access to funds to conduct research and publish findings [45]. Medical students in Africa generally cannot cover the costs associated with research due to a lack of institutional support, and scarcity of external grants [6]. Inadequate research mentors in institutions is another challenge. Not many lecturers in African medical schools are active in research, and those who are often occupied with patient care and teaching [46]. As a result, students struggle to find the support, advice, and motivation required to grow their research interest. Research facilities are also lacking. Medical schools, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, struggle with outdated labs, unreliable internet and electricity, and difficulty accessing quality research materials including journals and databases [47]. Another issue is the lack of formal inclusion of research in the curriculum in most African medical schools [39]. The lack of proper structures to expose students to research may contribute to the myth that research is burdensome, difficult, or not relevant to clinical practice [48]. To resolve these challenges, medical schools in Africa can adopt a number of practical and lasting solutions to make research a core part of training. One good step is to start teaching research early by incorporating it into the curriculum [39]. A spiral approach where students revisit core concepts like study design, data analysis, and ethics at deeper levels each year can help them better understand and apply what they have learned over time [49]. Also, student-led research groups, interest clubs, or small research communities where students help each other and ask questions together will also address the challenges [6]. These spaces could host informal workshops on how to write proposals, improve research writing, or practice giving presentations, making research feel less intimidating. To fix the lack of mentorship, schools can match students with lecturers, graduate students, or even senior classmates who can offer practical advice and support along the way [50]. These manner of connections help students feel less alone and more encouraged to stay engaged. Research shouldn’t be treated as a one-time project either. During clinical postings, students can work on simple audits, case reviews, or small investigations that tie research into what they’re already seeing on the wards [51]. This helps them see how research is part of real-life medical work. The institutional research hubs can also organize student research days, poster presentations, or small competitions to make research more exciting and rewarding [6]. These events will give students a chance to share their work, get helpful feedback, and enable their efforts to be recognized.

Strength and limitations

Whereas our approaches enabled an in-depth review of the intervention impact, we do acknowledge the possibility that it may have created a selection bias since the volunteer sampling involves only those who registered and gave consent to take part, hence may not represent the general population of African medical students. In addition, the pre- and post-training responses were treated as independent samples since not all participants completed the training or filled the post-survey and there was the absence of identifiers to pair pre and post responses. Consequently, this fails to account for individual variability, however, the results obtained provide meaningful insight into group-level impact of the intervention. To mitigate the selection bias in our study, we worked with a standardized inclusion criteria in which only students who registered and provided informed consent were included. Also, we ensured consistent data collection procedures both pre- and post-intervention surveys were administered under identical conditions (Google Forms), reducing the risk of differential measurement error. Another limitation is that statistical power could not be ensured due to limitations of participants that could fit into our inclusion criteria. Additionally, although efforts were made to obtain complete responses, a small proportion of data was missing from some pre- and post-intervention questionnaires. These missing responses were not imputed and may have introduced minor bias or affected the precision of the percentage mean scores. Finally, the relatively short duration between the intervention and post-test may not fully capture long-term attitudinal changes.

Conclusion

This study established that research training programs build the skill and confidence of students to engage in active research, especially in settings where there is no formal inclusion of research in the school curriculum. The virtual format training adopted by FAMSA SCOMER proved efficient in training participants from different locations. Further training should be done with supervised writing and project implementation to enhance the impact of the training. It also calls for longitudinal studies to further establish the long-term outcomes of the structured research training programs, and its inclusion in the curriculum on medical students’ career path, whether medical students with early and adequate exposure to research methods are more successful in research and whether they contribute more to global health challenges as practitioners. Future research could investigate how early research training impacts students’ long-term professional aspirations. Specifically, longitudinal studies examining whether such programs foster sustained interest in academic careers or influence the choice of research-focused specialties would be valuable in understanding the broader implications of undergraduate research exposure for medical students.

Data availability

All data obtained and analyzed are available in the manuscript. Materials can be made available upon reasonable request to the corresponding author.

Abbreviations

FAMSA:

Federation of African Medical Students’ Associations

SCOMER:

Standing Committee on Medical Education and Research

CRAI:

Clinical Research Appraisal Inventory

ATR:

Attitudes towards Research scale

IBM SPSS:

International Business Machines Corporation; Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

ALS:

Average Likert Score

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