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The star symbol is one of the most popular decorative patterns used to adorn Muslim architecture.1 This symbol is not just restricted to Muslim art and architecture, but it has also been used across many cultures and religions worldwide since ancient times. Though Muslim architecture only made some deviations from the already existing designs to distinguish themselves, yet they assigned this symbol importance to their religious philosophy, and its aesthetic appearance.2 Along with many ancient cultures and Muslim regions of the world, the star symbol is an important part of the ornamental decoration that Muslims practiced in the subcontinent.3 The proof of this can be seen in architectural examples from the subcontinent like Humayun's mausoleum in Delhi, Wazir Khan Mosque in Lahore, and Bhong Mosque in Rahim Yar Khan. This research talks about the usage of the star symbol in these architectural marvels of the subcontinent in detail.
It also looks at the different symbolic connotations associated with this symbol and how it was incorporated in the ornamentation of the above-mentioned buildings.
1. Introduction
Architecture is believed to be a source of identification for cultures, religions, and civilizations. Looking at the architecture of an area can reveal a lot about the people living in an area and their lifestyle, belief system, and stylistic approach.4 When we talk about examples of Islamic art, architecture is the greatest and most significant form, as it is believed to stand as a symbol of the beliefs and teachings of the Islamic religion. Islamic art is believed to have been built up by synthesizing native design elements with motifs from other cultures, regions, and religions.5
According to Akhtar, the most important example of Muslim architecture is the mosque, as it carries not just functionality, but also symbolic value. The mosque translates to a place of assembly and prostration, and is also called the ‘House of God' in Islam. Other than being the place where Muslims are called five times to prayer, it also plays the role of acting as a center of religious and social activities.6 Although the mosque is the most significant example of Islamic architecture due to its religious and spiritual significance, other buildings such as mausoleums, palaces, and gardens are also present. Islamic architecture is seen to be both a religious as well a secular artistic style and elements. The task of Muslim architecture is to transmit the teachings of the religion, while also focusing on the aesthetic quality of the design elements.7
Islamic doctrine prohibits imagery of humans and animals in Islamic art and architecture. Due to this prohibition, it was important to create a vocabulary of Islamic ornamentation that consists of different motifs, symbols, and patterns.8 Some of the symbols that are incorporated in Muslim architecture predate Islam and are therefore believed to be secular. But Ahmad (2010) believes that they were adopted in Muslim architecture as they were believed to be an adequate representation of a certain idea or concept.9
Scholars believe the idea that the visual form of a symbol might be the same in different religions, but focus should be on the meaning or symbolism behind it that can differ. This evolution of Muslim architectural design and decorative styles over time led to a diversification of designs. This evolutionary process was seen to be true about Muslim architecture, not just in the past but also in the current time.10
Certain decorative motifs and patterns are often identified and symbolically associated with Muslim architecture. These ornamental designs that adorn Muslim architecture were not devised randomly, just for decoration. They rather carry an esoteric or sacred connotation to the symbol that can represent an aspect of the Islamic ideology. These symbols were devised by the skilled Muslims artists who were well versed geometricians. Another factor that contributed towards developing these was the incorporation of cultural and regional influences of the areas that were conquered by Muslims.11
Symbols and motifs that were incorporated in the adornment of Muslim architecture are organic as well as geometric. The most common elements or styles used for the decoration of Muslim architecture are calligraphy, geometrical designs, and floral patterns. What makes them unique and distinctive is not the form of these design elements, but rather the significance and connotation of these symbols (Akhtar 2011). These design elements are not unique to just Islamic art or architecture but are seen to be important in the art of other religions as well. But it's the symbolism behind them that makes them unique in Islamic art or architecture.
2. Aims and Significance
This research paper aims to look at the star symbol, its significance, symbolism behind it, and to study in detail some examples from Muslim architecture where this symbol was used as part of design and ornamentation in the subcontinent. The symbol of the star has been used since ancient times in many regions and religions of the world. A variety of star-shaped ornamentation can be observed throughout history, with the connotation of it dependent upon the beliefs and ideas of that time or area (M. Khan 2011).
According to M. Khan (2011), the star form is a major design pattern that is often seen as a dominating decorative pattern in Muslim architecture. The presence of star symbols in the ornamental design of Muslim architecture has often been criticized. This is because this symbol is often closely associated with Judaism and has its significance as the Star of David. Nowadays, with the association of the star symbol with the state of Israel, the usage in Islam is often frowned upon. But this is caused by a lack of knowledge that this symbol has existed since ancient times and has been a part of all the major religions and cultures of the world since then. Therefore, it is even more important to study this symbol in the context of Muslim architecture and ornamental design to understand that the star symbol is not restricted to one culture or religion. And the significance that it holds as a part of Muslim art and architecture.
3. Methodology
For conducting this research, a qualitative research methodology has been used with a focus on Chicago Style. A few books, research papers were consulted that provided detailed knowledge about the subject of this paper. In Qualitative research methodology, results are collected through analysis of all features involved within the subject of interest. To reach the desired result, multiple references were reviewed to verify the personal analysis of the researcher with the help of available literature and already conducted research.
4. Significance of the Star symbol
The star symbol has existed through many cultures and religions in history, including Mesopotamian civilization, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The connection of the star symbol in reference to these cultures and religions is discussed below.
4.1. The Star Symbol in Ancient Cultures and Religions
The symbol of the star can be seen to have a lot of significance in the ancient civilization of Mesopotamia. One evidence can be seen in Mesopotamia on a stele attributed to Narum Sin, the grandson of Sargon, who was the ruler of Akkad. Two stars can be seen drawn on the steles that are believed to symbolize his victory and good fortune. This shows how it was an important symbol adopted from the cosmos, and its movements are thought to be linked with determining the fate of man.12
According to Kramer (1984), six and eight-pointed stars were considered as a symbol for the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar, also known as Star of Inanna in ancient Mesopotamian culture.13 Ishtar was thought to be an astral deity associated with the morning and evening star. That can be associated with the reason for representing Ishtar with a star symbol.
In Hinduism, the star symbol was believed to be a divine symbol as they believed it to represent a perfect harmonious state of meditativeness between man and God. The two triangles of the hexagram or six-pointed star were also symbols for signifying the union of the masculine Shiva and the feminine Shakti. It was also significant due to a symbol adopted from the cosmos, as it represented planetary alignment. This was due to the importance of astrology and studying the movement of the heavenly bodies before any action or decision to see if they align with the star movement. The star symbol also represented harmony, balance, stability, perfection, and good fortune.
In Tibetan Buddhism the hexagram is connected to Vajrayogini, which is associated as the female embodiment of knowledge and wisdom. The six-pointed star is usually shown as the central part of her mandala.
The star symbol is very commonly associated with the religion of Judaism as the Star of David, who was a prophet and the king of the Israelites. It was also used as the symbol representing the Seal of Solomon, who was the son of Prophet David and his successor.
But this symbol was not just identified with the Jews until the start of the Middle Ages. It was also a symbol adopted by Christianity to represent God and Man connecting. The Christians used it as an ornamental element in medieval churches. It was also believed to be a symbol representing the Tribes of Israel, which had significance not just in Judaism but also in Christianity.
4.2. Star symbol in Islam
Star symbol is often seen in Islamic art known as the Khatim Sulayman (The Seal of Solomon) or Najmat Dawud (Star of David). It is sometimes represented as a six-pointed hexagram, or as a five-pointed star / pentagram. They are used in Islamic art as a homage and for showing reverence to the Prophets Sulayman (Solomon) and Dawud (David), who were equally important for the Muslims as they are for the Jews and Christians.14
The star symbol can be seen used for decorative purposes all over the Islamic civilization, in mosques, palaces, minted on coinage, painted on pottery, tiles, or miniatures. It was also used in the illumination of Quranic manuscripts. In Quranic illumination, an eight-pointed star, also known as Rub El Hizb, is used. This is formed by overlapping two squares with one square titled over the other to make an eight-vertex, star-shaped geometrical figure. The Rub el Hizb symbol is used in the Quran to mark the division of the text into passages. Coming from the Arabic terms ‘rub', which means a quarter/one-fourth, and ‘Hizb', which means a group/ party, ‘Rub el Hizb' can be translated to denote ‘divided into quarters'.15
The star and crescent symbol have always been regarded as a very important symbol in Islam. That is why they can still be seen on the flags of some Muslim countries like Turkey, Malaysia, and Pakistan. Historically, crescent and star symbols were the symbols associated with the city of Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), which was the capital city of the Byzantine Empire or the Eastern Roman Empire. Around the end of the 13th century, the Ottoman Turks conquered and adopted the crescent and star as the emblem of their empire.16 The six-pointed star was used as a common religious and cultural symbol in many Islamic countries, up until the founding of Israel in 1948. This symbol started getting identified as restricted only to the Jewish community around the 17th century in Vienna when the Jewish quarter was formally distinguished from the rest of the city.
5. Significance of the Star Symbol in Muslim Architecture
The star symbol holds a lot of significance in Muslim architecture. The following section discusses the geometric formation, cultural and regional influences, and the symbolism behind the star symbol in Islam.
5.1. Tracing Cultural and Regional Influences
As Islam spread to many regions of the world through the conquests of the Muslim armies, by the 7th century, a wide range of land had come under their rule. This resulted in Muslim art and architecture being inspired and absorbing influences from the conquered regions. Each area developed its style, techniques, and iconography based upon those influences. This led to the development of a rich Islamic heritage, which holds a remarkable significance in the history of art and architecture.17
The symbols used in Muslim architecture stood as a representation or expression of religious and cultural beliefs, along with having an aesthetic purpose. Some Western scholars believe that Muslim architecture adopted ideas widely from Romanesque and Byzantine architecture about form and design.18According to them, Muslim architecture only made some deviations from the already existing designs to distinguish itself. But Muslim architecture is based widely upon spiritual ideas and beliefs that they want to make evident through their design. These symbols not just represent regional identity, but also show the stylistic evolution of that symbol along with its relevance to the principles of Islam.
The star symbol is not just restricted as a design element in any certain region, but rather it can be seen as a part of Muslim architecture in many different regions of the world. It can be seen in the ornamental design in Spain, in the design patterns of mosques in Iran, and as an important design element in the subcontinent. The star symbol seems to have prevailed and been widely used in the subcontinent during the sixteenth century and later.19
5.2. Geometric Formation
Geometry not just plays a part in defining the form of the star symbol, but also has roots defining the symbolism due to which this symbol was adopted within the decoration and ornamentation of Muslim architecture. Nature has always been the foremost source of inspiration in the ornamentation of Muslim architecture. Thus, divine forms like the star were adopted from the constellations within the cosmos.20
Geometry stands as the central idea behind many ornamental designs and symbols which can range from being simple, to intricate, to extremely complex forms. According to M. Ahmad (2018), the cosmological and natural order is believed to be based on geometry, and the geometrical patterns of Muslim art and architecture are believed to be a reflection and representation of the divine order. These patterns are created by repetition and symmetrical composition of a symbol or design element.
The geometric patterns are generally created from octagons, squares, circle, and revolving squares. If we look closely at the Islamic geometric patterns, it is observed that a 6-point star is created from a hexagon, 8-point star and 8-point rosette from an octagon, and a 10-point star or rosette can be created from a decagon.21
The six-pointed star, also called Hexagram, was created as a decorative element depicting harmony with two overlapping equilateral triangles. The composition of this hexagram not only portrays mathematical perfection but is also an aesthetically pleasing decorative design.
5.3. Symbolism of the star
The star symbol is believed to be a very significant symbol in Islamic ornamentation. The importance of this geometrical ornament in Islamic art has been a source of fascination and research for a long time to understand its significance in terms of aesthetics, mathematics, mysticism, and cosmology.22 The star is believed to be a geometric shape that radiates further in all directions from a central point, depicting the rays of the star spreading. This symbol is an adequate representation of Islam as the spread of its rays symbolically depicts the rapid spread of Islam in all directions.23
In Islamic ornamentation, the star is often seen extending as a repetitive pattern, or in the form of an interlacing band that forms an extensive network of the form, imitating the planetarium in the cosmos. This is believed to symbolize the Omnipresent Unity that everything starts and ends with the existence of God, who is everywhere. The star symbol is also believed to associate ideas of divine cosmos, harmony, balance, and the symbolic representation of the Omnipresent.24
6. Examples from Muslim Architecture of the Subcontinent
The star symbol is not just restricted to a design element in a certain region, but rather it can be seen as a part of Muslim architecture in many different regions of the world. The following section will look at the presence of the star symbol in the Muslim architecture of the subcontinent as an ornamental element.
6.1. Mausoleum of Humayun, Delhi India
Monuments built in the Mughal period are still remarkable in the context of architectural design and ornamentation.25 One of them was Humayun's mausoleum, which was built, in 1570, under the order of his son Akbar who became the Mughal emperor after his father's death.
Due to the origin of the Mughals from Persia, the Mughal style of architecture stands as a synthesis between the Timurid-Persian and Indian styles. Sinha (2011) talks about how the Delhi Sultanate style was one of those local Indian styles that they adopted and merged with the Persian design style. The reign of Humayun is marked with the reviving the Delhi Sultanate style of architecture which included materials and architectural design elements like red sandstone, inlays of white marble and colored stones, bud-fringed arches, lotus rosettes, jaalis or decorative perforated screens, ribbed domes or domes with lotus and pilasters, and umbrella-shaped decorative domed pavilions.26
One of the most interesting features about the ornamental design of this tomb is the presence of a six-pointed star that adorns the arch above the entrance to the West gateway of the building.
Lowry (1987) believes that the star symbol was used in the ornamentation of Humayun's tomb because, through depicting this symbol, his son Akbar wanted to pay homage to his father's immense interest in astrology. It is said that Humayun had a habit of organizing every aspect of his life after studying planetary alignment and planning his actions accordingly. The star symbol, in astrology, is taken as a representation of the perfect alignment of heavenly bodies, harmony, balance, and equality. Akbar wanted symmetrical six-pointed stars used as symbols on his father's tomb, representing ideas such as divinely guided justice and being righteous.27
Akbar might have used this symbol to gain popularity and respect of Hindus, and to give a message of harmony and co-existence to Hindus and Muslims. Other than that, an eight-pointed Najma-tul-qudus symbol can also be seen as part of the ornamental patterns used for the decoration of this tomb.
6.1.1. Analysis
In consideration of Humayun's tomb, the star symbol depicted at the front entrance is a hexagram made up of two intersecting triangles. This resembles the revered six-pointed star, which is believed to be the symbol of perfect union in Hinduism. It was also the symbol used in the mandalas to represent knowledge and wisdom. The choice of a hexagram represented on this tomb can have its roots in the fact that Hinduism and Islam are the dominating religions practiced in the subcontinent, along with some following Buddhism. It is also believed that Akbar might have used this symbol to show interfaith unity, as the hexagram is significant both for Hindus and Muslims.
Being a tomb, this building has a considerable personal choice involved in the design as compared to a building with a religious function, like the mosque. This signifies the idea that the symbol of hexagram might have been used by Akbar as a way of paying homage to his father's love for Astrology.
6.2. Wazir Khan Mosque, Lahore, Pakistan
During their reign, the Mughal emperors commissioned many religious and secular buildings, which stand as prime examples of the architectural and ornamental style of that time, along with the techniques that were widely practiced at that time.28 Under the rule of the Mughal emperor Akbar, many glorious and monumental examples of architecture were built in Lahore, like the Lahore fort and the 13 gates of the city. After Akbar, Shahjahan also carried the tradition, and the Badshahi mosque was built within the surroundings of the fort during his rule.29 Another marvel of Muslim architecture built during the Mughal rule was the Masjid Wazir Khan. It was built from 1634-1641 by Ilm-uddin Ansari, who was the chief physician in Shah Jahan's court and was also known by his title Wazir Khan, which means minister in Urdu and Persian languages. The mosque was named after him due to his association with the mosque.
The masjid Wazir Khan, located in the walled city of Lahore, near Badshahi mosque and Delhi Gate, is believed to be a marvel of Mughal art and architecture. What credits this mosque as being remarkable is the finesse of the tile work, mosaic art, and calligraphy that adorn the interior and exterior of this mosque.30 The Wazir Khan mosque was also meant to be a place that inspires the soul and raises inquisitiveness. Thus, for inculcating and reflecting these ideas, the patterns included in the ornamentation of the mosque are very detailed and intricate.31
Geometric patterns are an integral part of the ornamental design present inside the interior of Wazir Khan Mosque. These patterns are made up of simple shapes like octagonal, squares, pentagons, hexagons, and star shapes that adorn the floor of the courtyard and the prayer chamber in various interwoven styles. Floral designs are also seen in several spaces within the mosque, which symbolize paradise. These decorative patterns have been executed using the techniques of fresco, mosaic, and stucco.32
Wazir Khan Mosque has a monumental facade which is enclosed with two tall, erected minarets. The mosque consists of four minarets, one at each corner. These minarets have different techniques of embellishment used over them, which include Kasha Kari (mosaic work), mostly representing floral, geometrical, and calligraphic text on glazed tiles executed at the exterior of the mosque, and fresco paintings with similar motives in the interior.33 Other than that, calligraphic inscriptions can be seen on both sides of the main central arch, along with interplay of geometric forms, arabesque designs, and mosaic work can also be seen.
Among the geometric patterns embellishing the Wazir Khan mosque, the star symbol can be seen as the major geometric form that is a part of the ornamental design work.34A small six-pointed star enclosed within a bigger star can be seen as a repeated pattern on the minarets of the mosque. The star symbol can be seen as the central pattern on one of the exterior walls, along with intricate floral and geometric patterns that are vividly colorful.
6.2.1. Analysis
The star symbols used in the Wazir Khan Mosque are both six-pointed and eight-pointed stars, as part of the frescoes on the interior and exterior of the mosque. According to F. Khan (2020), the Wazir Khan was meant to have very aesthetically appealing ornamentation to assert the idea of a spiritual ambience for connecting with the Divine. The star symbol might have been repeatedly used in the exterior and interior decoration of this mosque due to its association with the ideas of divine cosmos, harmony, balance, and the Omnipresent.35
6.3. Bhong Mosque, Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan
Bhong is the name of a village located in Rahim Yar Khan District, the southern part of the Punjab province in Pakistan. This mosque, along with a madrasa, is believed to have been constructed in the early 1930s by a local builder, Raees Ghazi Khan. The word Bhong might have been derived from the Balochi word ‘bhongu', which means house. Ahmad, M (2018) believes that this derivation might have its significance in the fact that the mosque was built not just to pray, but also as a center where the youth of the area could receive religious knowledge.36 Around 200 local skilled craftsmen are believed to have taken part in the construction and ornamentation of the mosque. This 87-year-old mosque is believed to be a masterpiece of craftsmanship and is also called a ‘Hidden Jewel'. This mosque received the Agha Khan award for architecture in 1986, which was awarded to appreciate the efforts, skill, and usage of material used in the construction of the mosque.
The colorful interior and exterior stand as a reflection of the brilliance of color and design that is a part of the visual culture of this region. The presence of the star symbol in the ornamental design of this mosque can also be attributed to the stylistic influences of these regions, as this symbol is often used as an ornamental pattern in their architecture.37 An eight-pointed star can be seen on each side of the frontal façade of the mosque, containing the words ‘Allah' and ‘Muhammad'.
The geometric patterns in this mosque either consist of six-and eight-pointed star patterns, or rosette petals consisting of eight-and ten-pointed star patterns. The star patterns can be most evidently seen among the glass mosaic on the ceiling of the prayer hall of this mosque.38
6.3.1. Analysis
According to Ahmad (2018), the stylistic elements of architecture and ornamentation The Bhong Mosque is like those from Mughal and Ottoman architecture. Other than that, traces can be seen of inspiration taken from Iran, Spain, and the western colonial design style. The reason for incorporating the star symbol specifically in the decorative pattern of the prayer hall can be due to the symbolism of the star symbol as that of divine presence and harmony. It might also have been used on the decoration of the ceiling to replicate the sky and the presence of stars in the cosmological order.
Conclusion
The star symbol has been used in art and architecture of many cultures and religions in history, starting from the ancient times till today. Along with that, it carries immense significance in Muslim art and architecture all over the world. This symbol was adopted in many different cultures and religions that associated a certain symbolism or meaning with it.
The star symbol is also an important element used for ornamentation in Muslim architecture built in the subcontinent. It is believed to be a specimen of perfection achieved through geometry.39 It also symbolizes the cosmos, the concepts of balance and harmony, and divine presence.
The star symbol was not a symbol used by the Muslims as a random choice, but it carries philosophical and religious symbolism. The star symbol, along with other decorative symbols used in Muslim architecture, carries esoteric significance. To learn the symbolism, it becomes important to study the star symbol in detail. Only by having the correct knowledge and analysis can it become possible to interpret these symbols correctly, keeping in view the spiritual philosophy they represent.
Notes and References
1 Mamoona Khan, Wazir Khan Mosque: Rediscovered (Pakistan Writers Co-Operative Society, 2011).
2 Anthony J. Lee, "Islamic star patterns," Muqarnas (1987): 182-197.
3 Farah Khan,"Wazir Khan Mosque: A Soul inspiration for the believers," Journal of Research and Reviews in Social Sciences Pakistan (2020):768-787.
4 H. Ahmad, 2010. Hassan Fathy and Continuity in Islamic Architecture: The Birth of a New Modern (New Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 2010).
5 S.M. Akhtar, "Islamic Architecture at the Crossroads," in Islamic Architecture at the Crossroads, ed. S.M. Akhtar (New Delhi: Wellworth Books International, 2011), 127-136.
6 Ibid.
7 Khan, Wazir Khan Mosque: Rediscovered.
8 Ibid.
9 Ahmad, Hassan Fathy and Continuity.
10 Ibid.
11 Khan, Wazir Khan Mosque: Rediscovered.
12 Khan, Wazir Khan Mosque: Rediscovered.
13 Diana Wolkstein and Samuel Naoh Kramer, Inanna: Queen of Heaven and Earth: Her Stories and Hymns from Sumer (London: Rider, 1984).
14 Behnam Ghasemzadeh, Atefah Fathebaghali, and Ali Tarvirdinassab, "Symbols and Signs in Islamic Architecture," European Review of Artistic Studies (2013): 62-78.
15 Ibid.
16 Akhtar, Islamic Architecture at the Crossroads.
17 Akhtar, Islamic Architecture at the Crossroads.
18 Ghasemzadeh, Fathebaghali, and Tarvirdinassab, "Symbols and Signs.”
19 Ibid.
20 Khan, Wazir Khan Mosque: Rediscovered.
21 Ahmad, Hassan Fathy and Continuity.
22 Lee, “Islamic Star Patterns.”
23 Akhtar, Islamic Architecture at the Crossroads.
24 Khan, Wazir Khan Mosque: Rediscovered.
25 Rahul Mehta, "Architectural Study of Humayun's Tomb and its Restoration," International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts (2022): 723-727.
26 S.S. Sinha, Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri: Monuments, Cities and Connected Histories (New Delhi: Pan Macmillan, 2021).
27 Glen. D. Lowry, "Humayun's Tomb: Form, Function and Meaning in Early Mughal Architecture," Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture (1987): 133-148.
28 Khan, Wazir Khan Mosque: Rediscovered.
29 Farah Khan, "Wazir Khan Mosque: A Soul inspiration for the believers," Journal of Research and Reviews in Social Sciences Pakistan (2020): 768-787.
30 Khan, Wazir Khan Mosque: Rediscovered.
31 Khan, “Wazir Khan Mosque.”
32 M. Ahsan Bilal, "Kashi-kari at the Mosque Wazir Khan Lahore," Majallah-e-Tahqiq: Research Journal of the Faculty of Oriental Learning (2017) 3-14.
33 Ibid.
34 Khan, “Wazir Khan Mosque.”
35 Khan, Wazir Khan Mosque: Rediscovered.
36 M. Ahmad et al., "Study of the ornamentation of Bhong Mosque for the survival of Decorative patterns in Islamic architecture," Frontiers of Architectural Research (2018).
37 Ibid
38 Ahmad et al., “Study of the Ornamentation.”
39 Khan, Wazir Khan Mosque: Rediscovered.
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