Corrosion analysis of a historical jade incense burner stored in wooden cabinets

Abstract

Understanding the jade corrosion mechanisms is essential to ensure their good preservation state and long lives. An important jade incense burner in a museum collection was found to be severely corroded. By employing multiple analytical methods, including scanning electron microscopy energy spectrum, X-ray diffraction, micro-Raman spectroscopy, and ion chromatography, the jade material and surface corrosion products were systematically studied. Our results showed that the matrix of the jade was mainly composed of brucite, while magnesium formate hydrate (C₂H₂MgO₄•2H₂O) was the main component of the corrosion products. Formic and acetic acid pollutant vapors emitted from wood were determined to be a cause of the corrosion. Accelerated corrosion experiments simulating volatile organic acid environments reproduced the corrosion process successfully, and a mechanism of jade corrosion in museum environments was established. It highlights the importance of replacing wooden cabinets by modern pollution-free containers, especially for susceptible historical objects.

Introduction

China is renowned for its prosperous and continuous jade (nephrite) culture, which has lasted for over 8000 years, making it an important symbol of Chinese traditional culture¹. Previous studies of ancient jade have mostly focused on identification², provenance determination^3,4, manufacturing techniques, and alteration status determination⁵. Although unearthed jade corrosion has been studied at length^{6, 7, 8–9}, less attention may be given to the conservation of jades due to their stability in indoor museum environments. Jades are essentially stones and are often considered inert materials in the ambient air and under the light changes that are likely to occur in a museum environment. Some scholars conducted a preliminary study on the impact of relative humidity on the conservation of jades to identify the best relative humidity (RH) conditions for jade preservation¹⁰. However, questions remain regarding jade corrosion in indoor museum environments, particularly when exacerbated by organic acids.

In recent years, there has been an increased interest in indoor air quality in heritage environments, specifically in relation to organic acids¹¹. Organic acids represent a significant challenge in museum conservation due to their potential to contribute to the degradation of cultural heritage materials¹². Extensive research has been conducted in recent years to understand the nature and extent of this problem, as well as to find effective measures to mitigate its harmful effects.

Volatile organic acids, especially formic acid and acetic acid, are common harmful gases to inorganic or organic cultural relics in the ambient air of museums¹³. The release sources of organic acids are extensive, and many indoor organic chemical products can emit organic acids after fermentation, such as wooden cabinets¹⁴, paper^{15, 16–17}, plastic¹⁸, polymer foam¹⁹, and adhesives^20,21. Among these materials, wood contributes the most²². In particular, acetic acid is known to be emitted from all-natural woods. Hardwoods, e.g., oak, are thought to emit the highest concentrations of acetic acid²², with as much as 7% of the original weight of wood being released as acetic acid vapor over a period of 2 years at 48 °C²³. In addition, the hydrolysis aldehydes of cellulose can emit volatile organic acids. Furthermore, the transformation of gaseous pollutants is an important release source. For example, under specific conditions, formaldehyde will transform into formic acid²⁴. Accumulation of atmospheric pollution in relatively sealed environments causes higher organic acid concentrations in a museum environment.

The harm of volatile organic acids to cultural relics has been extensively studied. Studies have shown that environmental organic acids, such as acetic acid, formic acid, and oxalic acid, can penetrate the porous surfaces of objects and accelerate the chemical reactions that lead to corrosion and degradation. Organic acids can cause varying degrees of corrosion to limestone²⁵, egg shell, copper^26,27, lead^{28, 29, 30–31}, brass³², iron³³, ceramics^34,35, glass^36,37, enamel³⁸, textiles³⁹, and other materials⁴⁰. Notably, such deterioration phenomena have been recurrently observed in our multi-year investigations. Corrosion products induced by organic acids are often found on susceptible items stored in museum enclosures contaminated with acetic or formic acid vapors, such as brick, pottery, glazed pottery, lead, and enamel (Fig. 1). This serves as a reminder that we cannot ignore the harm that air pollution brings to cultural relics, especially for susceptible historical objects. Our research team has maintained a sustained focus on this corrosion phenomenon, with particular emphasis on investigating the sources of organic acids in museum environments and their impact on the onset and progression of deterioration in inorganic cultural heritage materials. The jade artifact discussed in this paper is a representative case study within our broader exploration of degradation mechanisms in heritage materials.

[See PDF for image]

Fig. 1

Corrosion caused by organic acids on different kinds of objects from a museum collection.

a Brick in a display case, b eaves tile in the packaging box, c eaves tile in the packaging box, d ceramic sewer pipe in a wooden box, e lead wine vessel stored in a wooden cabinet, f enamelware in a display case, g glazed pottery in the storeroom, and h pottery in the wooden storage drawer.

The historical jade incense burner belonging to the collections of the National Museum of China was subjected to severe corrosion and contamination with salts, as evidenced by efflorescence, under uncontrolled climatic conditions. Using a variety of analytical methods, including three-dimensional (3D) video microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), portable X-ray fluorescence (p-XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, and ion chromatography (IC), the corrosion mechanism was investigated, and accelerated corrosion tests were conducted to assess the impact of volatile organic acids on jade. Ultimately, the purpose of this study was to establish the cause of the artifact’s damage to provide a scientifically based approach to the preservation of jade.

Methods

Materials

The jade incense burner, featuring an animal-face motif design and double dragon-shaped handles, measured 16.8 × 8 × 7.4 cm. The shape of the object imitated that of a bronze Gui (food container) from the Shang and Zhou periods (c. 1700–221 BC), and it exuded a dignified and steady style reminiscent of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644). Incense burners are necessary tools for using incense, and they are also an indispensable item for Chinese folk customs, religion, and sacrifice activities. Visible traces of combustion residue could be found on the inner walls of the incense burner. The surface condition of corroded jade is shown in Fig. 2a–c, and the surface was covered with a thick corrosion layer. To systematically study the reason for the formation of the corrosion layer, powder specimens from the inner matrix and the corrosion layer of jade surface were analyzed in detail.

[See PDF for image]

Fig. 2

Historical jade incense burner.

a Front surface, b side surface, c bottom surface, and d jade incense burner after cleaning.

Methods

Optical microscopy (OM) observations were conducted using a Zeiss Smartzoom5 3D video microscope to characterize the jade surface morphology. Chemical composition analysis of jade material was performed by portable X-ray fluorescence (p-XRF) spectroscopy with a Spectro xSort handheld ore analyzer, utilizing dual detection modes: heavy elements were measured at 50 kV with filter 2, while light elements were analyzed at 15 kV without filtration, both with 30 s acquisition time. Phase composition characterization of jade material and corrosion products was conducted using a Bruker D8 Advance X-ray diffractometer equipped with a Vantec 500 detector, operating at 40 kV/40 mA with Cu Kα radiation. The system achieved ±0.0001° angular reproducibility, utilizing 0.5 mm test spots and 300 s integration time. To obtain complementary molecular vibration signatures, laser micro-Raman spectroscopy was concurrently employed on the HORIBA XploRA platform. This verification method operated with 785 nm excitation, employing a 600 gr/mm grating and 50× objective lens to acquire spectra across 50–1600 cm⁻¹, using optimized exposure times (30–60 s) and accumulation periods (2–4 s) for enhanced signal-to-noise ratios.

Environmental monitoring of volatile acids was implemented through ion chromatography (ICS1000 system) with AS-DV autosampler and KOH eluent generator. Gas sampling employed a GSP-400FT constant-flow pump connected to U-shaped absorption tubes containing ultrapure water, followed by Chromeleon 7.2 workstation analysis.

Microstructural characterization was performed using a Phenom XL scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy-dispersive X‑Ray spectroscopy system (SEM-EDS) operating at 15 kV with variable working distances (4.0–6.4 mm), enabling both morphological observation and elemental analysis of accelerated aging specimens.

Results

Morphology

The surface morphology of the jade incense burner was characterized by 3D video microscopy.

As revealed in Fig. 3, the jade exhibits three layers of distribution, including surface white layer, brown inner layer, and the jade matrix. Figure 3d reveals predominant coverage of loose white corrosion products on the jade surface, with localized exposure of a dense brown underlayer exemplified in Fig. 3a, b. In the uncorroded area (Fig. 3a), the original matrix displayed a green, translucent texture with distinctive waxy luster.

[See PDF for image]

Fig. 3

Optical microscopy (OM) images of jade surface.

a Jade matrix and brown inner layer; b brown inner laye and surface white layer; c surface white layer.

Jade matrix

The phase identification of the jade matrix were analyzed using XRD and Raman spectroscopy techniques. Based on the analysis of the XRD spectrum (Fig. 4a), the jade matrix contained brucite (Mg(OH)₂). Since brucite has rarely been reported in previously studied jade varieties, we conducted Raman spectroscopy analysis on samples collected from multiple locations for further verification. Raman spectroscopy analysis identified peaks at 278 and 443 cm⁻¹ as Mg–OH symmetric stretching vibrations, which were conclusively attributed to brucite. Furthermore, the peaks observed at 687, 620, 383, 346, 228, and 129 cm⁻¹ aligned with the characteristic vibrational signatures of lizardite(a serpentine-group mineral)⁴¹, confirming its identification as the associated mineral in the sample (Fig. 4b). One standard brucite sample collected from the Kuandian district in Liaoning Province, China, was selected for comparative analysis. The p-XRF data are shown in Table 1, indicating that the two samples had similar elemental distributions. In addition to the high contents of magnesium, they also contained silicon, iron, and calcium.

[See PDF for image]

Fig. 4

Spectroscopic characterization of the jade matrix.

a X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrum of the jade matrix. b Raman spectrum of the jade matrix.

Table 1. Chemical composition of the jade matrix and brucite by portable X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (p-XRF) (wt%)

Sample	MgO	SO3	CaO	Fe2O3	Cl	SiO2
Jade matrix	54.9	1.08	2.03	0.94	–	9.35
brucite	67.7	–	0.12	1.03	0.52	3.93

Based on the elemental, XRD and Raman spectrum analyses, brucite (Mg(OH)₂) was identified as the major component of the jade matrix. Brucite is an important archetypal mineral for hydrous dense silicate minerals and an end-member component in the Mg–H–Si–O system in the deep earth. Theoretically, the MgO content can reach 69.12%, and the H₂O content can reach 30.88% in brucite. As a product of the magnesium end-member reaction, brucite commonly coexists with serpentine in nature system. Due to the similar ionic radii and compatible charges between Fe²⁺ and Mg²⁺, Fe²⁺ can readily replace Mg²⁺ by isomorphism to form a continuous or discontinuous solid solution series under low-temperature conditions⁴². Therefore, brucite and serpentine in nature commonly incorporate iron element.

Corrosion products

Samples were taken from the jade surface for phase identification and IC analysis. Magnesium formate hydrate C₂H₂MgO₄•2H₂O was identified as the major component of the white corrosion layer by XRD (Fig. 5a). The Raman spectra demonstrated a good match between the white corrosion products and a standard sample of magnesium formate hydrate (Fig. 5b). The brown inner layer, analyzed by Raman spectra, revealed the presence of lizardite, calcite and gypsum (Fig. 5c). Carbonate minerals such as calcite often form as products of serpentinization and are common associated minerals of brucite and serpentine⁴³. Considering the detection of calcium in the jade matrix, we infer that calcite exists as an associated mineral. Moreover, gypsum is not a typical alteration product of brucite or serpentine-group minerals, likely originates from exogenous contamination⁴⁴. It can be concluded that the original unaltered jade artifact is primarily composed of brucite as the dominant mineral phase, with associated minerals including lizardite and calcite. The main component of the white corrosion products present on the jade surface is magnesium formate hydrate.

[See PDF for image]

Fig. 5

Spectroscopic characterization of the white corrosion products and brown inner layer.

a XRD spectrum of the surface white corrosion products. b Raman spectra of standard sample of magnesium formate hydrate and the white corrosion products. c Raman spectrum of the brown inner layer.

The anion concentrations of the corrosion products were analyzed using IC, and the results are shown in Table 2. Notably, the white corrosion products exhibited a high concentration of HCOOH⁻, which was consistent with the XRD and Raman results. The brown inner layer, however, showed a significant decrease in the HCOOH⁻ concentration and a corresponding increase in the SO₄²⁻ concentration, likely associated with the presence of gypsum. These findings suggest that the corrosion may have been linked to volatile organic acids in the ambient air of the storeroom.

Table 2. Anion concentrations of corrosion product aqueous samples (μg/ml)

Sample	HCOOH−	CH3COO−	CH3CH2CH2COO−	Cl−	SO42−
White corrosion layer	93.64	7.42	1.62	0.095	ND
Brown inner layer	21.24	0.7	–	–	9.68

Source of volatile organic acids

The object was stored in wooden cabinets for more than forty years (from 1980 to 2021), with uncontrolled relative humidity and temperature. Therefore, organic acids were deduced as a cause of the corrosion, since wood is known to emit such compounds. To determine the cause of the jade surface corrosion, the gas in the ambient air of the storeroom was collected and brought back to the laboratory. The formic and acetic acid concentrations were detected using IC. The formic and acetic acid vapor concentrations were determined to be 85 and 312 μg/m³ at 30 °C and 48% RH. These concentrations should be higher in the wooden cabinets than in the storeroom.

Accelerated corrosion testing

To test the hypothesis about the formation of magnesium formate hydrate (C₂H₂MgO₄•2H₂O) on the jade incense burner from the reaction with volatile organic acids, accelerated corrosion tests were carried out. In the simulation experiment, brucite block samples were exposed to volatile formic acid and acetic acid in a sealed glass vessel. During the test, saturated formic and acetic acid solutions were added to the bottom of the sealed glass vessel, and brucite block samples were placed above the solutions on a support tray. The block sample surfaces gradually darkened and water droplets condensed several hours later. White corrosion products formed after about one week. After 28 days, the experimental block samples were removed for observation and analysis.

It was observed that there were significant changes on the sample surfaces. The color changed from green to brown, with white corrosion products accumulation (Fig. 6a), similar to the corrosion phenomena on the jade incense burner surface. The sample surface was soft and gel-like when removed from the glass vessel, and it became hard again after several days.

[See PDF for image]

Fig. 6

Accelerated aging experiment.

a Natural brucite sample exposed to volatile formic acid and acetic acid in a sealed glass vessel for 28 days. b Raman spectrum of the white corrosion layer. c Scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) surface scanning results for polished corroded brucite sample. d Titration experiment: the titrated brown inner layer had undergone a distinct color reaction, in contrast to the matrix of the uncorroded test sample.

Magnesium formate hydrate formed on the surfaces of brucite block samples (Fig. 6b, identification by Raman spectroscopy). In addition, in the brown layer, magnesium formate hydrate and lizardite were detected. Some block samples were partially polished to expose the matrix for observation via scanning electron microscopy. It was found that sample matrix had a fine texture with a uniform density, while the brown inner layer showed a loose structure with fine cracks (Fig. 6c). The magnesium content decreased while the iron content increased significantly in the brown layer, as determined by SEM-EDS (Fig. 6c). The brown layer and the matrix were dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid, and titration experiments were performed using sulfosalicylic acid as an indicator. The results showed that the titrated brown layer turned red-purple, while the matrix showed no evidence of a color reaction (Fig. 6d). The observed surface coloration is most likely attributed to chromogenic effects of Fe³⁺, following the systematic exclusion of potential interfering elements.

Discussion

According to previous research, there were more than 30 kinds of jade minerals in ancient China⁴⁵. The main kinds of ancient jades are tremolite, lizardite, calcite, quartz (e.g., chalcedony/agate), and turquoise; brucite was rarely used. Therefore, brucite has been considered a low-quality or non-jade material generally. However, in view of its gemological characteristics, such as its cryptocrystalline structure, waxy luster, and translucency, brucite has ornamental value and can be used for jade carvings. The China national standard “Gems-Nomenclature” (GB/T 16552, 2010 and 2017 editions) has added brucite. Some ancient-style jades using brucite as the material are occasionally found as nephrite and agalmatolite imitations. Early cases of using brucite as the jade material have been rarely reported. The discovery could help to enrich our understanding of historical jade types and provide a reference for the scientific identification of such jades.

Based on the results of the simulation experiment, the formation principle of corrosion products was analyzed, clearly elucidating the jade corrosion process. When the jade artifact was exposed to an organic acid-containing atmosphere, organic acids and water vapor in the air adsorbed onto the jade surface through capillary condensation (Fig. 7a). Due to brucite’s inherent composition and structural characteristics, it readily underwent acid-base neutralization reactions with acids. As a hydroxide mineral of magnesium (Mg(OH)₂), the weak interlayer bonding in brucite facilitated acid attack (protonation) and subsequent Mg²⁺ release (Fig. 7b). Some studies showed that brucite was dissolved very easy in organic acids and its disolution could reach 50–80% in 24 hours⁴⁶. The alkaline nature of brucite stemmed from the presence of Mg²⁺ ions, which reacted with organic acid anions (R-COO^–) under acidic conditions to form stable salts (Fig. 7c). Acid-base reaction was driven by a dual mechanism: (1) H⁺ ions from organic acid dissociation neutralized structural OH^– ions to form water (as evidenced by surface observations of the simulated sample), and (2) R-COO^– coordinated with Mg²⁺ to generate soluble organic salts, as represented by the reaction:$2\mathrm{HCOOH}+\mathrm{Mg}{\left(\mathrm{OH}\right)}_2\to \mathrm{Mg}{\left(\mathrm{HCOO}\right)}_2+{2\mathrm{H}}_2\mathrm{O}$

[See PDF for image]

Fig. 7

Schematic diagram of jade corrosion.

a Adsorption of organic acids on the jade surface; b Acid-promoted rapid release of Mg²⁺ and Fe²⁺ from the jade matrix; c Reaction of Mg²⁺ with formate anions forming crystalline magnesium formate hydrate, concurrent with oxidation of Fe²⁺ to Fe³⁺ (inducing surface darkening); d Progressive corrosion leading to accumulation of white Mg(HCOO)₂·2H₂O deposits on the darkened surface.

The leaching of Mg²⁺ destabilized the mineral lattice, triggering the release of structurally bound Fe²⁺ (from prior Mg²⁺ isomorphic substitution) (Fig. 7b). Fe²⁺ progressively accumulated at the surface and underwent oxidation to Fe³⁺ (Fig. 7c). Some studies had indicated that increased acidity of the system was advantageous to the oxidation of Fe²⁺⁴⁷. The chromatic alteration of the jade surface was attributed to Fe³⁺-induced chromogenic effects, characterized by progressive darkening due to the precipitation of likely amorphous or colloidal iron (oxyhydr)oxide phases.

As the chemical reaction progressed, magnesium formate hydrate gradually crystallized and accumulated on the jade surface. This process ultimately resulted in the formation of white corrosion layer on the jade incense burner surface. The loss of magnesium induced the enrichment of primary coexisting minerals (lizardite and calcite) and amorphous or colloidal iron (oxyhydr)oxide phases at the substrate interface, ultimately forming a dense brown inner layer (Fig. 7d). This explains why these associated minerals are more readily detected on the brown layer compared to the jade matrix.

The experimental results demonstrated that formic and acetic acids, released from lignocellulosic materials in the storage environment, were the primary contributors to the observed surface damage. Formic acid and acetic acid are more reactive than other acidic gases and can cause greater damage to cultural objects. The two organic acids played an important role in the corrosion of the jade incense burner according to the accelerated corrosion tests of brucite. Measurements of the acetic and formic acid levels using the diffusion tube method described by Gibson et al. showed that acetic acid was always present at a higher concentration than formic acid⁴⁸. The prevalence of formate-containing corrosion and salts suggests that formic acid is more reactive than acetic acid on susceptible items surfaces, or else that the oxidation of formaldehyde to formic acid is occurring⁴⁹. Our experimental results also proved this point. Although the concentration of acetic acid in the storeroom was four times that of formic acid, the main corrosion product was still magnesium formate hydrate. Due to limitations in the experimental conditions, we did not determine the concentration thresholds of organic acids for the corrosion reaction. This issue will be resolved through more in-depth research in the future.

After meticulous cleaning, the original jade matrix began to gradually emerge and the jade artifact regained its original morphological features (Fig. 2d). However, without targeted environmental intervention, recurrent corrosion remains inevitable. To ensure long-term stability, the jade artifact has been encapsulated in a hermetic barrier material to block organic acid vapor ingress. Concurrently, eliminating volatile organic acid sources (e.g., wooden cabinets) or relocating the artifact to a climate-controlled environment with routine monitoring are essential to mitigate corrosion. This case study prompts attention to susceptible jade corrosion exacerbated by organic acids and highlights the role of preventive conservation in mitigating such degradation. Further research is required to investigate the long-term effects of organic acids on different types of jade (e.g., serpentine-based artifacts) and to develop more targeted conservation strategies.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Mr. Qiang Su and Mrs. Mi Zhang for the support with the samples for this research. We are grateful to Mrs. Mengying Xu whose comments greatly improved the quality of the manuscript. This work was supported by the Cultural Relics Science and Cultural Heritage Technology Research Project of National Administration (self-funded) (2023ZCK003).

Author contributions

D.Y. was involved in conceptualization, investigation, data collection, and writing—original draft preparation. W.M. supervised and visualized the research. Q.Y. and N.W. were responsible for the methodology and formal analysis. J.C. was in charge of data curation. Y.Q. was in charge of validation and project administration. Q.W. was responsible for the resources. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

References

1. Wen, G; Jing, Z. Chinese neolithic jade: a preliminary geoarchaeological study. Geoarchaeology; 1992; 7, pp. 251-275.

2. Chen, D; Zhai, J; Qiao, B; Luo, W. On-site non-destructive identification of Dushan jade using portable Raman, pXRF, FTIR, and NIR. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep.; 2024; 60, 104820.

3. Chen, D; Tang, J; Yu, M; Yang, Y; Wang, C. Identification of a source of nephrite from late Shang Yinxu by multispectral imaging. Heritage Sci; 2023; 11, 4.

4. Wang, R. & Shi, X. Progress on the nephrite sources of jade artifacts in ancient China from the perspective of isotopes. Front. Earth Sci. 10, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2022.1008387 (2022).

5. Wang, R. Progress review of the scientific study of Chinese ancient jade. Archaeometry; 2011; 53, pp. 674-692.1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhtFyqtr7N

6. Wu, H; Liu, J; Fang, H; Wang, Y; Ma, Q. Study on the internal alteration mechanism of marble jade artifacts from Sanxingdui ritual Pit no. 3, Sichuan. Microchem. J.; 2025; 208, 1:CAS:528:DC%2BB2cXislWlsL7M 112338.

7. Zhang, K et al. Corrosion analysis of unearthed jade from Daye Zhen Tomb of Northern Zhou Dynasty. Heritage Sci; 2023; 11, 224.1:CAS:528:DC%2BB3sXitFyqtLfK

8. Chen, Y; Wang, R; Ji, M. Nondestructive nonlinear optical microscopy revealed the blackening mechanism of ancient Chinese jades. Research; 2023; 2023, [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38025765][PubMedCentral: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10644832]0266.

9. Chen, D., Yang, Y., Qiao, B., Li, J. & Luo, W. Integrated interpretation of pXRF data on ancient nephrite artifacts excavated from Tomb No.1 in Yuehe Town, Henan Province, China. Heritage Sci. 10, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-021-00642-w (2022).

10. Gong, M-T; Wang, R; Cheng, H-S. Preliminary study on the impact of relative humidity on the conservation of jades. Stud. Conserv.; 2013; 58, pp. 88-94.1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXmt1OntLc%3D

11. Paolin, E; Strlič, M. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in heritage environments and their analysis: a review. Appl. Sci.; 2024; 14, 4620.1:CAS:528:DC%2BB2cXhtlait7zN

12. Martellini, T et al. Indoor levels of volatile organic compounds at Florentine museum environments in Italy. Indoor Air; 2020; 30, pp. 900-913.1:CAS:528:DC%2BB3cXhslagurrP [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32090381]

13. Oikawa, T et al. Volatile organic compounds from wood and their influences on museum artifact materials II: inference of causal substances of deterioration based on intercomparison of laser Raman spectra of deteriorated products. J. Wood Sci.; 2006; 52, pp. 140-146.1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XltVGksrs%3D

14. Gibson, LT; Watt, CM. Acetic and formic acids emitted from wood samples and their effect on selected materials in museum environments. Corros. Sci.; 2010; 52, pp. 172-178.1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhsVahtbbL

15. Lattuati-Derieux, A; Bonnassies-Termes, S; Lavédrine, B. Identification of volatile organic compounds emitted by a naturally aged book using solid-phase microextraction/gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A; 2004; 1026, pp. 9-18.1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXhtVWjtLfP [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14870711]

16. Cincinelli, A et al. Measurement of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in libraries and archives in Florence (Italy). Sci. Total Environ.; 2016; 572, pp. 333-339.1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhtlSmtbbL [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27505266]

17. Clark, AJ; Calvillo, JL; Roosa, MS; Green, DB; Ganske, JA. Degradation product emission from historic and modern books by headspace SPME/GC–MS: evaluation of lipid oxidation and cellulose hydrolysis. Anal. Bioanal. Chem.; 2011; 399, pp. 3589-3600.1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhtFKqt7Y%3D [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21274517]

18. Mitchell, G; Higgitt, C; Gibson, LT. Emissions from polymeric materials: characterised by thermal desorption-gas chromatography. Polym. Degrad. Stab.; 2014; 107, pp. 328-340.1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXhs1Cmurg%3D

19. Knotek, V; Ďurovič, M; Kučerová, I. The effect of synthetic polymer foams on cellulosic material degradation. Materials; 2023; 16, 1210.1:CAS:528:DC%2BB3sXjtFGnurs%3D [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36770216][PubMedCentral: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9920966]

20. Ryhl-Svendsen, M; Glastrup, J. Acetic acid and formic acid concentrations in the museum environment measured by SPME-GC/MS. Atmos. Environ.; 2002; 36, pp. 3909-3916.1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xms1Grurw%3D

21. van Iperen, J; van Keulen, H; Keune, K; Abdulah, K; van Langh, R. Crystalline deposits in new display cases at the Rijksmuseum: characterisation and origin. Stud. Conserv.; 2021; 66, pp. 253-271.

22. Arni, PC; Cochrane, GC; Gray, JD. The emission of corrosive vapours by wood. I. Survey of the acid‐release properties of certain freshly felled hardwoods and softwoods. J. Appl. Chem.; 1965; 15, pp. 305-313.1:CAS:528:DyaF2MXksVOitrY%3D

23. Budd, M. Corrosion of metals in association with wood. Appl. Mater. Res.; 1965; 124, 125.

24. Cruz, AJ; Pires, J; Carvalho, AP; Brotas de Carvalho, M. Adsorption of acetic acid by activated carbons, zeolites, and other adsorbent materials related with the preventive conservation of lead objects in museum showcases. J. Chem. Eng. Data; 2004; 49, pp. 725-731.1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXis1equ7s%3D

25. Dinnebier, R. E., Fischer, A., Eggert, G., Runčevski, T. & Wahlberg, N. X-ray powder diffraction in conservation science: towards routine crystal structure determination of corrosion products on heritage art objects. J. Vis. Exp.112, 54109. https://doi.org/10.3791/54109 (2016).

26. Tétreault, J et al. Corrosion of copper and lead by formaldehyde, formic and acetic acid vapours. Stud. Conserv.; 2003; 48, pp. 237-250.

27. Yan, Y et al. A study on corrosion products and processes of patinated tin bronze in formic acid. Res. Chem. Intermed.; 2020; 46, pp. 5087-5099.1:CAS:528:DC%2BB3cXhvFaqu73M

28. Raychaudhuri, MR; Brimblecombe, P. Formaldehyde oxidation and lead corrosion. Stud. Conserv.; 2000; 45, pp. 226-232.1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXhtlKgurs%3D

29. Niklasson, A et al. Air pollutant concentrations and atmospheric corrosion of organ pipes in european church environments. Stud. Conserv.; 2008; 53, pp. 24-40.1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXptFygur4%3D

30. Niklasson, A; Johansson, L-G; Svensson, J-E. The influence of relative humidity and temperature on the acetic acid vapour-induced atmospheric corrosion of lead. Corros. Sci.; 2008; 50, pp. 3031-3037.1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXht1yqsr3P

31. Kouřil, M et al. Lead corrosion and corrosivity classification in archives, museums, and churches. Materials; 2022; 15, 639. [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35057355][PubMedCentral: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8781411]

32. Cheng, X et al. Identification and interpretation of unusual corrosion products formed on brass coins. Sci. Conserv. Archaeol.; 2022; 34, pp. 1-9.

33. Tennent, N. H. et al. Unusual corrosion and efflorescence products on bronze and iron antiquities stored in wooden cabinets. In Conservation Science in the UK: Preprints of the Meeting Held in Glasgow, 60–66 (James and James Science Publishers Ltd., London, 1993).

34. Boccia Paterakis, A; Steiger, M. Salt efflorescence on pottery in the athenian agora: a closer look. Stud. Conserv.; 2015; 60, pp. 172-184.

35. Gibson, LT et al. The mode of formation of thecotrichite, a widespread calcium acetate chloride nitrate efflorescence. Stud. Conserv.; 2005; 50, pp. 284-294.

36. Cid, R; Palomar, T. Influence of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the alteration of historical unstable glasses. J. Am. Ceram. Soc.; 2022; 105, pp. 6938-6952.1:CAS:528:DC%2BB38Xhs12rsbnF

37. Robinet, L; Eremin, K; Cobo del Arco, B; Gibson, LT. A raman spectroscopic study of pollution‐induced glass deterioration. J. Raman Spectrosc.; 2004; 35, pp. 662-670.1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXmslajtbw%3D

38. Magee, C. E. The treatment of a severely deteriorated enamel. In 12th Triennial Meeting, Lyon, 29 August – 3 September 1999: Preprints 2. International Council of Museums. Committee for Conservation, 787–792 (James & James Science Publishers Ltd., London, 1999).

39. Luo, X et al. Infrared spectroscopy investigation on conformational change of silk fiber induced by gaseous organic acids existing in museum. Spectroscopy and Spectral Analysis; 2012; 32, pp. 921-924.1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XlsVSntr4%3D [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22715753]

40. Wahlberg, N et al. Crystal structure of thecotrichite, an efflorescent salt on calcareous objects stored in wooden cabinets. Cryst. Growth Des.; 2015; 15, pp. 2795-2800.1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXnvFClsb8%3D

41. Trittschack, R; Grobety, B; Koch-Muller, M. In situ high-temperature Raman and FTIR spectroscopy of the phase transformation of lizardite. Am. Mineral.; 2012; 97, pp. 1965-1976.1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhvVCmurnN

42. McCollom, TM; Bach, W. Thermodynamic constraints on hydrogen generation during serpentinization of ultramafic rocks. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta; 2009; 73, pp. 856-875.1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXps1ehsw%3D%3D

43. Zhang, Y; Jiang, Z; Li, S; Wang, Y; Yu, L. The process of oceanic peridotite serpentinization: from seafloor hydration to subduction dehydration. Acta Petrol. Sin.; 2022; 38, pp. 1063-1080.

44. Wang, R; Tang, J; He, Y; Wang, C. Study on the natural whitening phenomenon of tremolite and serpentine jade artifacts from Yinxu: with a discussion on re-examining the “calcification” phenomenon. Cultur. Relics South. China; 2018; 79, 87.

45. Wang, R. Archaeometry and conservation of early Chinese jade (Fudan University Press, 2020).

46. Li, G. & Dong, F. Study of the dissolution of brucite in organic acids. Southwest Inst. Technol.13, 22–25 (1998). (in Chinese with English abstract).

47. Wang, N; Yi, X; Dang, Z; Liu, Y. Investigation on mechanism of pyrite oxidation in acidic solutions. Environ. Sci.; 2012; 33, pp. 3916-3921.1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXht1CqsrzE

48. Gibson, LT; Cooksey, BG; Littlejohn, D; Tennent, NH. A diffusion tube sampler for the determination of acetic acid and formic acid vapours in museum cabinets. Anal. Chim. Acta; 1997; 341, pp. 11-19.1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXht1Kitrc%3D

49. Bradley, S. Preventive conservation research and practice at the British museum. J. Am. Inst. Conserv.; 2005; 44, pp. 159-173.