Content area
The present study examined any possible relationship between teachers’ emotional contagion and their learners’ achievement and motivation for learning English as a foreign language (EFL). In addition, it explored the predictability of learners’ foreign language motivation and achievements in terms of their respective teachers’ emotional contagion. Twenty EFL teachers were asked to fill out the emotional contagion scale (Doherty, Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 21:131–154, 1997) to measure the levels of emotional contagion among them. Also, ten copies of the academic motivation scale questionnaire (Vallerand et al., Educational and Psychological Measurement 52:1003–1017, 1992) were distributed among ten learners of each teacher. Moreover, results from the performance of students in their final language achievement test were collected and analyzed. The study found that teachers' emotional contagion significantly influenced learners’ motivation and achievement scores, with emotional contagion being a strong predictor of these outcomes. These findings highlight the role of emotional dynamics in the language learning environment. Conclusions are drawn on how exploring teachers’ emotional contagion and how students perceive it can lead to a more positive and engaging language learning environment.
Introduction
Emotional contagion has gained increasing popularity over the years, inviting scholars to pose constructive questions to improve the underlying structures in different sections. Levy and Nail (1993) were the first to introduce the term “contagion” as a psychological phenomenon describing the catchiness of behaviors, perspectives, emotions, and actions among social groups or connected people. Burgess et al. (2018) argued that social contagion has become a widely recognized, universal concept in psychology and stressed the need to reflect on this phenomenon in educational contexts. As one of the sub-branches of social contagion, emotional contagion refers to the automatic yielding to others’ emotions, behavioral and facial expressions, and postures. In fact, a contagious state of emotions allows them to be transmitted between individuals as the nodes in a friendship network and transform social ties (Ryan, 2001).
Contagion in social groups may result in the alignment of members’ emotional states or behaviors with other members or the leader (Burgess et al., 2018; Panadero & Jarvela, 2015). Tee (2015) also emphasizes that behavioral alignment with other participants occurs through emotional transmission. In the same vein of research, Cheng et al. (2012) suggested that the contagiousness nature of emotions can be further expanded and related to leadership as well; thus, leaders can employ this fact to their advantage to either positively or negatively influence their employees or followers (Mindeguia et al., 2021; Toker & Gorener, 2022). Recently, researchers have been attempting to shed light on the relationship between emotional contagion and the demonstration of leadership skills in teachers. In this line of discussion, Paganin et al. (2023) argued that during the pandemic, emotional contagion between principals and teachers enormously impacted teachers’ predisposition for online language teaching, teamwork, and conserving coherence in their professional activities. According to the paper, teamwork and cohesion were profoundly facilitated by showing positive affection from authorities. Kariou et al. (2021) suggested that practicing the teaching profession can be demanding and lead to emotional burnout. The same fact applies to students who fail to properly feel a sense of identification or belonging to the group. In these times, teachers can ameliorate the situations by exercising emotional contagion, a key factor of social influence (Vijayalakshmi & Bhattacharyya, 2012). Research shows the need for further investigation related to the contagion of positive emotions in the context of school or any other educational setting (Burgess et al., 2018). The emotional contagion mechanism has no boundaries and does not work in a hierarchical order; it will encapsulate various organizational and leadership achievements (Tee, 2015).
Teachers play a critical role in the classroom, and their emotional state can significantly impact student attitudes and motivation toward learning. Research suggests that students who perceive their teacher to be satisfied with their life and chosen profession report higher levels of motivation and positivity towards the subject matter (Gkonou & Mercer, 2017). Teachers who find teaching rewarding and enjoyable are more likely to exhibit behaviors such as smiling and enthusiasm, which can regulate the social and emotional atmosphere in the classroom (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014). Upon realizing the teacher’s confirmation, students positively display effective cognitive learning and state motivation (Dewaele, 2020; Goodboy & Myers, 2008; Houser & Waldbuesser, 2017); furthermore, in such classes, students found teachers supportive of them (Goldman & Goodboy, 2014).
Teachers as classroom leaders may also leave marked effects on students’ classroom performance by developing efficient emotional contagion strategies. Emotions are also significantly intertwined with Second Language Acquisition (SLA). Brown and White (2010) mentioned that emotional understanding in SLA happens while experiencing language learning within the academic context. The researchers reaffirmed that emotional interpretations can impact SLA and its dynamicity. Studies have shown that demonstrating positive emotions such as enjoyment and happiness in foreign language learning classes can boost learning opportunities for learners (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014).
Emotional contagion has deep roots in learning quality and learners’ responsiveness in classrooms. Research shows that emotional presence, as suggested by Cleveland-Innes and Campbell (2012), is an inseparable factor in the learning procedure and should be noticed. Furthermore, the research clearly defines emotional contagion and its involvement in various environments. Nonetheless, a limited body of research exists on the effectiveness of emotional contagion on learners’ responsiveness, motivation, and thirst for demonstrating a better performance in ELT classes. Boosting motivation is an effective way of boosting learning opportunities in students. Knowing that teachers'and students'emotional status could be contagious, it is mandatory to understudy the parts that emotional contagion can influence. As our knowledge serves correctly, the relationships between fostering safe emotional contagion status, motivation, and classroom achievements have not been studied sufficiently. Preparing an optimal language learning environment where students can comfortably contribute to classroom activities is critical and rewarding.
As the effects of emotional contagion on students’ psychological well-being, achievement, and motivation are discussed, it is hoped that teachers will also be apprised of the pronounced effects of emotional contagion. As classroom leaders, teachers can assuage emotional burnout in their students and encourage healthy academic engagement through effective representation of positive emotional feedback. Our findings suggest that emotional contagion is not only a psychological faculty but also a critical factor in boosting performance qualities, attitudes, behaviors, and emotional states, which can substantially contribute to improving teaching practice, learners’ quality of learning, and motivation. The study draws attention to the effectiveness of emotional contagion in ELT classrooms and emphasizes the significance of taking a dynamic teaching approach in which emotional contagion is included. This paper introduces emotional contagion and its relevance to the ELT context. The main points of studying emotional contagion in English language learning classrooms have been covered, showing the benefits of using emotional contagion for teachers and students. The findings have implications both for students and teacher training programs.
Emotional contagion
Emotion contagion is defined as the reflexive manifestation of the same behavior by other individuals. In other words, when other individuals copy an exact behavior, emotion, or facial expression, this phenomenon will be recognized as “emotion contagion” (Herrando & Constantinides, 2021; Moskowitz & Dewaele, 2021). Hasford et al. (2015) mentioned that the contagion property of the emotional contagion phenomenon can be explained through the lens of contagion law, which states that the transference of the features will happen reciprocally between the subjects via actual relationships. According to the literature, automatic mimicry enables individuals to identify emotions and share feelings (Schuler et al., 2016). Facial expression can also be regarded as one of the mediators of emotion culturally, since by observing facial expressions, the intended emotions are also understood, whether expectations, anger, joy, or sadness. The contagiousness of emotions allows them to consciously or unconsciously affect or be affected by other sensations (Hatfield et al., 1993). The construct of emotional contagion was first put into motion by Hatfield et al. (1993) as the unconscious ability to synchronize expressions, actions, and movements or align with others’ emotions through emotional blending. Emotional contagion can happen via various communication channels, whether aural or visual.
That is the exact reason why listening to music can arouse intense emotional reactions, as the emotional responses have been activated in the listener (Juslin & Lauka, 2004). Despite the complexity of emotions, whether they are explained openly or suppressed within the individuals, people can still understand other emotions and even predict their next actions through their way of speech and word articulation, body language, facial expressions, gestures of any kind including hand gestures, and body gestures; even the eye contact, or the eye gaze can be a good trace for humans to realize the true emotional status of their contacts. This trend continues like a cycle among people until it creates emotional contagion (Prochazkova & Kret, 2017). The interplay of emotional contagion will subsequently bring about certain outcomes in the communities; emotional contagion in mutual relationships will affect the evaluative attitudes toward specific subjects, services, or products and cooperation levels among teammates (Liu et al., 2019). According to their personality characteristics and individual differences hypothesis, some people are good transmitters; on the other side, some people are good catchers of emotional responses. The ability to transmit emotions to other people seems to be an unconscious, innate ability within some individuals. According to Gump and Kulik (1997), novel situations could trigger affiliate appraisals along with expressive emotional reactions between people; the social power interaction shows off in the process of efficiency of affiliation amongst individuals. But as Doherty et al. (1995) rightfully mentioned, the prerequisite to creating emotional contagion would be paying enough attention to the other speaker in the sense that they are in an interrelated communication rather than an independent speaker. Consequently, people would be aware of other people’s emotional reactions and their own emotional responses toward emotional arousers like smiles and facial expressions, which are the results of conscious awareness. As Hatfield et al. (1992) mention, emotional contagion may also stimulate behavioral aspects of emotions according to the context. Another perspective toward emotional contagion has been brought to the picture, which postulates that emotional contagion could be observed in times when people have a disposition to grab each other’s emotional attention that could be followed by subjective emotional expressions, behavioral reactions, and other emotional responses (Hatfield et al., 1992).
Emotional contagion, motivation, and student achievement
Emotion is one of the essential elements in the educational setting for both students and teachers. In one of the studies conducted by Wu et al., (2024), the researchers emphasized that emotional burnout in students can hinder their engagement in classroom activities. Li et al. (2021) believe that working under strenuous pressure in academic contexts can lead to the emergence of emotional burnout. Emotional burnout is a psychological status caused by exposure to persistent stressors (Shaufeli et al., 2009). Scholars believe that emotional burnout varies across subjects, and its degree depends on students’ motivation, interest, and level of engagement in classroom activities (Wu et al., 2024). Researchers have started to explore burnout in the context of EFL learning and have offered ways to impede its further progress among students (Li, 2022; Li & Zhang, 2024; Li et al., 2022; Liu, 2023). Empirical data suggests that providing effective support and emotional feedback to students can decrease burnout and allay its effects on students (Karimi & Fallah, 2021; Li & Xu, 2019; Pan et al., 2023). As supported by evidence, we suggest that positive emotional contagion can also influence students’ motivation for language learning and, directly or indirectly, as Karimi and Fallah (2021) offered, alleviate burnout effects in students and urge them to proceed. To the best of our knowledge, the interplay between the significant role of emotional contagion, classroom achievements, and motivation has been scarcely studied, and there is still room to study the constructs further.
Emotional contagion, educational contexts, and SLA
When it comes to linking emotions to the second language learning environment, valuable scholarly attempts have been made to elaborate on the inseparable contributions of positive emotions to learning (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012). It is also recommended that self-motivation is influenced as students feel thrilled to be active and find their aspirations to continue (Saito et al., 2018). Likewise, the researchers suggest that positive emotional presence while teaching language can directly affect learning and weaken negative emotions (Saito et al., 2018). Nevertheless, language learning classrooms are still filled with other emotions such as shame, jealousy, boredom, surprise, guilt, admiration, relief, etc. Teimouri (2018) examined the relationship between shame and guilt in second-language learners. Interestingly, the findings suggested that guilt was positively correlated with positive academic performance and motivation, whereas shame prevented learners from academic progress. Dewaele et al. (2018) broadened their research domain and understudied the probable relationships between enjoyment while learning a language and anxiety in 189 British students attending foreign language learning classes. The research showed a negative relationship between the two emotions and positively linked the enjoyment to the student’s achievements in the classroom (Dewaele et al., 2018).
In the case of second language learning classrooms, there is still a dearth of research on emotional contagion and learners’ achievements. In an online survey, researchers Moskowitz and Dewaele (2021) investigated the relationship between students’ motivation and attitudes toward SLA and teacher’s happiness. The online survey was distributed among 19 adult students attending SLA classes worldwide. The results showed that teacher’s emotional states and students’ achievements, motivations, and attitudes are significantly interlinked (Moskowitz & Dewaele, 2021; Wang et al., 2021). Likewise, teachers'happiness contagion influences language learners'perceptions of teachers. Thus, as recommended by the scholars, teachers not only should turn the language learning class into a positive and memorable experience but also should boost their mental and emotional state to encourage more participation and classroom achievement (Moskowitz & Dewaele, 2021; Wang et al., 2021). In another study, researchers studied other forms of emotional contagion, such as automatic mimicry in teacher-student interaction (Talebzadeh et al., 2020). The report indicated that enjoyment contagion could happen through gestures, postures, smiling, or vocalic expressions; however, mimicry does not necessarily equal enjoyment in class. However, they agreed that emotional contagion consistently occurs between students and teachers through facial expressions while having conversations (Talebzadeh et al., 2020).
In this paper, some gaps in literature were addressed, discussing the importance of exercising positive emotional responses in the classroom and their effects on students’ academic achievement. Although various studies have been conducted on emotional contagion and its undeniable effects on others, the effects of emotional contagion in the context of second language learning classrooms have been scarcely studied. The current research aims to understand whether teachers can influence students’ educational achievements by practicing positive emotional contagion. Researchers proved that positive emotional reactions can suppress emotional burnout among students (Karimi & Fallah, 2021). Nevertheless, the effects of such actions on academic performance, achievements and students’ motivation are still in a shade of doubt. Thus, researchers of this study approached this question to establish a reasonable explanation and statistically study the significance of emotional contagion on learner achievements. The first research question attempts to shed light on the possible effects of emotional contagion on complex psychological constructs such as motivation. During the second question, a quantitative approach was taken toward the matter, and the statistical backgrounds (students’ level of motivation and academic achievement) were perused. To further support our analysis, we have also associated the predictability of learners’ foreign language motivation and achievements regarding teachers’ emotional contagion.
Hence, the present research examined any possible relationship between teachers’ emotional contagion and their learners’ achievement and motivation in learning English as a foreign language. Also, the predictability of learners’ foreign language motivation and achievements regarding teachers’ emotional contagion was investigated. Accordingly, the following research questions were generated:
Does teachers’ emotional contagion significantly affect classroom achievement among foreign language learners?
Is there any significant relationship between EFL teachers’ emotional contagion and their learners’ motivation for foreign language learning?
What is the predictability of learners’ foreign language motivation and achievements regarding teachers’ emotional contagion?
Method
The present study used a survey research method to investigate the relationship between EFL teachers’ emotional contagion and their students’ motivation and achievement. Besides cost-effectiveness and easy administration, a survey was applied for the purposes of the present study as it could provide us with the necessary quantitative data and was effortlessly replicable in other contexts. Thirty teachers were asked to fill out the emotional contagion scale (Doherty, 1997) to measure their emotional contagion. Besides, learners of each teacher were asked to complete a motivation questionnaire by the end of treatment sessions. In addition, the final achievements of the students were gathered, and the data were evaluated by quantitative research methods using the software Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
Study context and participants
This study was conducted at the language center of Salman Farsi University of Kazerun, Iran. Extra-curricular English courses are held at the language center and University students can enroll in classes after they are administered the language placement test. The participants of this study consisted of 30 EFL teachers and 210 intermediate language learners of English as a Foreign Language. Convenience sampling was the primary reason for choosing the sample size as these teachers and their respective students were at our disposal. The thoughtful study design, as well as the rather large sample size, could mitigate the major disadvantages of convenience sampling, including the limited representativeness and the increased risk of bias (Emerson, 2021). Moreover, the process of ethical approval and informed consent for this study was observed by giving the participants adequate information concerning the study, providing adequate opportunity for the participants to consider all options, responding to the participant's questions, ensuring that they have comprehended this information, and finally obtaining their voluntary agreement.
Hence, all the intermediate classes at the time were considered for study. The students’ level of proficiency was intermediate, and they studied English as a foreign language for four hours a week at the language center. The language center ran an Oxford Placement Test (OPT) before these students were registered, and based on the results, the students were assigned to different proficiency levels. Likewise, teachers who participated in this study had two to ten years of teaching experience. The reason for choosing intermediate learners as the participants in this study was generally due to the availability of students at this level. In fact, the number of learners at this level is more than that of advanced learners, which can increase the possibility of having a comprehensive sample of differing personality types. In addition, these students were at an age where they could truly understand the meaning of motivation. Learners were 18–22 years old, male and female undergraduate students with BS and BA degrees at Salman Farsi University. Teachers were 20 to 30 years old and undergraduates in BA or MA in TESOL.
Instruments
As it was mentioned, a survey research method was used to collect and analyze data from the participants. Therefore, the instruments used in this study were basically two questionnaires namely,the academic motivation scale and the emotional contagion scale.
Academic motivation scale (AMS)
The researcher used the academic motivation scale (AMS) for this study (AMS, Vallerand et al., 1992).AMS is a 28-item questionnaire measuring an individual’s internal and external motivation. Items were scored on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from “Does not correspond at all” to “Corresponds exactly.” (AMS, Vallerand et al., 1992). The reliability of the academic motivation questionnaire in the present context was calculated through the KR-21 method and amounted to 0.93.
The Emotional Contagion Scale
The Emotional Contagion Scale is a 15-item questionnaire that measures “individual differences in susceptibility to catching the emotions of others” (Doherty, 1997, p.149). It examines the “mimetic tendency to five basic emotions (love, happiness, fear, anger, and sadness)” (p.149). It is “a reliable and valid measure that can be easily and effectively used across various settings, samples, and studies. For most purposes, the EC Scale can be easily administered, scored, and interpreted in under five minutes” (p.149). The items are scored on a five-point Likert scale ranging from “Never = 1” to “Always = 5”.
Validity of the instruments
The questionnaires’ items were validated by expert opinion followed by the Content Validity Ratio (CVR) measurement (Lawshe, 1975). Five faculty members (Departments of Psychology and Education) were requested to review the items. Then, to assess the relevance and representativeness of the items, CVR was calculated by determining the number of experts who rate an item as essential or relevant, divided by 5 (the total number of experts). In measuring the CVR, the specialists rated each item as 1 = essential, 2 = useful but not essential, or 3 = not essential. All of the items received CVR scores of 0.99 or higher, which were acceptable and remained in the questionnaire based on the Lawshe (1975) Table.
Data collection and analysis
Thirty teachers were asked to fill out the Emotional Contagion Scale (Doherty, 1997) to measure their emotional contagion. Also, copies of the adapted Academic Motivation Scale questionnaire (AMS, Vallerand et al., 1992) were distributed among the learners of each teacher, and it took them 20 min to complete. The researchers ensured the participants that the survey responses would not affect their evaluation and guaranteed the confidentiality of their responses, which would merely serve for research purposes. Consequently, 210 questionnaires that were returned to the researchers comprised the final dataset and were subjected to statistical analysis. Moreover, student performance results in their final achievement test were collected and analyzed.
It should be mentioned that all the students in all the groups were homogeneous in terms of their proficiency levels based on their results on the placement tests administered at the institute, which were scrutinized before the beginning of the study. Besides, the achievement scores of their previous term were taken as the pretest of the study and were analyzed statistically to ensure their initial homogeneity. Extreme cases were removed from the study calculations. In addition, as mentioned above, the students and the teachers were homogeneous in all the aspects important to the study, and the teaching materials, strategies, and procedures were the same in all the classes due to the regulations and observations of the institute.
In order to analyze the data, the teachers were divided into three groups based on their answers to the emotional contagion questionnaire. Afterward, the student's achievement scores were compared in the three groups to find any probable significant differences due to the different emotional contagion levels of their respective teachers. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was conducted to examine if there were significant differences in achievement scores among the three groups. In addition, the Scheffe post hoc test was run to compare the groups one by one and determine where the difference (if any) lies. While ANOVA enabled us to evaluate the overall effect, the regression model, with a p-value for each mean could tell us which of them is different from the reference one immediately. Also, the relationship between the students’ motivational levels assessed through the motivation questionnaire and the teachers’ emotional contagion was calculated using the Pearson correlation to determine whether there was a probable significant correlation between these two variables. Furthermore, the predictability of learners’ foreign language motivation and achievements in terms of teachers’ emotional contagion was examined through a regression test.
Results
First, the range of teachers’ emotional contagion scores was determined. The lowest and the highest mean scores were 2.67 and 4.87, respectively. The range was divided into three equal parts: the range from the lowest mean score to the lower-middle value was considered the Low Group, the Range from the lower-middle value to the upper-middle value was considered the Mid Group, and the Range from the upper-middle value to the highest mean score was the High Group. Table 1 below presents the classification of the teachers based on their emotional contagion, which is measured by their mean scores.
Table 1. Teachers’ classification based on their emotional contagion
f | % | |
|---|---|---|
Low Group | 9 | 30.0 |
Mid Group | 12 | 40.0 |
High Group | 9 | 30.0 |
Total | 30 | 100.0 |
As shown in Table 1, 30% of the teachers belonged to the Low Group, with mean scores ranging from 2.67 to 3.40. Forty percent of the teachers belonged to the Mid Group, with mean scores ranging from 3.41 to 4.13. Another 30% of the teachers belonged to the High Group, with mean scores ranging from 4.14 to 4.87. In the subsequent phase of the study, the descriptive statistics were calculated to analyze the achievement scores of EFL learners in three different classes, each taught by a teacher with a different level of emotional contagion. The findings of this analysis are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the achievement test scores
High emotion contagion | Mid emotion contagion | Low emotion contagion | |
|---|---|---|---|
N Valid | 63 | 84 | 63 |
Mean | 16.95 | 15.90 | 14.47 |
Std. Deviation | 1.55 | 1.33 | 1.45 |
Skewness | – 0.998 | – 0.229 | 0.791 |
Kurtosis | 0.371 | 0.408 | 0.327 |
Minimum | 13.00 | 12.00 | 12.00 |
Maximum | 19.00 | 19.00 | 18.00 |
The descriptive statistics for the achievement test scores across the three emotional contagion groups (high, mid, and low) revealed differences in student performance. The high emotional contagion group had the highest mean score (M = 16.95, SD = 1.55), followed by the mid emotional contagion group (M = 15.90, SD = 1.33), and the low emotional contagion group, which had the lowest mean score (M = 14.47, SD = 1.45). This suggested that higher emotional contagion in teachers was associated with better student achievement. The standard deviations indicated that the mid-emotional contagion group had the least variability (SD = 1.33), which meant their scores were more tightly clustered around the mean, while the high (SD = 1.55) and low (SD = 1.45) contagion groups had slightly more dispersed scores.
Before running the main statistical tests to answer the research questions, the assumption of normality was examined first. The skewness and kurtosis measures for the EFL learners’ motivation and achievement scores were between – 2 and + 2, so according to Tabachnick et al. (2013), the data met the normality assumption. Moreover, the homogeneity of variances was examined using the Levene statistic. The results of the homogeneity of Variance test are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Test of Homogeneity of Variances
LeveneStatistic | df1 | df2 | Sig | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Achievement Test Based on Median and with adjusted df | 0.985 | 2 | 193.34 | 0.375 |
Academic Motivation Based on Median and with adjusted df | 4.590 | 2 | 192.82 | 0.020 |
The Test of Homogeneity of Variances was conducted to examine whether the variances of the groups were equal for both the achievement test and the total academic motivation. For the achievement test, Levene’s test was not significant, F (2193.34) = 0.985, p = 0.375, which indicated that the assumption of homogeneity of variances was met. Moreover, Levene’s test was not significant for the academic motivation, F (2192.82) = 4.590, p = 0.020. Since the alpha value was set to 0.01, this result does not indicate a violation of the homogeneity assumption at the more stringent significance level. Therefore, for both the achievement test and academic motivation, it could be concluded that the assumption of equal variances holds according to the specified alpha level, α = 0.01.
The first research question
RQ1. Does teachers’ emotional contagion significantly affect classroom achievement among foreign language learners?
The ANOVA test was run to see if there was a significant difference in achievement scores among the three groups. The results are presented in Table 4 below.
Table 4. ANOVA for the achievement scores
Sum of Squares | df | Mean Square | F | Sig | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Between Groups | 194.971 | 2 | 97.486 | 46.950* | 0.000 |
Within Groups | 429.810 | 207 | 2.076 | ||
Total | 624.781 | 209 |
*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level
As shown in Table 4, ANOVA results indicated that there was a significant difference in achievement scores among the three groups (p < 0.05). The between-groups sum of squares was 194.971, which indicated that there was a substantial variation in achievement scores explained by the teachers’ different levels of emotional contagion. The within-groups sum of squares was 429.810, which represented the unexplained variation. The statistical analysis suggested that teachers’ emotional contagion statistically affected EFL learners’ classroom achievement. Students in classes taught by teachers with high and mid-emotional contagion tended to have higher achievement scores than those taught by teachers with low emotional contagion. The results of the Scheffe post-hoc test are presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Multiple Comparisons of Learners'Achievement Scores Based on Teachers'Emotional Contagion
Group Comparison | Mean Difference (I-J) | SE | p-value | 95% CI (Lower Bound) | 95% CI (Upper Bound) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
High vs. Mid | 1.05* | 0.24 | 0.000 | 0.46 | 1.64 |
High vs. Low | 2.48* | 0.26 | 0.000 | 1.84 | 3.11 |
Mid vs. High | – 1.05* | 0.24 | 0.000 | – 1.64 | – 0.46 |
Mid vs. Low | 1.43* | 0.24 | 0.000 | 0.84 | 2.02 |
Low vs. High | – 2.48* | 0.26 | 0.000 | – 3.11 | – 1.84 |
Low vs. Mid | – 1.43* | 0.24 | 0.000 | – 2.02 | – 0.84 |
*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level
The Scheffe posthoc test revealed significant differences in achievement scores across all emotional contagion groups. The learners taught by teachers with high emotional contagion scored significantly higher in achievement compared to both the mid and low-emotional contagion groups (p < 0.05). Additionally, learners in the mid-emotion contagion group performed significantly better than those in the low-emotion contagion group (p < 0.05). These results indicated that higher emotional contagion from teachers is associated with improved student achievement.
The second research question
RQ2. Is there a statistically significant difference in learners’ motivation for foreign language learning based on the level of EFL teachers’ emotional contagion (low, mid, high)? A one-way- ANOVA was run to answer the second research question, and the results are depicted in Table 6 below.
Table 6. ANOVA for the learners’ motivation
Sum of Squares | df | Mean Square | F | Sig | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Intrinsic motivation to know | Between Groups | 29.544 | 2 | 14.77 | 35.18* | 0.000 |
Within Groups | 86.901 | 207 | 0.42 | |||
Total | 116.445 | 209 | ||||
intrinsic motivation toward accomplishment | Between Groups | 20.756 | 2 | 10.37 | 28.11* | 0.000 |
Within Groups | 76.400 | 207 | 0.36 | |||
Total | 97.156 | 209 | ||||
Intrinsicmotivationtoexperiencestimulation | Between Groups | 23.384 | 2 | 11.69 | 34.33* | 0.000 |
Within Groups | 70.486 | 207 | 0.34 | |||
Total | 93.870 | 209 | ||||
Extrinsicmotivationidentified | Between Groups | 3.755 | 2 | 1.87 | 5.24* | 0.006 |
Within Groups | 74.043 | 207 | 0.35 | |||
Total | 77.798 | 209 | ||||
Extrinsicmotivationintrojected | Between Groups | 20.311 | 2 | 10.15 | 30.40* | 0.000 |
Within Groups | 69.143 | 207 | 0.33 | |||
Total | 89.454 | 209 | ||||
Extrinsicmotivationexternalregulation | Between Groups | 6.993 | 2 | 3.49 | 10.19* | 0.000 |
Within Groups | 71.002 | 207 | 0.34 | |||
Total | 77.996 | 209 | ||||
Total Motivation | Between Groups | 3.955 | 2 | 1.97 | 14.47* | 0.000 |
Within Groups | 28.284 | 207 | 0.13 | |||
Total | 32.239 | 209 | ||||
*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level
For the intrinsic motivation to know, there was a statistically significant difference between the groups, F (2, 207) = 35.18, p < 0.05. Similarly, the intrinsic motivation toward accomplishment, F (2, 207) = 28.11, p < 0.05, and intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation, F (2, 207) = 34.33, p < 0.05, also showed significant differences. For the extrinsic motivation, significant differences were found for identified motivation, F (2, 207) = 5.24, p = 0.006, introjected motivation, F (2, 207) = 30.40, p < 0.05, and external regulation, F (2, 207) = 10.19, p < 0.05. Finally, total motivation also showed a significant difference between groups, F (2, 207) = 14.47, p < 0.05. These results suggested that learners’ motivation significantly varied based on their teachers’ emotional contagion across both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation dimensions. The results of the Scheffe post-hoc test are given in Table 7.
Table 7. Multiple Comparisons of Learners'Motivation Based on Teachers'Emotional Contagion (Scheffe)
Motivation Type | Group Comparison | Mean Difference (I-J) | SE | p-value | 95% CI (Lower Bound) | 95% CI (Upper Bound) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Intrinsic Motivation to Know | High vs. Mid | 0.50* | 0.11 | 0.000 | 0.23 | 0.77 |
High vs. Low | 0.97* | 0.12 | 0.000 | 0.68 | 1.25 | |
Mid vs. Low | 0.47* | 0.11 | 0.000 | 0.20 | 0.73 | |
Intrinsic Motivation Toward Accomplishment | High vs. Mid | 0.30* | 0.10 | 0.014 | 0.05 | 0.55 |
High vs. Low | 0.80* | 0.11 | 0.000 | 0.53 | 1.07 | |
Mid vs. Low | 0.50* | 0.10 | 0.000 | 0.25 | 0.75 | |
Intrinsic Motivation to Experience Stimulation | High vs. Mid | 0.45* | 0.10 | 0.000 | 0.21 | 0.69 |
High vs. Low | 0.86* | 0.10 | 0.000 | 0.60 | 1.12 | |
Mid vs. Low | 0.41* | 0.10 | 0.000 | 0.17 | 0.65 | |
Extrinsic Motivation Identified | High vs. Low | 0.35* | 0.11 | 0.006 | 0.08 | 0.61 |
Extrinsic Motivation Introjected | High vs. Mid | 0.26* | 0.10 | 0.026 | 0.02 | 0.50 |
High vs. Low | 0.79* | 0.10 | 0.000 | 0.53 | 1.04 | |
Mid vs. Low | 0.52* | 0.10 | 0.000 | 0.29 | 0.76 | |
Extrinsic Motivation External Regulation | High vs. Low | 0.45* | 0.10 | 0.000 | 0.20 | 0.71 |
Mid vs. Low | 0.33* | 0.10 | 0.004 | 0.09 | 0.57 | |
Total Motivation | High vs. Mid | 0.18* | 0.06 | 0.014 | 0.03 | 0.33 |
High vs. Low | 0.35* | 0.07 | 0.000 | 0.19 | 0.52 | |
Mid vs. Low | 0.17* | 0.06 | 0.021 | 0.02 | 0.32 |
*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level
The results of the Scheffe post-hoc test indicated significant differences across most dimensions of motivation based on teachers’ emotional contagion. The learners taught by teachers with high emotional contagion scored significantly higher on all intrinsic motivation subscales (e.g., to know, toward accomplishment, and to experience stimulation) as compared to those with mid or low emotional contagion (p < 0.05). Similarly, significant differences were found for extrinsic motivation, particularly for introjected regulation and external regulation and high emotional contagion groups outperformed the others. Total motivation also showed significant differences between high and low and high and mid emotional contagion groups. These findings suggested that teachers’ emotional contagion was positively associated with higher levels of learner motivation (both intrinsic and extrinsic), and there were substantial differences between groups.
The third research question
RQ3. What is the predictability of learners’ foreign language motivation and achievements in terms of teachers’ emotional contagion? Table 8 below presents the results from the regression analysis run to find out about the predictability of motivation and achievement in terms of emotional contagion. Before conducting the regression analyses, all necessary assumptions were checked and met. These assumptions included linearity, normality of residuals, homoscedasticity, and absence of multicollinearity values.
Table 8. Regression analysis to determine the predictability of motivation and achievement
Dependent Variable | B | Std. Error | Beta | t | Sig |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Intrinsic Motivation to Know | 0.484 | 0.058 | 0.504 | 8.407 | 0.000 |
Intrinsic Motivation to Accomplish | 0.401 | 0.054 | 0.456 | 7.398 | 0.000 |
Intrinsic Motivation to Experience Stimulation | 0.431 | 0.052 | 0.499 | 8.301 | 0.000 |
Extrinsic Motivation (Identified) | 0.173 | 0.053 | 0.220 | 3.248 | 0.001 |
Extrinsic Motivation (Introjected) | 0.393 | 0.052 | 0.466 | 7.601 | 0.000 |
Extrinsic Motivation (External Regulation) | 0.226 | 0.052 | 0.287 | 4.329 | 0.000 |
A motivation | – 0.867 | 0.043 | – 0.813 | – 20.160 | 0.000 |
Total Motivation | 0.177 | 0.033 | 0.350 | 5.393 | 0.000 |
Achievement Score | 1.238 | 0.128 | 0.556 | 9.647 | 0.000 |
B Unstandardized Coefficients; Beta Standardized Coefficients. p <.05 for all variables
The regression analysis showed that teachers’ emotional contagion significantly predicted various components of learners’ motivation and achievement. For the intrinsic motivation, emotional contagion positively predicted motivation to know which showed the strongest effect (β = 0.504, p < 0.05), to accomplish (β = 0.456, p < 0.05), and to experience stimulation (β = 0.499, p < 0.05). Similarly, extrinsic motivation (identified, introjected, and external regulation) is also positively predicted, and introjected motivation showed the strongest effect (β = 0.466, p < 0.05). However, emotional contagion negatively predicted motivation (β = 0.813, p < 0.05), which indicated that higher emotional contagion in teachers leads to decreased learner motivation. Finally, learners’ total motivation (β = 0.350, p < 0.05) and achievement scores (β = 0.556, p < 0.05) are both significantly and positively predicted by teachers’ emotional contagion, which indicates that increased emotional contagion is associated with higher motivation and achievement.
Discussion and conclusion
Results from the present study demonstrated a substantial variation in EFL learners’ achievement scores, which can be accounted for by the teachers’ different levels of emotional contagion. In other words, higher levels of emotional contagion among teachers can significantly improve their students’ classroom achievements regarding test results. In addition, a significant and strong relationship was found between EFL teachers’ emotional contagion and their respective learners’ motivation for foreign language learning. These findings are in line with those of Gkonou and Mercer (2017) and Houser and Waldbuesser (2017). Goodboy and Myers (2008) also found that students who perceive their teacher radiate their satisfaction with students’ performance in their appearance and actions in the classroom report higher levels of motivation towards the subject matter as well as higher levels of cognitive achievement. Upon realizing the teacher’s confirmation, students positively display effective cognitive learning and state motivation; furthermore, in such classes, students find teachers supportive of them (Goldman & Goodboy, 2014). Drawing a general conclusion, we would understand that students experience a positive psychological state on such occasions. Teaching behavior should affect students'emotions; therefore, creating a suitable learning environment and using emotions to explain the content in an energetic and understandable manner can affect students'emotions and improve their performance.
Foreign language learning is especially believed to depend heavily on cultivating positive emotions. One such mechanism, for instance, automatic mimicry, involves unconsciously imitating the teacher's speech, movements, gestures, facial expressions, and eye gaze. In addition, language learning classrooms usually brim with nonverbal communication, facial expressions, and vocalic expressions, all of which can signal emotions. Hence, it is unsurprising that language students’ classroom motivation and achievement can be highly related to their teacher’s emotional contagion levels (Talebzadeh et al., 2020). Our findings align well with the reports from LI and Zhang (2024), who emphasized the vitality of demonstrating positive emotional contagion in EFL learning classrooms. However, in Li and Zhang's (2024) study, researchers’ main concentration has been on the development of emotional intelligence and its decisive effects on mitigating emotional burnout. Based on their findings, emotional intelligence can act as a significant factor in encouraging proper educational interventions. In accordance with the present study, Li and Zhang (2024) stressed the need to develop positive teacher-student interactions that can ensure students’ enjoyment and suppression of burnout. Nevertheless, our study did not consider the effects of emotional contagion on students’ burnout status or did not include their attitude toward a specific subject. The role of emotional contagion as a potent mediator in boosting students’ achievements and motivation was understudied. To be more precise, Li and Zhang (2024) also extracted sound practical advice to be implemented in educational institutions to cultivate psychological well-being and academic achievements among learners.
Other papers indicated that teachers'emotional levels can also substantially influence students’ perceptions of their teachers. In addition, their quality of performance and classroom achievements was altered positively (Moskowitz & Dewaele, 2021; Wang et al., 2021). Findings from the present study align well with Moskowitz and Dewaele (2021) and Wang et al. (2021) reports, as we believe that teachers’ emotional contagion is highly related to the student’s achievements and degree of motivation. The learners taught by teachers with high emotional contagion scored significantly higher in achievement compared to both the mid and low-emotional contagion groups. Additionally, learners in the mid-emotion contagion group performed significantly better than those in the low-emotion contagion group. These results indicated that higher emotional contagion from teachers is associated with improved student achievement.
We also found a significant relationship between students’ motivation and the exhibited emotional contagion in the classroom. The findings go hand in hand with the study of Teimouri (2018), who examined the emotional status of the students and the probable effects those emotions could exert on their motivation. Nevertheless, we have studied the effects of teachers’ emotional contagion status on students’ motivation. Our findings suggested that learners’ motivation significantly varied based on their teachers’ emotional contagion across both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation dimensions. The results also indicated significant differences across most dimensions of motivation based on teachers’ emotional contagion. The learners taught by teachers with high emotional contagion scored significantly higher on all intrinsic motivation subscales (e.g., to know, toward accomplishment, and to experience stimulation) as compared to those with mid or low emotional contagion. Our findings suggested that teachers’ emotional contagion was positively associated with higher levels of learner motivation (both intrinsic and extrinsic), and there were substantial differences between groups. Learners’ total motivation and achievement scores are significantly and positively predicted by teachers’ emotional contagion, indicating that increased emotional contagion is associated with higher motivation and achievement.
In accordance with Tee's (2015) findings, this study also elaborates on the importance of combining emotional contagion in teacher training programs, as it can inspire transformational leadership and better teamwork performance. Likewise, the study’s practical implications are supported by Paganini et al. (2023) findings regarding the levels of emotional contagion, team cohesion, and professional and academic performance in organizations. It would be ideal to encourage policymakers and educational scholars to encourage teachers, examiners, tutors, or instructors to be attentive to emotional contagion. Negative emotional feedback can risk a learner’s emotional health and increase emotional burnout. In academic environments where negative feelings are commonly observed, it is recommended that practical courses be designed so that both teachers and learners learn how to regulate their emotions and build a positive, joyful relationship in an academic context. By educating teachers and students, we can hope that both sides know the consequential effects negative or positive emotional transference could have on others. Institutions, by nurturing emotion regulation skills in students, can also hone coping skills in students, teaching them the requisite skills to confront challenges and remain resilient against hardships. Nevertheless, to attain such laudable goals, it is necessary to redesign a new curriculum that integrates emotional contagion or emotion-based educational practices into pedagogy. Fostering learning environments where their paramount concentration is focused on employing teaching strategies that enrich learning environments with enjoyment and positive emotional feedback can encourage learners’ autonomy, intrinsic motivation, and academic outcomes (Li & Zhang, 2024). Under such circumstances, holistic student development can occur in which students’ needs, values, and interests are considered fully. Despite the significance of this phenomenon, sometimes teachers and examiners fail to demonstrate acceptable emotional performance in class; thus, classrooms become so rigid, dull, or stressful, which leads to SLA anxiety. As stated beforehand, emotional contagion must be noticed and practiced rightfully to achieve better results. Otherwise, what would be the benefits of theoretically knowing about positive emotional contagion while practicing the negative sides? Not only will leadership in teachers be weakened, but motivation, attitudes, and emotional reactions in their future classes will also be altered. There is still much to know about the significance of inviting emotions into a teacher’s professional life; therefore, further research would be needed to illustrate the relationship between emotional contagion and other constructs. Finally, results from the present study confirmed that the emotional contagion theory could be used as a strong predictor of learner motivation and achievement in EFL students. In other words, teachers’ emotional contagion was found to have significant and relatively high predictability for learners’ foreign language motivation and achievements. Results are congruent with those of Goetz et al. (2003) and Wigfield et al. (2002), who demonstrated that emotions can be used to predict important future outcomes such as academic success and career options. This emphasizes the importance of considering issues related to EFL teachers’ emotional status in teacher training courses and incorporating them among policies and practices of teacher recruitment.
However, the study did not seem to control for potential teacher-specific factors, such as years of experience, pedagogical training, or subject matter expertise, which may also influence both emotional contagion and student outcomes. Future research should concentrate on the mechanisms of emotional contagion in foreign language learning environments to improve our understanding of how positive emotions can be generated and developed. It is believed that by exploring emotional contagion in the classroom and looking at how student perceptions of their teacher's emotions are linked to their own attitudes and feelings, we can improve the learning process and create a more positive and engaging learning environment (Goldman & Goodboy, 2014). By embracing the findings of this research, enriched, emotionally engaging environments can be prioritized, and teachers can establish more friendly relationships with their students. In such classrooms, the risk of emotional burnout will diminish, and psychological well-being will increase (Li & Zhang, 2024).
Finally, the question of how we can integrate emotional contagion into teacher training programs remains, which deserves further analysis. Likewise, socioeconomic or cultural contexts remain one of the germane subjects of research, which could be further analyzed in future studies. Understanding how these factors and cultural nuances can intervene between expressing emotional contagion and educational practices, classroom management, and addressing students’ needs. Further explorations in these areas can shed light on cultural and social disparities and tailored educational interventions. In addition, longitudinal studies can be led to elaborate on the effectiveness of strategies, pedagogies, or curriculums that stem mainly from the concept of emotional contagion. Investigating the possible outcomes of such designs can provide invaluable insights into the benefits emotional contagion can bring to the table for students, teachers, and educational centers. Likewise, similar studies can be designed to explore the role of teacher-student rapport as a mediating variable in the relationship between emotional contagion and academic outcomes. Further research is also needed to examine emotional contagion in various educational contexts (e.g., different age groups or cultural settings) to see if the findings generalize across educational systems.
Author contributions
All four authors have equally contributed to conducting the study and reporting the results. The planning of research design and material developments for conducting the research is done by A.S and D.T at Islamic Azad University Rasht branch. The study is conducted at Salman Farsi University of Kazerun by Y.G and M.E. The data collection procedure was performed by Y.G and M.E and later analyzed by A.S and D.T. The first draft of the manuscript was prepared by Y.G and M.E and later modified and proofread by A.S and D.T. All authors reviewed the final draft of the paper.
Funding
The authors have received no funding to conduct the present study.
Availability of data and materials
The data analysis is provided within the manuscript and the raw data and material are available to be shared if necessary.
Declarations
Ethical approval
The present study is approved by the Committee of Ethics in Research of Salman Farsi University of Kazerun.
Informed consent for participation and publication
As part of the instruction to fill in the research questionnaires, all participants in the study were informed about the objective of the study, and they were assured that the results would be used and published for research purposes only. In addition, they all consented for the results to be published in academic journals for scientific purposes. Participants are all adults above eighteen years old, and each participant is required to complete the study consent form individually.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Publisher's Note
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