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Positive psychology interventions have gained increasing attention for their potential to enhance academic performance, yet their impact on second language acquisition, mainly speaking proficiency, remains underexplored. This study investigates the effects of a Positive Psychology intervention program, grounded in Seligman’s (2011) PERMA model—Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment—on improving the speaking skills of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. The present study involved a group of 59 female Iranian EFL learners, reflecting cultural norms and the single-sex context of their educational environment. These participants, aged 15–17, who had been studying English for five years, were divided into an experimental group (N = 30) and a control group (N = 29), using a convenience sampling method. The experimental group engaged in PERMA-based activities focusing on positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment, while the control group received standard speaking instruction. Both groups participated in a curriculum integrating speaking, listening, grammar, reading, and writing through four weekly two-hour sessions. Using a one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), the results indicated the effectiveness of the intervention, highlighting strategies to help learners address specific challenges. The research explores the theoretical and practical implications of incorporating positive psychological interventions in foreign language teaching, suggesting that such approaches can enhance learners’ skills and contribute to better academic outcomes.
Introduction
Positive psychology (PP) is a field that focuses on understanding human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, emphasizing strengths and positive experiences rather than merely addressing weaknesses and challenges (Derakhshan & Shakki, 2024; Derakhshan, 2022b; Wang et al., 2021). This perspective has increasingly influenced second language acquisition (L2), with numerous studies highlighting its positive effects on the learning process (Abdolrezapour & Ghanbari, 2021; Esmaeilee & Hassaskhah, 2023; Khajavy & Aghaee, 2022). By fostering optimistic attitudes and emotional engagement, PP cultivates an environment that supports cognitive and linguistic success (Derakhshan & Yin, 2024; Mercer, 2021). Positive emotions not only enhance learners’ participation in educational contexts but also broaden their perspectives, facilitating more effective language acquisition (Fredrickson et al., 2008; MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012; Wang et al., 2021).
Recent L2 research has increasingly focused on positive emotions such as grit, resilience, perseverance, enjoyment, and emotional intelligence, which have been shown to benefit both learners and instructors by fostering cognitive flexibility (Derakhshan et al., 2021, 2022, 2024; Esmaeilee & Hassaskhah, 2023; Khajavy & Aghaee, 2022; Li, 2020; Wang et al., 2022). However, there remains a significant gap in literature regarding the specific application of positive psychology interventions (PPIs) in educational settings. While previous studies have explored general psychological factors influencing language learning, few have systematically examined structured intervention programs to enhance EFL learners’ linguistic skills (MacIntyre et al., 2019). In particular, there is limited attention on how structured interventions can improve speaking proficiency—an essential skill often hindered by anxiety and low self-confidence. Most existing research centers on individual positive traits rather than practical strategies for implementing PP principles in classroom settings. Studies such as Derakhshan et al. (2022a, 2022b) and Bensalem et al. (2024) have examined resilience, well-being, and grit in L2 educational contexts. However, the direct application of structured PPIs to improve speaking skills remains underexplored. This study aims to fill this gap by systematically examining the effectiveness of a structured, positive psychological intervention on L2 speaking proficiency.
Considering what has been mentioned thus far, speaking is often regarded as one of the most challenging L2 skills, particularly vulnerable to negative emotions like anxiety, which can erode confidence and inhibit participation in classroom discussions. Developing speaking proficiency is crucial for EFL learners to foster confidence and effective communication. Exploring innovative strategies such as PPIs (Pourgharib & Shakki, 2024; Shakki, 2023; Xin & Derakhshan, 2024) provides teachers with opportunities to create dynamic and engaging learning environments that enhance speaking skills. To address these challenges, it is essential to identify methods that cultivate positive emotions and foster meaningful engagement, thus reducing classroom anxiety (Bielak & Mystkowska‐Wiertelak, 2024; Heidari Vincheh et al., 2024; Quaid, 2018).
The relationship between positive and negative emotions and willingness to communicate is well-documented (Dewaele & Dewaele, 2017; Khajavy et al., 2018; MacIntyre & Wang, 2021). Willingness to communicate, a critical predictor of L2 acquisition, can be significantly enhanced by fostering positive emotions and reducing barriers caused by anxiety (Zhang et al., 2023). Derakhshan and Fathi (2024b) highlighted how teacher support and psychological well-being play a crucial role in fostering student engagement, emphasizing the need for structured interventions. Furthermore, Wang et al. (2022) conducted a cross-cultural study on resilience in EFL teachers, showing that psychological factors significantly shape L2 learning outcomes. However, these studies have focused mainly on teacher resilience and emotional intelligence, leaving a gap in structured interventions to improve students’ speaking proficiency.
This study employs Seligman’s (2011) PERMA model, which outlines well-being through five interconnected elements: positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. These elements are particularly relevant to L2 learning as they create a positive learning environment, reduce anxiety, foster motivation, and enhance performance. While Derakhshan et al. (2024) explored the relationship between teacher well-being and resilience, this study focuses on how structured, well-being-focused interventions can specifically benefit students’ speaking skills.
The significance of this research lies in its dual contribution: theoretical and empirical. Theoretically, it advances positive psychology by applying the PERMA model to L2 speaking skill acquisition, bridging the gap between general well-being frameworks and targeted pedagogical practices. Empirically, the study provides robust evidence of the practical efficacy of PPIs tailored for L2 learners. In addition to demonstrating improvements in speaking proficiency, this research highlights their broader impact on academic success, particularly in standardized testing contexts such as IELTS. These findings underscore PPIs’ transformative potential in fostering linguistic competence and learner well-being.
Review of the Related Literature
Positive Psychology and L2 Acquisition
The role of positive emotion in second language (L2) education was initially emphasized by Arnold (1999) and has since been further developed by scholars such as Arnold and Fonseca (2011). The rise of positive psychology has reinvigorated this field within language instruction (Abdolrezapour & Ghanbari, 2021; Derakhshan et al., 2021). Consequently, educators are increasingly recognizing the importance of balancing negative emotional experiences—such as boredom (Derakhshan et al., 2021), burnout (Nazari & Alizadeh Oghyanous, 2021), and shame (Alamer & Lee, 2021)—with a comprehensive exploration of the emotional impacts on L2 acquisition (Al-Obaydi et al., 2023; Bielak, 2022). Integrating positive emotions into language education can enhance the learning experience, making it more engaging and enjoyable (Derakhshan & Yin, 2024). Moreover, positive emotions foster resilience among learners and instructors, enabling them to overcome educational barriers (Dewaele et al., 2018; Gregersen, 2013).
However, a key gap in the literature lies in the limited focus on how interventions targeting positive emotions can directly enhance speaking proficiency in L2 learners. While positive emotions are generally associated with improved learning outcomes (MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012), the specific influence of these emotions on productive skills—such as speaking—within structured educational interventions remains unclear. Rather than merely addressing existing hurdles, positive psychology aims to supplement these challenges by incorporating aspects such as well-being, perseverance, emotional regulation, and resilience (Wang et al., 2021). Research indicates that positive emotions significantly impact L2 learners’ perceptions, facilitating better information retention throughout their educational journey (MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012; Pourgharib & Shakki, 2024; Shakki, 2023; Xin &Derakhshan, 2024).
Research has also established a strong connection between the promotion of well-being and the principles of positive psychology (Derakhshan et al., 2022a, 2022b; Huebner et al., 2009), suggesting that interventions should consider the individual factors that influence variations in positive psychology. In the present study, the intervention is grounded in the five key components of Seligman’s (2011) PERMA model: positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. Positive emotions are linked to pleasure and happiness, while engagement reflects individuals’ mental involvement with activities or organizations (Kern et al., 2015). According to Fredrickson (2009), emotions such as joy, gratitude, serenity, interest, hope, pride, amusement, inspiration, awe, and love contribute significantly to human well-being. Engagement involves a life filled with curiosity, passion, and the pursuit of personal goals, enhancing individuals’ overall well-being (Norrish, 2015). Positive engagement significantly bolsters achievement and accomplishment (Froh et al., 2010). This engagement is often rooted in the relationships students cultivate, which reflect a sense of support, care, and fulfilling social interactions (Kern et al., 2015; Liu, 2024). Thus, the strength of these interpersonal connections is crucial for fostering engagement and promoting academic success (Furrer & Skinner, 2003).
However, critics argue that overly generalized applications of the PERMA model may overlook the nuanced social dynamics in L2 classrooms, such as the influence of group identity and interactional context on speaking performance. Meaning plays a pivotal role in this dynamic; having a clear sense of purpose and feeling aligned with something larger than oneself can help individuals recognize the significance behind their actions (Hiver et al., 2021; Steger, 2012). As a result, individuals often seek deeper meaning in their lives and work (Butler & Kern, 2016), with achieving personal goals becoming essential. Within the PERMA framework, accomplishment is vital for realizing these goals (Seligman, 2011). Studies suggest that pursuing achievement is linked to increased personal happiness (Seligman, 2011), reinforcing the interconnectedness of engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievement in fostering overall well-being.
Despite these benefits, research specifically addressing the use of positive psychology interventions (PPIs) in L2 educational contexts remains limited (Wang et al., 2021). The integration of positive psychology in second language acquisition has primarily focused on reducing negative emotions such as anxiety and shame (Alamer & Lee, 2021; Bielak & Mystkowska‐Wiertelak, 2024) and fostering positive attributes such as grit and enjoyment (Esmaeilee & Hassaskhah, 2023). However, few studies have examined the structured use of PPIs to develop speaking proficiency in L2 learners.
L2 speaking skill and emotional factors
Speaking is often identified as the most anxiety-provoking component of language acquisition among the four primary skills. This anxiety is deeply influenced by psychological elements, including apprehension and emotional states, which can reduce self-confidence and increase reluctance to take risks (Ozdemir & Papi, 2022). English educators must address these emotional aspects to mitigate anxiety among L2 learners and enhance their oral proficiency (Derakhshan & Fathi, 2024a).
Muroya (2022) explored factors influencing learners’ oral proficiency in English, irrespective of study duration or proficiency level. This research identified conditions under which L2 learners may hesitate to communicate, revealing predictors such as self-assessed communication skills, anxiety levels, and interlocutor dynamics. Aubrey et al. (2020) expanded on this by outlining various factors affecting L2 learners’ engagement during speaking tasks, including learner-specific factors (e.g., self-perception of language ability), lesson-related elements (e.g., content comprehension), task-specific considerations (e.g., task design), and post-task reflections (e.g., performance evaluation). Additionally, Bensalem et al. (2024) examined the relationship between L2 grit, boredom, enjoyment, and willingness to communicate (WTC) within the blended learning framework in Saudi Arabia. Their findings suggest that the emotional climate within English as a Foreign Language (EFL) settings significantly influences learners’ willingness to speak. Besides, the challenges of IELTS speaking tasks—particularly their formulaic structure and lack of authenticity—have been widely critiqued in East Asian contexts (Quaid, 2018). Test-takers often face anxiety due to rigid question formats (e.g., rehearsed self-introductions) that fail to reflect real-world communication (Ozdemir & Papi, 2022). Such anxiety can inhibit learners’ ability to demonstrate their true speaking proficiency, as observed in studies linking emotional states to performance validity (Souzandehfar, 2024). To address this, recent scholarship advocates for task redesign that incorporates problem-solving scenarios and higher order thinking to foster engagement and reduce negative emotions (Souzandehfar, 2024). In parallel, research highlights the role of strategic competence in IELTS speaking success. Fernandez (2018) identified clusters of cognitive and metacognitive strategies (e.g., paraphrasing, self-correction) that learners employ during Part 3 discussions. However, strategic competence alone may be insufficient without emotional regulation. This aligns with the principles of positive psychology, where interventions targeting engagement and accomplishment (Seligman, 2011) can enhance learners’ willingness to experiment with complex language structures, even under high-stakes conditions. A noteworthy study by Jin et al. (2021) applied positive psychology principles to reduce L2 speaking anxiety among Chinese university students. The study, involving 88 participants, showed that the experimental group experienced decreased anxiety levels over time through the reflective process of recalling progress in language and non-language skills. This reflective practice was associated with an increase in positive emotions relative to negative emotions. However, some students, particularly those from more traditional educational backgrounds, may resist emotion-focused interventions, especially in cultures prioritizing teacher-centered approaches. In these environments, learning is viewed through a lens that values information transformation over emotional expressions and personal engagement. This cultural emphasis can create a barrier to adopting strategies that encourage emotional awareness (Gkonou et al., 2020).
Seligman’s (2011) PERMA model
Seligman (2011) conceptualizes positive psychology as an approach centered on well-being, aiming to enhance flourishing—an indicator of overall well-being. Well-being is not merely the absence of psychological distress (Holmes, 2005); it is a combination of positive states, personal attributes, and behavioral tendencies that enable individuals to thrive. Seligman introduces the PERMA model to encapsulate these elements: Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment. Unlike traditional psychology, which focuses on diagnosing and treating dysfunctions, positive psychology emphasizes fostering strengths and enhancing well-being. This perspective includes strategies for managing stress, overcoming difficulties, and cultivating personal and social strengths in various contexts, including education.
The first component, positive emotion, refers to experiencing pleasant emotional states such as joy, gratitude, and contentment. Research indicates positive emotions broaden individuals’ cognitive and behavioral repertoires, enhancing psychological resilience, life satisfaction, and overall well-being (Fredrickson, 2001). In second language teaching (SLT), fostering positive emotions can create a supportive and engaging learning environment, improving students’ receptivity to new knowledge and enhancing their ability to overcome learning challenges (Zhang & Fathi, 2024; Zhang et al., 2023).
Engagement, the second component, refers to deep involvement in an activity. It involves cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions (Reschly & Christenson, 2012). Cognitive engagement occurs when learners feel challenged and mentally invested in their learning process, while affective engagement happens when students experience intrinsic interest in the task. Behavioral engagement is demonstrated through active participation and sustained focus during learning activities (Fredricks et al., 2004; Mercer, 2015). “Flow,” a concept introduced by Csikszentmihalyi (1990), is a well-documented aspect of engagement, where individuals become deeply absorbed in an activity, losing track of time. In SLT, increased engagement enhances teaching performance and promotes greater student involvement, ultimately improving learning outcomes. Positive relationships, the third element, are vital for human well-being. As Peterson (2006) notes, “Other people matter.” Human beings have an innate need for belonging, emotional support, and social connection, all of which contribute to overall well-being (Lyubomirsky, 2012; Seligman, 2011).
Positive relationships foster a sense of support, trust, and community, leading to enhanced resilience and motivation (Baumeister & Leary, 2017). In SLT, cultivating strong relationships between educators and students creates a collaborative and engaging learning atmosphere, which improves student motivation and commitment to language acquisition (Derakhshan et al., 2022a, 2022b; Zheng, 2021). Research indicates that fostering supportive relationships within language learning contexts strengthens student motivation, persistence, and long-term commitment to language acquisition (Wu & Dong, 2024).
Meaning, the fourth component of the PERMA model refers to the sense that one’s actions contribute to a purpose greater than oneself. Seligman (2011) defines meaning as the subjective experience of belonging to and serving something beyond the self. In educational settings, meaning is closely tied to personal fulfilment, goal orientation, and a sense of purpose (Steger et al., 2006). For language educators, aligning teaching practices with personal aspirations, professional growth, and broader societal contributions can enhance motivation and job satisfaction. Similarly, when learners find personal meaning in their language learning journey—such as through the connection between language skills and their personal or professional goals—they are more likely to experience greater engagement and perseverance in the learning process (Leng & Zhang, 2024). Thus, fostering meaning within educational contexts can increase intrinsic motivation and a more profound commitment to language acquisition.
The final component of the PERMA model, accomplishment (or achievement), involves setting and pursuing meaningful goals, persevering through challenges, and developing a belief in one’s ability to succeed. This dimension is closely tied to personal growth, mastery of skills, and a sense of self-efficacy, all of which contribute to an individual’s overall sense of fulfilment (Butler & Kern, 2016; Seligman, 2011). In second language teaching (SLT), setting and achieving language-related goals helps learners build confidence, reinforces their belief in their abilities, and motivates them to continue progressing (Williams & Mercer, 2016). Moreover, for educators, accomplishing long-term professional goals and experiencing growth in their teaching practices contribute to their job satisfaction and sense of achievement, positively affecting their teaching performance and student outcomes.
The PERMA framework offers a holistic model for integrating positive psychology principles into language education. Educators can create a supportive environment that nurtures teacher well-being and student success by fostering positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. This integrated approach aligns with the increasing emphasis on positive learning environments in modern educational research (Waters & Loton, 2021). While the PERMA model has been applied in diverse educational contexts, further empirical research is needed to explore its specific impact on second language learning, particularly speaking proficiency. Such studies will provide valuable insights into how positive psychology can optimize language acquisition, student engagement, and overall well-being in educational settings.
Despite the substantial body of research examining the factors influencing learners’ oral proficiency and speaking-related anxiety (Akbarzadeh & Narafshan, 2016; Alrabai, 2024; Toyama & Yamazaki, 2022), a noticeable gap remains in the literature regarding the integration of positive psychology interventions (PPIs) to enhance English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ speaking abilities. As Oxford (1990) emphasized, the affective dimension of language learners is crucial for successful language acquisition, and Krashen (1982) highlighted that factors such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety significantly affect second language learning outcomes. Positive emotions can mitigate negative feelings, enabling learners to overcome speaking challenges and engage more actively in communication (Amoah & Yeboah, 2021). Therefore, interventions aimed at increasing positive motivation—through the strategic use of positive psychology—may greatly enhance speaking proficiency by boosting self-confidence, encouraging a greater eagerness to communicate, and fostering stronger connections with educators and peers. Given the essential role of PP in language teaching, this study aims to investigate the effectiveness of a PPI based on the PERMA model on L2 students’ speaking skills. The following research question has been formulated:
Does positive psychology intervention affect L2 students’ speaking skills?
Based on theoretical frameworks and empirical evidence supporting the positive impact of positive psychology principles on academic settings, as well as the importance of emotions in L2 speaking proficiency (Derakhshan & Fathi, 2024a), we hypothesize that positive psychology interventions will positively affect EFL learners’ oral communication skills.
Method
Participants
The study involved 59 female English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners from four private schools in Tehran, Iran. The single-sex composition of the sample was due to cultural considerations and the demographic makeup of high school students in Iran. Participants were selected through a convenience sampling method. Their proficiency was assessed through written exams and spoken interviews, ensuring they met the required proficiency level before progressing to the next level of education. The curriculum followed an integrated multi-skills approach, enabling students to concurrently focus on speaking, listening, grammar, reading, and writing during four weekly sessions, each lasting two hours.
The participants, aged 15 to 17, had approximately five years of English learning experience. They were randomly assigned to either the experimental group (N = 30) or the control group (N = 29) using a stratified randomization method. First, participants were grouped according to their scores on the Oxford Placement Test (OPT) to ensure a balanced distribution of proficiency levels. Then, participants were randomly assigned to one of the two groups within each proficiency group. This method minimized potential biases and ensured the groups were comparable in language proficiency.
Several strategies were employed to enhance the validity of the study. The researchers ensured objectivity by involving well-trained practitioners with diverse experience and utilizing a double-blind experimental design, ensuring that neither the experimenters nor the participants were aware of their assigned conditions (Creswell, 2013). Furthermore, to reduce the risk of contamination—where participants in the experimental group could inadvertently influence the control group—participants were separated by their school locations, ensuring that each school contributed only to one group. Informed consent was obtained from all participants. An independent samples t-test revealed no significant difference in the OPT scores between the experimental and control groups, with results showing t (57) = 0.818, p = 0.417.
Instrument
The Oxford Placement Test (OPT)
Oxford Placement Test (Allan, 2004) was conducted to assess the students’ language levels. This assessment consisted of 60 questions, on a scale ranging from 0 to 120, to evaluate candidates’ language knowledge and provide valuable insights for stakeholder decision-making. The test is divided into two components: grammatical knowledge and pragmatic ability. It also measures learners’ capacity to utilize their language skills effectively while communicating various meanings. The proficiency levels are categorized according to CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference), spanning from beginner (A1) to very advanced (C2), with each CEFR level corresponding to a 20-point increment on the scale (for instance, a score of 42 indicates a CEFR level of B1).
International English Language Testing System (IELTS) speaking task
This study utilized two reliable and valid IELTS speaking tests (see Appendices A and B) as pre-posttests to assess the intermediate students’ speaking skills before and after the treatment. Each test consisted of three sections and took approximately 11 to 14 min to administer. In Part 1, examiners engaged candidates in conversations about their backgrounds and familiar subjects, including hobbies, family, and employment. The next part required learners to speak on a specific topic provided on a task card for 1 to 2 min without interruption, typically focusing on their personal experiences. Part 3 consisted of the examiner’s more complex questions, extending the previous part’s topic. Here, candidates articulated their thoughts and rationale and reinforced their responses with examples.
The focus on speaking in this study was due to the essential role of oral communication in language acquisition, particularly in real-time contexts. Speaking is often the most anxiety-inducing skill for EFL learners, which can affect their performance and confidence (MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012). Unlike reading and writing, which provide more time for reflection and revision, speaking requires immediate cognitive processing and responses, making it particularly vulnerable to anxiety. Research has shown that speaking skills are crucial for academic and professional success, as evidenced by their inclusion in standardized tests like IELTS and TOEFL. The decision to prioritize speaking skills in this study was based on their unique challenges and relevance to communicative competence, aligning with the PERMA model’s focus on engagement and accomplishment. The speaking section of the IELTS exam is assessed using a specific rubric that emphasizes four main criteria, each rated on a scale from 0 to 9:
Fluency and Coherence. This criterion assesses the candidate’s ability to speak smoothly and naturally, minimizing hesitations and long pauses. It also looks at the logical organization of ideas and appropriate linking phrases to connect thoughts.
Lexical Resource. This aspect measures the diversity and correctness of vocabulary used by the candidate. It evaluates the extent to which different words, idioms, and collocations are used and the precision of word choices and effective paraphrasing when necessary.
Grammatical Range and Accuracy. This criterion evaluates the candidate’s use of diverse grammatical structures and their accuracy. It includes the knowledge of applying grammatical elements, emphasizing their correct application.
Pronunciation. This element assesses how clear and intelligible the candidate’s speech is. It includes appropriately articulating sounds, stress patterns, intonation, and rhythm, focusing on how easily a native English speaker can understand the candidates.
Procedure
An OPT was run, which served as an initial assessment of learners’ language proficiency. This test was designed to be completed within a 60-min timeframe. Before the intervention phase, which introduced a PPI, both groups completed a pretest assessing their speaking abilities through three tasks conforming to the IELTS speaking module. This module was chosen due to its capacity to provide authentic speaking tasks. For instance, the questions featured in Part 1 of each test emulate those typically encountered in casual dialogues or social gatherings, while the questions presented in Part 2 and accompanying questions in the subsequent part are designed for more detailed discussions on given subjects.
Subsequently, the participants in the experimental group engaged with the PPI. In contrast, the control group adhered to the usual instructional methods outlined in lesson plans available on the British Council website (British Council, 2024). The instructional process implemented in the L2-speaking classrooms for both groups is depicted in Appendix C. A teacher with seven years of experience in English education and a strong interest in positive psychology guided the experimental group. In contrast, another instructor with eight years of teaching experience facilitated the control group. In the pretest phase, four criteria were used for the assessment. This assessment lasted approximately 11 to 14 min and was divided into three parts. In the first part (4–5 min), basic introductory questions were posed to foster a comfortable environment for conversation. Part 2 (3–4 min) required participants to prepare a response to a cue card topic for one minute, followed by a two-minute individual presentation. The final part (4–5 min) involved a discussion, allowing participants to express opinions and engage in abstract discussions.
Following the pretests, the experimental group participated in treatment sessions grounded in PPI principles. Each session commenced with a brief introduction (5–7 min) from the instructor outlining various elements of the PERMA model, which was subsequently implemented and followed in the class. At the end of the semester, after both groups completed nine sessions, a posttest was administered to assess students’ proficiency, allowing for a comparative analysis of the impact of PPI between the two groups. Data collection occurred throughout nine sessions, roughly two months, and all participants signed a consent form before the treatment sessions, which guaranteed ethical considerations. The classes in which participants took part were facilitated with video cameras.
Furthermore, the researchers conducted inter-rater reliability to verify the consistency and accuracy of the assessments. This concept pertains to the degree of agreement between various evaluators when examining the same subjects. A researcher and two assistants applied designated IELTS test rubrics to evaluate participants’ pre- and posttest speaking abilities. To facilitate reliable assessments of the participants’ speaking, it was imperative to implement unambiguous evaluation criteria that all raters followed. This method reduced subjective interpretations and maintained a uniform rating process. Several strategies were employed to improve the inter-rater reliability of the study. First, extensive training sessions were held for the research assistants, covering the evaluation criteria in detail, engaging in practical rating exercises, and addressing any questions or uncertainties. This preparation helped establish a consistent understanding of the assessment criteria among the raters. Besides, a defined and standardized rating scale was created to minimize differences in scoring, ensuring that all raters interpreted the scale similarly. To further enhance reliability, speaking skills assessed in both the pretests and posttests were evaluated by two separate raters. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated for the two sets of scores, revealing strong agreements between raters for the pretest (r (59) = 0.744, large effect size, p < 0.05) and posttest (r (59) = 0.809, large effect size, p < 0.05) speaking assessments.
Moreover, regular meetings were arranged for the raters to discuss any issues, questions, or ambiguities that emerged during the evaluation process. These discussions encouraged the exchange of insights, clarified any discrepancies, and promoted a uniform application of the evaluation criteria. Each rater assessed the students’ speaking individually, leading to an average score ranging from 0 to 9 for each participant.
Content
The intervention followed Seligman et al.’s (2009) positive education framework, which aims to promote well-being and skill development in the classroom. Participants received approximately eight hours of English instruction each week—four hours focused on communication activities and four hours on reading and writing skills. This intervention was embedded within the existing curriculum, with the institution’s and instructors’ approval. A lesson plan adapted from the British Council website (British Council, 2024) was employed to foster students’ speaking abilities for the IELTS exam. The treatment group received a one-hour lesson dedicated to positive psychology in addition to their regular English lessons (Table 1 includes a detailed timeline outlining the interventions’ occurrence, and the researchers have addressed the elements of the PERMA model in various weeks. In contrast, the control group received two hours of standard English instruction.
Table 1. Schematic of positive psychology intervention
PERMA Elements | Variable focused | Strategies and Activities | Connection to Speaking Skills |
|---|---|---|---|
Positive Emotion | Week 1,3,4,7 | - Gratitude Journals: Students note daily positive experiences - Motivational Content: Group discussions on inspiring videos or success stories - Supportive Atmosphere: Buddy system and safe sharing spaces | Encourages positive mindset, reducing speaking anxiety and fostering confidence Promotes fluency through meaningful discussions and sharing ideas in English Builds emotional safety, encouraging students to participate actively in speaking tasks |
Engagement | Weeks 2,5,6,9 | - Interactive Games: Classroom games and quizzes - Personalized Challenges: Tasks tailored to students’ interests, such as creative presentations - Problem-Solving Tasks: Real-world challenges like designing solutions | Enhances spontaneity and interaction during speaking practice Improves engagement and coherence in prepared and impromptu speaking activities Builds critical thinking and clarity in expressing complex ideas orally |
Relationship | Weeks 1,3,6,8 | - Gratitude Wall: Sharing positive messages - Team-Building Exercises: Activities like escape rooms or group storytelling | Strengthens peer support, creating a collaborative speaking environment Encourages teamwork and improves turn-taking and interactive speaking skills |
Meaningfulness | Weeks 1,2,7,9 | - Real-World Connections: Discussing English as a tool for ambitions (jobs, travel, education) - Role Models: Stories of successful individuals using English - Interaction with Native Speakers: Online meaningful conversations | Motivates students to practice practical speaking scenarios (e.g., interviews, presentations) Inspires students to articulate personal aspirations and develop goal-oriented speaking Enhances speaking fluency, adaptability, and cross-cultural communication skills |
Accomplishment | Weeks 3,4,5,8 | - Goal-Tracking Journals: Recording weekly objectives and progress - Peer-Check Sessions: Collaborative discussions on progress - Celebrations of Achievements: Acknowledging individual and group successes | Encourages self-assessment and goal-focused speaking improvement Promotes reflective speaking and feedback exchange, improving precision and fluency Reinforces motivation and self-confidence in public speaking and group presentation tasks |
Input and feedback from the Department of Psychology and experienced English instructors were incorporated into the design of the PPI. During the intervention, all sessions were conducted by the same instructor, who focused on fostering the five elements of the PERMA model: positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment (Table 1).
Data analysis
The data were analyzed using SPSS 26. First, the skewness, kurtosis indices, and Shapiro–Wilk were checked to assess normality. The OPT, pretest, and posttest reliability of speaking was confirmed through KR-21 and inter-rater reliability measures. Next, an independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the average scores of the experimental and control groups on the OPT. Finally, assumptions of linearity and homogeneity of regression slopes were tested before running a One-Way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) to examine the null hypothesis.
Results
The skewness and kurtosis indices were examined to check for normality, with the computed ratios falling below ± 1.96, thus supporting the normality assumption (Field, 2018). Further confirmation was provided by the Shapiro–Wilk test, which also met the assumption of normality (p < 0.05). The next step was to check the reliability indices for the tests. The reliability of OPT was checked using the KR-21 method, showing that the test enjoyed an acceptable KR-21 reliability index of 0.80 (Fulcher & Davidson, 2007). Further, there was a notable level of agreement between the two evaluators on both the pretest (r (59) = 0.744, indicating a large effect size, p < 0.05) and the posttest (r (59) = 0.809, also reflecting a large effect size, p < 0.05) for speaking. This indicates that the scores fell within an acceptable and reliable range (Bachman, 2005). An independent samples t-test was used to assess the homogeneity of the groups before the intervention. The results indicated no significant difference between the groups’ pretest scores on the OPT (t (57) = 0.818, p > 0.05), suggesting that the groups were homogeneous at baseline.
A One-way ANCOVA was conducted to test the null hypothesis, which posited that integrating a Positive Psychology-driven strategy would not significantly affect EFL learners’ speaking performance. A One-way ANCOVA was conducted to examine the differences in posttest speaking scores between experimental and control EFL learners while accounting for pretest scores to test the null hypothesis. One-way ANCOVA assumes a linear relationship between pretest and posttest scores. The linearity test was significant (F (1, 56) = 15.460, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.268), indicating a large effect size and rejecting the null hypothesis of no linear relationship. Afterwards, One-Way ANCOVA necessitates a linear relationship between the pretest and posttest speaking scores for both groups, which means that the regression slopes need to be homogeneous. The interaction between the covariate (pretest) and the independent variable was assessed, revealing F (1, 56) = 2.344, p > 0.05, and a Partial eta squared of 0.041, which suggests a weak effect size. This finding supports the statistical assumption that the relationship between the pretest and posttest speaking scores was linear for both the experimental and control groups. In essence, linear relationships were observed between pretest and posttest speaking outcomes in both groups. Finally, one-way ANCOVA assumes the homogeneity of variances in the groups. The non-significant results of Levene’s tests (F (1, 56) = 1.10, p > 0.05) indicated that the assumption of homogeneity of variances was retained on the posttest of speaking after controlling for the effect of the pretest. Table 2 presents the adjusted posttest means, showing that the experimental group (M = 3.19, SE = 0.156) outperformed the control group (M = 2.14, SE = 0.159) on the speaking posttest after accounting for pretest scores.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for posttest of speaking by groups with pretest
Group | Mean | Std. Error | 95% Confidence Interval | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower Bound | Upper Bound | |||
Experimental | 3.198a | .156 | 2.885 | 3.512 |
Control | 2.140a | .159 | 1.821 | 2.458 |
Finally, the results of the One-Way ANCOVA analysis (F (1, 56) = 22.546, p < 0.05, partial η2 = 0.287) indicated that the experimental group performed significantly better than the control group on the speaking posttest after controlling for pretest scores, thus rejecting the null hypothesis (Table 3).
Table 3. Tests of between-subjects effects for posttest of speaking by groups with pretest
Source | Type III Sum of Squares | df | Mean Square | F | Sig | Partial Eta Squared |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PreSP | 15.179 | 1 | 15.179 | 20.696 | .000 | .270 |
Group | 16.535 | 1 | 16.535 | 22.546 | .000 | .287 |
Error | 41.070 | 56 | .733 | |||
Total | 496.000 | 59 |
Discussion
The present study aims to shed light on the role of PPIs in enhancing speaking skills among L2 learners. The findings underscore the importance of adopting holistic approaches to language learning that integrate emotional well-being alongside cognitive and linguistic development. By incorporating PPIs into L2 learning environments, this study demonstrates how these interventions can address speaking challenges, a skill often associated with high levels of anxiety and cognitive loads. Given the growing recognition of positive psychology in enhancing educational outcomes for L2 students, the findings indicate that integrating PPIs can significantly improve speaking proficiency.
To enhance the educational journey, extensive investigations have pinpointed essential factors that promote effective learning and improve academic performance. Research (Seligman et al., 2009) shows that PPIs can positively influence academic success, especially in second language acquisition (MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012). Our findings align with previous studies with Bensalem et al. (2024) and Derakhshan and Fathi (2024a) where they discussed the importance of psycho-affective factors in improvement of students’ willingness to communicate, demonstrating the efficacy of PPIs in enhancing academic outcomes. This research, however, places specific emphasis on the PERMA components, identifying them as influential factors in improving speaking skills. For instance, activities that evoke positive emotions, like motivational content discussions, alleviated anxiety, while engaging tasks such as problem-solving scenarios improved fluency and critical thinking in speaking exercises. In this vein, the results verify the findings of MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012), Pourgharib and Shakki (2024), Shakki (2023), and Xin and Derakhshan (2024), who reported that the integration of positive emotional experiences in language learning not only boosts motivation but also fosters a more resilient learning environment. These studies highlight that learners who engage in tasks that elicit joy and curiosity demonstrate enhanced language retention and a notable increase in communicative competence. Furthermore, incorporating positive reinforcement, such as peer collaboration and constructive feedback, cultivates an atmosphere of support, encouraging learners to take risks in their speaking endeavours. Ultimately, this approach aligns with the principles of positive psychology, positing that a focus on well-being and emotional strength can significantly enhance foreign language acquisition outcomes. The connection between learners’ emotional well-being and cognitive processes is critical in understanding why PPIs are effective. Speaking is not only a linguistic skill but also an emotional and psychological challenge for many EFL students. By fostering positive emotions, reducing anxiety, and promoting a sense of accomplishment, PPIs create a fertile environment for L2 learners to build confidence and overcome the fear of speaking in public or formal contexts. The idea which is supported in the current result, where learners’ speaking skills were improved through integrating PERMA components into classroom practices. Also, as supported by the present study and the existing literature, speaking can be enhanced by focusing on positive psychological aspects such as positive emotions (Jin et al., 2021), engagement (Froh et al., 2010), relatedness (Liu, 2024), and meaningful learning experiences (Hiver et al., 2021). Cultivating these elements can either directly or indirectly boost learning outcomes, primarily through increased motivation, enhanced focus, and reduced anxiety—all crucial factors for success in learning a second language. Teachers can enact this intervention by incorporating meaningful activities that reduce stress (Souzandehfar, 2024), such as safe peer feedback sessions and gratitude-sharing exercises. These strategies allow students to express themselves with reduced social pressure while developing stronger speaking skills.
Improving social and emotional skills through PPIs may lead to better and more efficient speaking abilities. For instance, engagement in team-based activities such as group storytelling builds relationships and helps students practice turn-taking and collaborative speaking strategies, improving their interactive communication. These findings aligned with the previous studies (Derakhshan et al., 2022a, 2022b; Zheng, 2021), highlighting the role of intimacy among EFL learners in educational settings. Studies indicate that a positive learning environment characterized by good rapport among students can lead to improved educational quality, a less stressful environment, and a supportive atmosphere, especially when dealing with challenging material. Teacher-led initiatives, such as encouraging students to write positive feedback for their peers or engaging in real-world tasks like interacting with native speakers, can benefit these relationships. Moreover, practical pedagogical applications highlight how specific PERMA-based activities foster improvements in speaking. For example, as operationalized and enacted in the current study and reflected in the results, the gratitude wall fosters a supportive classroom atmosphere that encourages students to participate in discussions actively. Again, this is in line with (Baumeister & Leary, 2017; Derakhshan et al., 2022a, 2022b; and Seligman, 2011), who supported the idea that PPIs promote intimacy and an emotionally supportive classroom climate. Building relationships significantly enhances the engagement of L2 learners, thereby contributing to their academic achievements (Aubrey et al., 2020). Similarly, goal-tracking journals empower students by helping them visualize progress and build self-efficacy, which is critical for success in speaking tasks.
However, the role of cultural differences in learners’ responses to emotion-based interventions should not be overlooked. EFL learners from collectivist cultures, such as those in Iran, may experience motivation differently compared to those from individualistic cultures (Wang & Derakhshan, 2025). In collectivist societies, academic achievement is often linked to family expectations, which may make self-expression through speaking activities more anxiety-inducing. This suggests that group-based speaking activities may be more effective in such contexts, aligning with the social learning preferences prevalent in collectivist cultures (Toyama & Yamazaki, 2022).
The findings of the present study, where learners demonstrated improved speaking skills through PERMA-based group activities, further support the idea that emotional support and collaborative learning are particularly beneficial in collectivist cultural contexts. Teachers in these environments may need additional support to help students gradually build confidence in speaking and self-expression, ensuring that they feel emotionally supported and empowered. By acknowledging these cultural dynamics, educators can tailor PPI strategies to better suit their learners’ specific emotional and social dynamics, ensuring higher engagement and effectiveness. These methods improve speaking fluency and build confidence in cross-cultural communication. In this study, participants who engaged in PERMA-based activities demonstrated improved speaking, suggesting that positive emotions and supportive peer relationships can alleviate the social pressures often associated with speaking tasks. For example, team-building exercises like escape rooms allowed students to practice conversational English in an enjoyable setting. Such activities enhanced speaking fluency and built resilience in tackling more formal speaking challenges. Establishing strong relationships is crucial for cultivating positivity toward L2 acquisition and enhancing overall performance in pursuing long-term educational goals (Derakhshan et al., 2022a, 2022b). Engagement has been identified as a vital “bridge” linking teaching to learning, emphasizing that meaningful learning is unlikely to occur (Hiver et al., 2021). However, care must be considered while designing PERMA-based teacher education programs, where socio-cultural norms and dynamics might impact the theorization and implementation of PPI courses.
Despite the promising outcomes, practical challenges in implementing PPIs should be considered. One of the primary concerns is classroom dynamics—not all learners may respond positively to emotion-focused interventions. Some students, particularly those from more traditional educational backgrounds, may resist emotion-focused interventions, especially in cultures emphasizing teacher-centered approaches (Gkonou et al., 2020). Additionally, institutional constraints—such as limited time and rigid curricula—may hinder the integration of PPI activities. To address these challenges, teacher training programs should emphasize the importance of emotional well-being in language acquisition, and institutions should foster a supportive environment that encourages the adoption of PPI strategies.
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs) grounded in the PERMA model can significantly enhance speaking skills among second language (L2) learners. The five components of the PERMA model—Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment—are essential in improving L2 learners’ speaking proficiency. The findings underscore the importance of incorporating emotional well-being into language education. They suggest that educators, researchers, and practitioners should prioritize cultivating positive emotional states to support students in achieving their educational goals.
Incorporating PPIs into L2 classrooms can significantly contribute to fostering positive emotions and enhancing students’ engagement and performance during speaking activities. For example, instructors can encourage students to visualize their aspirations of becoming proficient speakers, framing this vision as part of their success strategy. Dornyei (2009) emphasized the importance of nurturing positive emotions to motivate learners and facilitate achieving academic goals. By integrating PPIs into speaking tasks, teachers can help students navigate challenges like anxiety, which often hinder their speaking performance, leading to more effective language acquisition.
While this study focused on non-cognitive factors influencing speaking performance, future research should investigate the role of cognitive factors such as language aptitude and working memory in L2 speaking proficiency. The interplay between cognitive and emotional variables offers rich potential for enhancing our understanding of how PPIs can shape language learning outcomes.
Like all research, this study has limitations. First, the focus was solely on speaking skills; future research could expand to other language competencies, such as reading, listening, and writing, to explore the broader impact of PPIs across various aspects of language acquisition. Given the growing emphasis on integrated language learning, future studies should investigate the combined effects of PPIs on multiple language skills. Additionally, since the data collection occurred in English language institutes within a specific region of Iran, replicating the study in diverse geographical, cultural, and institutional contexts would help determine whether the effects of PPIs vary across different demographics and settings, thereby enhancing the generalizability of the findings.
This study did not isolate the most effective components of the intervention, suggesting that future research should disaggregate PPIs to compare the effectiveness of individual components (e.g., Positive Emotion vs. Engagement) in improving language proficiency. While the PERMA model served as the foundation for this intervention, other positive psychology frameworks, such as self-determination theory or control-value theory, could also provide valuable insights. Future investigations could compare psychological models to determine which interventions are most effective in enhancing L2 learning outcomes.
Moreover, this study highlights the importance of teacher education in successfully implementing PPIs. Given teachers’ central role in facilitating these interventions, teacher training programs must incorporate strategies for promoting emotional well-being and supporting students’ social and emotional development. Educational courses focused on implementing PPIs could enhance teachers’ ability to motivate students, foster engagement, and improve academic outcomes.
Another crucial area for future research is the role of institutional support and curriculum flexibility in implementing PPIs in real-world classroom settings. Studies could examine how varying levels of institutional backing and teacher autonomy impact the success of PPI strategies. Besides, future research could benefit from employing mixed-methods approaches to validate the quantitative results and gain deeper insights into the experiences of learners and instructors.
This study measured short-term improvements in speaking skills; however, longitudinal studies are needed to explore the long-term impact of PPIs on language retention, learner autonomy, and sustained motivation. Long-term tracking of learners would provide valuable information on whether the benefits of PPIs persist over time and whether these interventions contribute to lasting improvements in speaking proficiency.
Finally, this study focused solely on female participants, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Future research should include gender-diverse samples to enrich the results and provide a more comprehensive understanding of how PPIs affect learners from different genders.
Clinical trial number
Not applicable.
Human ethics and consent to participate
All participants provided written informed consent prior to participation in the study. The research was conducted in compliance with ethical guidelines set by the University of Guilan Ethics Committee and the Declaration of Helsinki (2013).
Authors’ contributions
S.E conceptualizes the study, designed the research methodology, and led the writing of the manuscript. A.M conducted the data analysis and contributed to the discussion section. M.K.S assisted in data collection and performed review of related literature. J.H interpreted the results and provided critical feedback on the manuscript.
Funding
Not applicable.
Data availability
No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The study involving human participants did not require ethical review and approval, as it complied with local legislation and university requirements in Iran. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Guilan, Iran. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study. All personal information was kept confidential.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Abbreviations
Analysis of Covariance
English as a Foreign Language
International English Language Testing System
Second Language
Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, Accomplishment
Positive Psychology
Positive Psychology Intervention
Second Language Teaching
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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