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Mycotoxins pose significant health and economic challenges, affecting humans, animals, and commodities. This review examines fungal toxigenicity, its spread, and its impact on crops, ecosystems, and human health. The economic implications of mycotoxins, particularly their detrimental effect on the global economy, are also explored. Global agro-economic industry losses have been reported, emanating from cross-border import/export denials, product destruction, and routine analysis. Mainly victims of these exclusions are goods from regions accounting for 70% of global nut and dried fruit imports. Annual costs of mycotoxin contamination have been estimated to reach USD 100 million. The current review highlights the situation in the Americas, where Bt corn saves US farmers approximately USD 17 million annually by reducing damage from fumonisin and deoxynivalenol. In Africa and Asia, mycotoxin contamination presents severe health and economic challenges. Control measures include early harvesting, rapid drying, seed separation, sanitation, agronomic practices, insect control, the use of botanicals and synthetics, biological control, and detoxification of contaminated commodities.
Introduction
In recent years, fungal illnesses have been projected to cause over 1.6 million fatalities each year, with millions suffering from fungal diseases [1, 2]. These diseases have also been reported to plant life, major crops and several animal lives negatively impacting the agricultural sector and food safety [3, 4]. The prevalence of fungal illnesses has increased due to global warming [5]. However, some scholars estimate that the true impacts of mycotoxin contamination are due to the lack of sufficient tools for sufficient monitoring [1, 6]. Mycotoxins, secondary metabolites of fungi, can invade crops [7] and pose a serious risk to public health and food safety [8]. Mycotoxins can induce liver cancer, reduce immunity, and have a negative economic impact [7].
Mycotoxin contamination is increasingly common in agricultural commodities such as Aflatoxin and ochratoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, patulin and ochratoxins that produced by different fungal species, among others, are responsible for wide range of acute and chronic disorders in humans and domestic animals worldwide [9].
Mycotoxins have significant negative economic impacts, including direct market losses. Contaminated food often results in rejection or reduced prices, worsening economic losses [10, 11–12]. Aflatoxins, particularly, have carcinogenic effects in laboratory animals and can cause acute toxicological effects in humans, with higher doses leading to various illnesses or death (National Biomonitoring Program, 2017) [13]. This review focuses on the hazards of mycotoxins, their economic impact on food losses, and their health implications.
Fungi toxigenicity and disease
The World Bank evaluation found that mycotoxin-related diseases accounted for 40% of lost disability-adjusted life years related to human health. The financial impact of aflatoxins in Southeast Asia was estimated at close to a billion US dollars, with nearly half of that budget being dedicated to the costs associated with human health consequences. Additionally, a National Academy of Sciences report suggested that mycotoxins likely contribute to global cancer rates. Mycotoxins pose a significant global threat to human health, leading to substantial economic losses from healthcare costs, productivity loss, and human lives [14].
The effects of mycotoxins on human health are among the most challenging to quantify. Mycotoxins, particularly aflatoxins, have a significant impact on human health, especially in impoverished nations, causing acute toxicoses, immunosuppression, and chronic effects. Notably, outbreaks of aflatoxicosis in Kenya over the past decade have resulted in hundreds of deaths. In various West African nations, over 98% of people tested positive for aflatoxin exposure David and Gary [14].
Recent studies conducted in the Mediterranean region have shed light on the epidemiology of several mycotoxigenic fungi, including Fusarium spp.., Alternaria spp.., Aspergillus spp.., and Penicillium spp., found in diseased. The toxigenic nature of these fungi and the presence of various mycotoxic molecules, including aflatoxins, ochratoxins, and fumonisins (Al-Jaal et al., 2019). Newly identified compounds like fusaproliferin and beauvericin, whose toxic potential is still unknown, have also been observed [15].
Fungal infections have caused significant damage to ecosystems, leading to declines in frog and bat populations and increased human diseases [16].
A study by Migahed et al. [17] investigated 144 samples belonging to 48 kinds of dried medicinal plants collected from different markets Dakahlia governorate, for the natural occurrence of fungi and aflatoxins and found that the Aspergillus genus was the most frequent and represented 91.7%. The most frequent fungal species were Aspergillus niger, Penicillium chrysogenum, Aspergillus flavus var. columnaris, and Aspergillus flavus. 44.4% of isolated fungi were toxigenic and produced aflatoxins in the range of 0.1–818.2 ng/ml.
A report by [18] found that the fungi infection rate in couscous samples was between 2.92102 and 1.71102 CFU/g. Capsicum annuum samples contamination rate was 4.68102 CFU/g, with Aspergillus spp. (46.42%) and Penicillium spp. (26.28%) accounting as the dominant species being detected.
Mycotoxins can significantly affect animal production by disrupting various physiological processes. For example, exposure to Fusarium mycotoxins has been associated with increased susceptibility to infectious diseases such as coccidiosis in poultry and respiratory diseases in pigs [19].
Mycotoxins represent a major concern in agriculture, animal husbandry, and public health. They contaminate numerous food-related items and beverages yearly, leading to significant economic losses. Indoor mycotoxin contamination is a global issue, particularly in less technologically developed countries. Continuous efforts are needed to prevent mould growth in the field and decontaminate contaminated food and feed. Humans and animals are exposed to mycotoxins through food, inhalation, or skin contact, resulting in various health issues, including kidney and neurological problems, as well as cancer [20].
Mycotoxins have damaging effects on mammals and plants worldwide, resulting in disease and significant economic losses. These losses include the death of humans and animals, increased healthcare and veterinary expenses, diminished livestock productivity, the need to discard contaminated food and feed, and the costs of research and interventions to control mycotoxins. Although there have been international efforts to establish standards for managing mycotoxins, effective implementation remains a challenge [21]. Mycotoxins have been implicated in diseases such as esophageal cancer and neural tube defects (NTDs). For example, the immunotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) can cause diarrhoea when present with other trichothecenes, while ochratoxin A (OTA) is associated with kidney failure. The economic impact of mycotoxins on society is reflected in direct market costs, including trade losses and decreased yields resulting from contaminated food or feed [22]. Fungal toxins can cause a range of adverse health effects on animals even at minimal concentrations and have been linked to numerous cases of both acute and chronic poisoning in humans and livestock. Mycotoxins pose a serious risk to the health of consumers and livestock and raise significant concerns in international trade [23].
Mycotoxins also have significant impacts on animal health and productivity. Acute or chronic exposure to these hazardous substances often results in significant economic losses. Recent studies have increasingly linked mycotoxin exposure to adverse animal health effects associated with significant economic impacts. These losses can manifest themselves in various ways, including rejection of food or raw materials contaminated with high concentrations of mycotoxins. Concerns about negative impacts on animal health and performance may further exacerbate economic burdens [24]. The presence of various mycotoxins, whether individually or in combination, can adversely affect the nutritional status and energy intake of livestock, potentially leading to suboptimal production outcomes. However, it is essential to recognize that the overall assessment of mycotoxicity in livestock should not be confined to nutritional impacts alone. Mycotoxins can cause significant damage to critical organs and systems, such as the nervous, reproductive, and immune systems, as well as the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and kidneys, often without any observable effects on growth performance [25].
Savi and Zenaide [26] highlighted the prevalence of mycotoxins in various foods such as cereals, legumes, fruits and vegetables and noted their resistance to industrial processing. These compounds also remain in processed byproducts, posing the risk of chronic poisoning and potential health effects. Analysis of mycotoxins in clinical samples from affected individuals can provide information about the extent of population exposure, enabling preventive measures to mitigate potential health problems. Therefore, avoiding exposure to mycotoxins is critical to public health as it can help prevent or reduce the occurrence of associated diseases. Yu and Pedroso [27] emphasized that toxigenic fungi deteriorate grain quality, cause grain losses, and produces mycotoxins. These mycotoxins can cause acute toxicity, mortality, and chronic disease in humans, livestock, and pets. In response to these health concerns, many countries should and enacted or adopted laws limiting exposure to mycotoxins to protect both humans and animals.
Economic impacts of mycotoxins
Annually, substantial quantities of agricultural commodities such as wheat, rice, barley, corn, sorghum, soybeans, groundnuts, and oilseeds are traded globally [28]. Mycotoxin contamination represents a significant threat to many of these products. In certain developing countries where agricultural products constitute nearly half of the national exports, moulds and mycotoxins present economic challenges due to the prolonged period between purchase at the exporting country’s village market and arrival at the importing country’s distribution centre. This delay increases the risk of mould and mycotoxin contamination at various stages within the food supply chain, from production through distribution and transportation, resulting in economic losses [29].
It is difficult to accurately estimate the global economic losses caused by mycotoxin contamination. In addition to the obvious losses in food and feed, various factors contribute to the financial impact. These include productivity losses, loss of valuable foreign exchange earnings, pre- and post-shipment inspection, sampling and analysis costs, claims compensation, farmers’ subsidies to compensate for production losses, research and extension program costs, and detoxification costs. Taken together, these factors can lead to significant economic losses [30]. Mycotoxins can economically impact the agricultural sector by reducing farm animal productivity, complicating management, or making a commodity unsuitable for national or international trade due to non-compliance with maximum allowable levels of specific mycotoxins. These toxins can develop in human food or animal feed from poorly stored post-harvest agricultural materials or through crop invasion by mycotoxigenic moulds, which may either be pathogenic or symbiotic with the plant. Mycotoxins produced in the field pose a particular challenge, often requiring substantial changes in agricultural practices (Moss, 1991).
A study conducted in 2008 highlighted the significant economic impacts of mycotoxins across various crops, particularly wheat, maize, peanuts, cottonseed, and coffee. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that mycotoxins affect 25% of the world’s crops annually, leading to losses of approximately 1 billion metric tonnes of food and food products each year. Economic losses are attributed to yield loss due to diseases caused by toxigenic fungi, reduced crop value, animal production losses related to mycotoxin-induced health issues, and human health costs. Additional expenses include management costs at all levels, such as prevention, sampling, mitigation, litigation, and research. These economic burdens are felt by crop growers, animal producers, grain handlers and distributors, processors, consumers, and society at large [28].
Armando et al. [31] noted that filamentous fungi are ubiquitous in the environment and can contaminate any food crop during field cultivation or storage. With the global population rising rapidly, minimizing food waste is increasingly critical. Fungal contamination of food incurs substantial economic costs and poses significant health risks due to the toxicity and pathogenicity of certain fungal species. Some fungi produce diverse secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins, which can accumulate in the food chain, withstand processing, and persist in the final food product, threatening food security and safety.
Anand and Rajeshkumar [32] highlighted that fungi are responsible for approximately 15% of annual crop losses, posing a significant threat to global food security and agricultural sustainability. Fungal infections drastically affect crop yields and productivity, decreasing economic output [33]. Historical instances like the Irish famine, coffee rust in Ceylon, the Great Bengal famine, and Southern maize leaf blight in the United States illustrate the severe economic damage and loss of life resulting from fungal disease outbreaks (Anand and Rajeshkumar [32]).
In the food and agriculture sectors, fungal contamination of grains leads to substantial economic losses. Aspergillus species are the most found fungi in cereals, with a 100% isolation rate in maize, followed by 88.23% in wheat, 78.57% in rice, and 14.28% in oats. Morphological and molecular identification methods have confirmed the presence of toxigenic fungal strains such as A. carbonarius, A. flavus, A. niger, A. ochraceus, and A. parasiticus in cereal samples. Aflatoxins were detected in all the cereal samples studied, with maize showing the highest levels, followed by wheat, rice, oats, and barley. Additionally, ochratoxin A (OTA) was found in wheat, rice, and maize samples [34].
Mycotoxins in nuts and dried fruits have significant economic impacts, leading to crop losses, prevention costs in the field and storage, border rejections, transportation expenses, testing, and more. Governments also incur costs related to control and public health expenses. Aflatoxins are present in peanuts, tree nuts, and dried figs, while ochratoxin A is found in dried fruits. To estimate governmental costs, the toxicity of mycotoxins and their implications for diseases, food safety expenditures, and control costs were assessed. Industry losses were calculated using actual border rejections from the EU-27 nations and other major importing countries. A survey of major exporters was conducted to determine costs associated with routine analysis, fees, demurrage at ports, staff, and additional transportation costs due to border rejections. The total cost of mycotoxin contamination in the sector can approach USD 100 million annually. The cost to governments due to mycotoxin ingestion was estimated to be 2 billion US dollars based on the lowest percentage of disease implication (1%). Costs associated with border controls are primarily borne by the import industry [35].
Crop losses from mycotoxin contamination in the United States are estimated at $932 million annually, with an additional $466 million annually attributed to regulatory enforcement, testing, and quality control. Wilson and Otsuki (2001) calculated that adopting a unified aflatoxin standard based on World Health Organization recommendations could increase global trade in cereals and nuts by more than $6 billion, representing a growth of over 50% compared to varied standards in place in 1998 [36].
Strict mycotoxin regulations could lead to global trade losses of hundreds of millions of dollars annually, with the United States, China, and Argentina bearing most of the losses. Bt corn, which reduces fumonisin and aflatoxin contamination, is projected to provide an annual economic benefit of $23 million in the United States [37].
The economic impact of mycotoxins on aquaculture is significant. The shift towards plant-based protein sources in aquaculture, away from fishmeal, has led to the incorporation of cereal grains, byproducts, and oilseeds in feed, increasing the risk of mycotoxin contamination. Mycotoxins can decrease feed intake, growth rates, and reproductive performance, and can cause liver damage, immunosuppression, increased susceptibility to disease, and mortality in farmed fish. Although there is limited data on the economic losses due to mycotoxin contamination in aquaculture, the estimated impact in 2018 was over $1.5 billion annually [38].
The biological effects of mycotoxins in aquatic species are closely linked to their concentration in feed, as well as the age and species of the organisms. In aquaculture, mycotoxins can negatively impact growth performance and feed efficiency.
In the context of catfish production (Table 1), projections suggest that aquafeeds will constitute approximately 80% of the total output by 2020, amounting to a feed cost of $5.0 billion. Considering the projected increase in production and a corresponding 5% rise in the feed conversion ratio (FCR), total feed costs attributed to mycotoxin contaminations could be anticipated to escalate to $5.2 billion. This entails an additional expenditure of $250 million to achieve equivalent fish production levels [39].
Table 1. Economic estimation of additional feeding costs resulting from mycotoxin-contaminated feed in catfish production
Year | Total production (,000 tonnes) | % of aquaculture using seeds1 | FCR1 | Total feeds (,000 tonnes) | Price of feeds⁄ tonnes 2 ($) | Cost of feeding ($,000) | FCR increase of 5%3 | Feed needed to produce the same volume of fish (,000 tonnes) | Cost of feeding ($,000) | Extra cost due to mycotoxins ($,000) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2008 | 2718 | 72% | 1.5 | 2935 | 400 | 1,174,176.00 | 1.58 | 3082 | 1,232,884.80 | 58,780.80 |
2010 | 3872 | 73% | 1.5 | 4.240 | 400 | 1,695,936.00 | 1.58 | 4452 | 1,780,732.80 | 84.796.80 |
2015 | 7456 | 75% | 1.4 | 7829 | 400 | 3,131,520.00 | 1.47 | 8220 | 3,288,096.00 | 156.576.00 |
2020 | 1008 | 80% | 1.3 | 12,488 | 400 | 4,995.328.00 | 1.37 | 13,113 | 5,245,094.40 | 249,766.40 |
000 tonnes = thousand tonnes; $’000 = thousand USS
Sources: 1 Tacon et al., 2011; 1Feed company reports and magazines; 1Peer4review literature on mycotoxins consequences in fish growth performance
Cinar and Onba [40] have highlighted the significant repercussions of mycotoxins on substantial economic losses and impacts on both domestic and international trade. Although over 400 mycotoxins have been identified, research has predominantly focused on key varieties, including aflatoxins (AF), ochratoxin A (OTA), and Fusarium toxins such as fumonisins (FUM), zearalenone (ZEA), trichothecenes (TCT), and deoxynivalenol/nivalenol. This research emphasis is driven by concerns regarding food safety and the considerable financial consequences associated with mycotoxin contamination.
In addition to the work of Cinar and Onba [40], Adeyeye [41] has also underscored the impact of mycotoxins on food safety and their financial implications. Adeyeye study specifically addresses the identification and distribution of aflatoxigenic fungi in agricultural products, highlighting the adverse effects on production, quality decline, and resulting economic losses. Both studies emphasize the importance of addressing mycotoxin contamination due to its significant implications for consumer health and the economy.
Furthermore, Chiotta et al. [42] have documented the economic losses attributed to fungal contamination and mycotoxin incidence across various crops, with particular emphasis on deoxynivalenol (DON), trichothecenes (TRC), fumonisins (FBs), and ochratoxin A (OTA). In Argentina, where commodity production is experiencing annual growth, the presence of fungal contaminants and mycotoxins in food and feed chains poses significant risks to both human and animal health. These risks lead to considerable economic losses due to restrictions in both domestic and international markets.
A study conducted by Palumbo et al. [43] revealed that both Aspergillus and Fusarium fungi exhibit extensive host ranges, particularly affecting essential cereal crops. Among these, maize frequently harbours the highest concentrations of aflatoxins and deoxynivalenol (DON), followed by wheat. These mycotoxins have the capacity to undergo metabolism or partial detoxification within their plant or animal hosts, resulting in “masked mycotoxins”, which pose challenges for detection. These mycotoxins and their masked derivatives in cereals have far-reaching economic and health implications across food and feed supply chains.
Navale et al. [44] note that mycotoxin contamination initially leads to direct economic losses through reductions in crop yield. Additionally, intact harvested cereals may suffer indirect losses due to fungal growth and mycotoxin contamination, which diminishes their quality and safety. As a result, affected cereals may be downgraded for use in animal feed or rejected outright, necessitating additional costs for farmers, such as those associated with waste disposal through landfilling or incineration, as discussed by Alassane-Kpembi et al. [45]. Aflatoxin contamination is commonly associated with post-harvest storage, while DON contamination is often linked to pre-harvest in-field conditions, as highlighted by Latham et al. (2023).
Mycotoxin situation in America
In the United States, the impact of mycotoxins, particularly in corn production, is substantial. Bt corn, genetically engineered to resist pests like corn borers, has been instrumental in mitigating mycotoxin-related losses. Research by [46] indicates that Bt corn alone saves US farmers approximately $17 million annually by reducing damage caused by fumonisin and deoxynivalenol.
The expansion of the ethanol sector in the United States, which utilizes maize in its production, has led to a significant increase in co-products, particularly dried distillers’ grains and solubles (DDGS) and wet distillers’ grains (WDG). Approximately 90% of these co-products are used as cattle feed within the country, exposing animals to elevated levels of mycotoxins, as these contaminants are concentrated up to three times more in DDGS compared to the original grain. Wu and Munkvold [47] estimated that current losses in the swine industry due to reduced weight gain from fumonisins in DDGS amount to approximately $9 million annually. If DDGS with a 20% inclusion rate becomes ubiquitous in swine feed without mycotoxin control, annual losses could escalate to $147 million [47].
Other scientists have also reported significant losses due to invasive fungi and other non-native plant infections that are having a significant impact on American agriculture. Crop losses caused by invasive plant infections, particularly fungi, are currently estimated at $21 billion per year in the United States, exceeding losses caused by non-native insects. Fungi that cause plant pathologies are difficult to detect and identify. Therefore, it is important to understand which fungi pose a threat in order to prevent their introduction through mechanisms other than inspection. Rossman [48] has identified invasive fungi affecting agricultural commodities imported into the United States. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), mycotoxins affect approximately 25% of the world’s food crops. While many countries in Europe and North America have established regulations to control mycotoxin levels in foods, efforts in Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries to educate the public about the dangers of mycotoxins and reduce aflatoxin contamination in foods have been relatively inadequate. Several crops cultivated and consumed in LAC countries, including maize, wheat, coffee, soybeans, barley, sunflower, groundnuts, tree nuts, cocoa, root tubers, and dairy products, are particularly vulnerable to fungal contamination and mycotoxin production, posing significant health risks to the population. Furthermore, mycotoxins inflict substantial commercial and financial losses on Latin American food producers and exporters [49].
In the United States, mycotoxins pose a significant economic challenge to the corn industry, with aflatoxins being the most economically significant mycotoxins affecting US agriculture. Accurate assessments of their market impacts are critical to determine the benefits of implementing mitigation strategies in the corn sector and to assess the overall value of mycotoxin management approaches. Additionally, climate change is a potential threat because it may increase aflatoxin contamination in corn and negatively impacts the economics of mycotoxin mitigation efforts in the Midwest and all industries dependent on corn production in the United States and worldwide. Should climate change lead to more frequent aflatoxin contamination in the Corn Belt, similar to what occurred in 2012, the US corn industry could suffer economic losses of $52.1 billion to $1.68 billion per year. This large range highlights the inherent variability in aflatoxin contamination levels from year to year, with larger losses typically associated with warmer years [50]. Significant levels of contamination have also been reported throughout the United States, particularly for aflatoxins, fumonisins, and deoxynivalenol (DON). Mycotoxins contribute to crop decay and quality degradation and pose health risks from consumption of contaminated food and feed. The combined effects of food and feed losses restrict supply while increasing prices for various agricultural commodities. It is estimated that the annual cost of mycotoxin contamination to the US economy is approximately $4 billion, encompassing losses in food and feed value, trade disruptions, and associated costs [51].
In a study conducted by Tournas and Niazi [52], 85 grain and grain product samples from US retail stores were analysed to assess the levels of fungal contamination. The samples included cornmeal, corn muffin mix, popcorn, various types of rice, self-rising, all-purpose unbleached, and whole wheat flour. The analysis revealed a significant prevalence of fungal contamination, with over 90% of wheat flour and maize product samples and 73% of rice samples, testing positive for viable fungi.
Popcorn and cornmeal were previously reported to habour highest levels of fungal contamination [52]. When analysing wheat flour samples, Aspergillus and Fusarium species were detected as the main contaminants (50% and 46%, respectively). Rice samples primarily showed contamination by Aspergillus, Fusarium, and yeasts, which were identified in 21% of the samples [52].
Table 2 shows the incidence of some mycotoxins in America from 2019 to 2024 regarding AFB1, FB1, and OTA as the main mycotoxins occurring in main cereals such as corn, rice, and maize and their products and clarified that FB1 was the major contaminant incidence of tested samples and infected 45–94% of tested samples in concentrations from 0.0 to 45145 μg/kg. The second infection incidence was for AFB1, from 4 to 71% in a concentration of 0.0–606 μg/kg, followed by OTA, which was found in 10% of tested samples in a low concentration from 0.0 to 1.73 μg/kg.
Table 2. Some mycotoxin incidence in America from 2019 to 2024. [88]
Mycotoxins | Matrix | Samples/positive | Incidence (%) | Concentration range (μg/kg) | Sample source | Country | Year | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AFB1 | Corn | 28/234 | 11.96 | n.d-2.20 | Fields | Brazil | 2023 | [89] |
Rice | 7/43 | 21.21 | n.d-47.07 | Open box trucks | Mexico | 2022 | [90] | |
Maize | 1/25 | 4 | n.d-21.46 | Different sour | ||||
Corn grain/silage | 100/1828 | 5.47 | n.d-606 | Farms, feed production facilities | USA | 2021 | [91] | |
Maize flour | 25/248 | 10 | 1.0–13 | Retail stores | Brazil | 2020 | [92, 93] | |
Rice | 64/90 | 71 | 0.08–19.0 | Local store and market | Colombia | 2019 | [94] | |
FB1 | Maize grains | 109/119 | 92 | 80–9881 | Fields | Uruguay | 2023 | [95] |
Corn | 107/234 | 45.72 | n.d-4810 | Brazil | [89] | |||
Maize | 22/25 | 88 | 79.22–16,672.62 | Fields and market | Mexico | 2022 | [90] | |
Maize grain | 79/90 | 88 | n.d-45145.82 | Fields | USA | [96] | ||
Maize | - | 87.5 | 6–6030 | Fields | Brazil | 2021 | [97] | |
Maize flour | 234/248 | 94 | 21.1–2582 | Retail stores | Brazil | 2020 | [92, 93] | |
OTA | Flour | 5/47 | 10.6 | n.d-1.73 | Market | Chile | 2022 | [2] |
Mycotoxin situation in Africa
In Africa, the mycotoxin situation presents significant health challenges and economic impacts. Aflatoxins, potent carcinogens, are particularly concerning as they contribute to thousands of fatalities annually, especially when combined with the hepatitis B virus. This problem is most prevalent in developing nations. Additionally, fumonisins have been linked to esophageal cancer in certain regions of southern Africa, China, and elsewhere. Trichothecenes exhibit immunosuppressive properties, while zearalenone acts as an estrogenic compound in both animals and humans.
The consequences of mycotoxin contamination extend beyond health risks, influencing food safety and microbial viability. This underscores the importance of addressing mycotoxin contamination to safeguard public health and ensure food security [53, 54], Fatma et al., (2017).
Numerous studies conducted in Nigeria have revealed mycotoxin levels in food and agricultural products that far exceed the limits set by international regulatory organizations. Moreover, there have been documented fatal outbreaks of toxicities, particularly due to aflatoxins, in Nigeria. This highlights the urgent need to address food safety and international trade concerns related to mycotoxin contamination in Nigerian consumer goods and agricultural products.
Mycotoxin contamination poses a significant challenge in developing countries like Nigeria, where there is a lack of organized scientific information and data regarding the extent of the problem. Addressing this issue is crucial for protecting public health and ensuring the safety and quality of food products in Nigeria [55].
In a study conducted in the Egyptian governorate of Sohag, various goods were examined for fungal contamination and the isolates were examined for their ability to produce mycotoxins. A total of 150 fungal isolates from 57 species and two species variations from 13 genera were identified. The genus Aspergillus was the predominant genus with 23 species and two species varieties, followed by Penicillium with 11 species. Other genera including Fusarium, Alternaria, Mucor, Trichoderma and Acremonium were also identified, although the number of species represented varied. All 150 fungal isolates were tested for their ability to produce mycotoxins. The results showed that 53 of the 150 fungal isolates (35%) could produce one or more of eight mycotoxins: aflatoxin, ochratoxin, fumonisin, sterigmatocystin, patulin, zearalenone, alternariol and diacetoxyscirpenol [56], Fatma et al., (2017).
Numerous investigations have shown the presence of mycotoxins in human diets and animal feeds in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The most dangerous mycotoxins produced by fungal species, primarily in the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium, include aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, and zearalenone [57, 58–59].
Mycotoxins are a concern during crop production and storage, transport, processing, and post-processing. The persistently high risk of mycotoxin contamination in SSA, it is essential to implement stricter regulatory standards and additional measures to prevent or decontaminate crops to ensure adequate public health protection [58, 59].
There has been a persistent lack of notable improvement in most regions, according to a thorough analysis of the literature on the incidence of aflatoxins in specific foods and feeds from high-contamination countries except South Africa. International organizations possessing the necessary expertise should conduct a global risk assessment to determine the current level of aflatoxin contamination in crops. Sub-Saharan African (SSA) nations are disproportionately affected by aflatoxins, which continue to pose a threat to global health and the economy. Such an assessment would highlight this issue. Aflatoxin-prone crops like peanuts, maize, sorghum, and sunflower are grown in agroclimatic zones (hot and humid) conducive to aflatoxin production, so it is imperative to prioritize interventions in these regions.
International trade and food security are threatened by the consistently high levels of contamination found in products from these endemic areas. Apart from the negative impact on the local populace, the risk of mycotoxin contamination spreading to other areas through the export of contaminated products limits the marketability of the products. Aflatoxin contamination in food and feed is still being worked on, but the current data indicate that not much has changed. Persistence and degree of contamination vary yearly, mostly because of weather patterns; peak contamination usually happens in the rainy season and is followed by dry spells. However, using toxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus in biocontrol technology offers a promising strategy for reducing aflatoxin contamination. This approach has the potential to colonize endemic areas and displace aflatoxin-producing strains. Further research and promotion of this biocontrol method are necessary to address the ongoing challenges of aflatoxin contamination [60].
Table 3 shows the mycotoxin incidence in some African countries from 2019 to 2024 and clarifies it that the African countries with high contamination incidence of mycotoxins are AFB1, FB1, and OTA, and the incidence reached 100% in some samples, especially maize and rice and their products, for AFB1 and FB1, and 95% for OTA in maize samples, and the concentrations of mycotoxins were from 0.0 to 42,143 μg/kg.
Table 3. Some mycotoxin incidence in some Africa countries from 2019 to 2024. [88]
Mycotoxins | Matrix | Samples/positive | Incidence (%) | Concentration range (μg/kg) | Sample source | Country | Year | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AFB1 | Wheat | 59/136 | 43.38 | 17–37.8 | Fields | Tunisia | 2023 | [98] |
Maize flour | 12/12 | 100 | 1.2–120.5 | Public health centre and retail market | Côte d’Ivoire | [99] | ||
Rice flour | 6/6 | 100 | 0.1–1.9 | |||||
Maize | 72/90 | 80 | 0.78–445.01 | Market | Ghana | 2021 | [100] | |
23/100 | 23 | 0.10–4.96 | Silos and markets | South Africa | [101, 102] | |||
Wheat | 12/36 | 33 | 0.13–49.79 | Retailer | Egypt | 2020 | [103] | |
Maize grains | 21/34 | 61.776 | 0.5–821.4 | Storage barns and silos | Ghana | 2019 | [104] | |
Rice grain | 3/24 | 12.5 | 100–200 | Market | Egypt | [105] | ||
FB1 | Rice flour | 5/6 | 83.3 | 3.5–82.7 | Public health centre and retail market | Côte d’Ivoire | 2023 | [99] |
Maize flour | 12/12 | 100 | 50.9–288.6 | |||||
Maize | 99/100 | 99 | 4.8–1566.7 | Silos and markets | South Africa | 2021 | [101, 102] | |
29/30 | 96.6 | 289–42,143 | Market | Algeria | 2020 | [106] | ||
121/123 | 98.37 | 12.3–8908 | Silos | South Africa | 2020 | [107] | ||
OTA | Rice flour | 2/6 | 33.3 | 0.2–0.3 | Public health centre and retail markets | Côte d’Ivoire | 2023 | [99] |
Maize flour | 5/12 | 41.66 | 0.1–0.5 | |||||
Maize | 95/100 | 95 | 1.6–19.44 | Silos and markets | South Africa | 2021 | [101, 102] | |
Wheat | 2/36 | 5.55 | n.d-1.37 | Retailer | Egypt | 2020 | [103] | |
Rice grain | 3/24 | 12.5 | 50–100 | Market | 2019 | [105] | ||
Wheat/flour | 4/100 | 4 | 0.6–3.4 | Mills | Lebanon | [108] |
The fact that aflatoxin contamination of crops costs Africa more than USD 750 million a year, while EU control of AFs is said to cost food exporters USD 670 million annually, is equally staggering Udomkun et al. [58]. The economic impact of mycotoxins in Africa is very significant and causes damage to the brand of African agricultural exports (Gabashi et al., 2018), so they use the pre-harvest control of mycotoxins, such as resistant cultivars, field management, biological and chemical agents, and harvest management [61].
Also, the most effective for mycotoxin control are rapid appropriate drying, appropriate transportation and packaging, favourable storage conditions, the use of natural and chemical agents, and irradiation, which are the main post-harvest grain treatments. Also, sorting, cleaning, milling, fermenting, baking, roasting, flaking, nixtamalization, and extrusion cooking lower the concentration of mycotoxin [23, 62].
Mycotoxin situation in Asia
Mycotoxins pose major challenges to food safety and quality management in Asia. While some progress has been made in updating data on mycotoxin contamination in Asian foods and products over the past decade, relevant information remains scarce. This lack of data makes it difficult to accurately assess mycotoxin exposure in the Asian population. Mycotoxin contamination is a critical issue affecting the safety and quality of food and feed. To effectively prevent mycotoxins from entering the food chain, a comprehensive understanding of their sources and routes of contamination is essential. There is an urgent need to develop rapid, accurate, sensitive, selective and cost-effective technologies for the testing and analysis of mycotoxins in food and feed. Collaborative research by Asian scientists and laboratories is crucial to assess the extent of human exposure to mycotoxins in the region. Additionally, implementing government-sanctioned regulations and laws is essential for effective oversight. National governments or regional organizations need to prioritize and invest in initiatives aimed at reliable exposure risk assessment and management of mycotoxins to protect consumers from the associated health risks of contamination [63].
Aflatoxin exposure in Malaysia can be traced back to the 1960s, when an outbreak of disease on pig farms resulted in severe liver damage among the animals. In 1988, a notable case of aflatoxicosis in Perak led to the deaths of 13 children after they consumed contaminated noodles that contained up to 3 mg of aflatoxin. Aflatoxin contamination is most frequently found in foods such as peanuts, grains, spices, and their derivatives, with some contaminated products exceeding the allowable limits set by the Malaysian Food Regulations of 1985. Although research on aflatoxin biomarkers in human biological samples is still in its infancy, several studies have confirmed their presence. Findings indicate that Malaysians generally experience lower levels of aflatoxin exposure compared to populations where dietary aflatoxin contamination is more prevalent. Given the established link between aflatoxin consumption and liver cancer, the literature has documented instances of liver cancer related to dietary exposure to aflatoxins in Malaysia [64].
In addition to mycotoxin exposure, modern agriculture in Pakistan faces significant risks from soil-borne plant diseases caused by root-knot nematodes and root-rotting fungi. These pathogens pose challenges to agricultural productivity and crop yields. However, no comprehensive research on agricultural losses caused by these illnesses and pests has been conducted in Pakistan. A recent survey in Lower Sindh and Hub, Balochistan, identified several root-rot pathogens, including Macrophomina phaseolina, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium oxysporum, and F. solani, as well as root-knot nematodes Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica.
In chili crops infected with F. solani and R. solani in combination with root-knot nematodes, losses ranged from 36 to 56%. Similarly, F. solani alone caused crop losses ranging from 30 to 60% in different locations in Thatta. Fusarium species were also associated with root-knot nematodes, resulting in a significant reduction in tomato production, with losses ranging from 50 to 85%. Additionally, M. phaseolina-induced charcoal rot was identified as a significant disease affecting sunflower and cotton crops [65].
Efforts to reduce aflatoxin levels in crops are increasingly focused on the use of environmentally friendly technologies using atoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxins are natural pollutants that can significantly affect human health, agricultural productivity and food safety. These secondary metabolites are produced by various Aspergillus species, particularly under conditions characterized by high temperatures and humidity, such as those commonly found in tropical regions. Aflatoxins are known to pose significant health risks to humans and animals. In China, there is increased awareness of aflatoxin contamination among researchers, food manufacturers and policymakers. Numerous comprehensive reviews have been published, mainly focusing on the prevalence of aflatoxins in agricultural products in the country [66].
A 2021 investigation into mycotoxin contamination in various feed commodities across China revealed that trichothecenes type B, fumonisins, and zearalenone (ZEN) were the most frequently detected mycotoxins. High concentrations of these mycotoxins were observed in new-season maize samples, and geographical variations were identified. For example, significant concentrations of trichothecenes type B, fumonisins, and ZEN were found in samples from Shandong province, while aflatoxins and fumonisins were prevalent in samples from Anhui and Jiangsu provinces in East China. The survey also revealed that compound feeds and raw materials are commonly contaminated by multiple mycotoxins [67].
Aflatoxins have global health and economic repercussions. Asia’s developing countries, typically with tropical climates, grow crops that are susceptible to aflatoxin proliferation. Inadequate harvesting practices, unsuitable storage, and poor transit conditions contribute to significant losses from farm to fork. Numerous instances of aflatoxin contamination exceeding permissible levels have been detected in various commodities consumed by Asian local populations. This not only poses health risks such as growth retardation, immunosuppression, and hepatic disorders, but also leads to significant economic losses due to trade restrictions. However, stringent aflatoxin regulations often result in exporting countries prioritizing exporting their highest quality food while retaining contaminated food for the domestic market, increasing aflatoxin exposure, particularly in low or middle-income countries with a high prevalence of hepatitis.
Effective aflatoxin control measures are essential to safeguard the Asian population from the dangers of aflatoxins and ensure the safe supply of commodities worldwide through commerce. Various safe, efficient, and environmentally friendly bioproducts have been successfully introduced globally in recent years. Implementing such approaches in Asia could help protect food and feed commodities from aflatoxin contamination [68].
Mycotoxins, known for their hazardous health effects, have also been detected in dried fruits. A study conducted in Saudi Arabia’s Jeddah governorate found the presence of seven fungal genera and 13 species in fruits and fruit-based products. Further investigation into toxin production revealed that only Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus were toxigenic fungi capable of producing mycotoxins [69].
The impact of fungi on the poultry industry in Yemen is also significant, particularly through the contamination of feed rations and the production of various metabolites, which can harm poultry growth and lead to the onset of diseases. Research has highlighted a notable prevalence of fungi in samples obtained from prominent retailers across major governorates, with one of the most concerning species identified due to its capacity to produce multiple compounds, including aflatoxins and fumonisin [70].
Aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, and T-2 toxin concentrations were measured in 74,821 feed and feed raw material samples gathered from 100 countries between 2008 and 2017. Approximately, 88% of the samples tested positive for at least one mycotoxin. The prevalence of mycotoxins displayed significant regional variations, with climate being a crucial driver dictating these trends. The majority of samples in most regions met the maximum and recommended levels for mycotoxins in animal feed set by the European Union. However, the limits for aflatoxin B1 (20 g/kg) exceeded 41.1, 38.5 and 20.9% of samples from Southeast Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, respectively. A study conducted 20 years ago in northwestern Europe to examine mycotoxin contamination of grain products used for feed and food production found patterns over time, co-occurrence of toxins, and possible climate effects on the presence of mycotoxins. The investigation revealed that deoxynivalenol was present at significant levels in wheat, corn and oats, often with other mycotoxins [71].
In early 2013, heightened levels of aflatoxin M1 were detected in the bulk milk of several Dutch dairy farms. The contamination was traced to aflatoxin B1-contaminated maize imported from Eastern Europe, which was processed into compound feed and fed to dairy cows. This led to the observed increase in aflatoxin M1 levels in the milk. The contamination required feed recalls and resulted in significant financial losses, estimated at between 12 and 25 million euros [72].
Mycotoxins can also be transmitted to meat and eggs when poultry are fed contaminated feed. In Argentina, a study revealed widespread contamination of feedstuff used for chicken feeding, with 90% of samples testing positive for at least one mycotoxin [38]. In Italy, a study in the Umbria region collected samples of malting barley to assess the prevalence of mycotoxigenic fungal genera and detected the presence of multiple mycotoxins, with Fusarium species being particularly prevalent [73].
Argentina’s annual commodity production continues to grow, but fungal contamination and mycotoxins in food and feed chains present significant risks to both human and animal health, as well as substantial economic losses due to restrictions on domestic and international markets. Various toxigenic fungal species have been isolated from Argentina’s key crops, with deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), and fumonisin B1 (FB1) being among the most prevalent mycotoxins. Numerous studies have shown that environmental factors significantly impact these fungi’s growth and mycotoxins’ generation. For example, wet, humid, or semi-humid conditions favour the growth of Fusarium species and the accumulation of DON and NIV (Torres et al., 2019). Dairy products in Brazil have also been found to contain mycotoxins. In São Paulo, Brazil, aflatoxin M1 was detected in 88.3% of samples collected from large milk-producing companies, with concentrations exceeding the European limit in 4.3% of the samples (Freitas et al., 2013). In conclusion, mycotoxin contamination presents a significant global challenge to food safety and quality management, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. Effective control measures, including stringent regulatory frameworks and adopting environmentally friendly technologies, are essential to mitigate the risks associated with mycotoxins and ensure the safety of food and feed commodities.
Table 4 shows mycotoxin incidence in some countries of Asia from 2019 to 2024 and found that the selected tested mycotoxins were reached together within the same percentages: AFB1 was found in 9–90% at concentrations of 0.0–1572 μg/kg, while FB1 was found in 4–90% at concentrations from 0.0 to 24900 μg/kg, followed by OTA, which was found in 13–62% at concentrations from 0.0 to 126 μg/kg.
Table 4. Some mycotoxin incidence in some countries of Asia from 2019 to 2024. Niaz et al. [88]
Mycotoxins | Matrix | Samples/positive | Incidence (%) | Concentration range (μg/kg) | Sample source | Country | Year | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AFB1 | Rice | 27/50 | 54 | n.d-20.34 | Local shops | India | 2024 | [109] |
Wheat flour | 65/108 | 60 | 0.14–7.34 | Flour factories | Iran | 2023 | [110] | |
Rice | 19/192 | 9.8 | 0.2–3.3 | Farms and market | China | 2022 | [111] | |
48/128 | 38 | – | Retail markets | UAE | [112] | |||
Wheat bran | 54/60 | 90 | 0.06–0.99 | Manufacturer | Iran | 2021 | [113] | |
Wheat flour | 144/180 | 80 | 0.01–0.05 | |||||
Wheat | 166/300 | 55 | 1.05–7.36 | Warehouse | Lebanon | 2020 | ||
Rice | 13/144 | 9 | n.d-93 | Retail market, households | Viet Nam | [114] | ||
Maize | 57/189 | 30 | n.d-1572 | |||||
Wheat flour | 10/30 | 33 | n.d-3.01 | Shops, domestic | Pakistan | 2019 | [115] | |
FB1 | Maize | 30/20 | 67 | 1.89–3.86 | Market | China | 2022 | [116] |
Wheat | 30/20 | 67 | 1.81–3.42 | |||||
41/1010 | 4.05 | – | Farmers | [117] | ||||
Raw maize | 47/58 | 81 | n.d-24900 | Farms and markets | [111] | |||
Maize silage | 144/200 | 72 | n.d-558 | Dairy farms | [118] | |||
Wheat grain | 31/36 | 86.11 | 4–1560 | Supermarkets, stores, and vendors | Pakistan | 2020 | [119] | |
Wheat flour | 20/22 | 90.90 | 4–1390 | |||||
Maize | 63/189 | 33.33 | n.d-1662 | Retail markets, households | Viet Nam | [114] | ||
Maize and maize flour | 135/283 | 48 | n.d-9845 | Local markets | China | 2019 | Yang et al., (2019) | |
Maize/maize-based products | 47/58 | 81 | n.d-24890 | Farms and local markets | [111] | |||
OTA | Maize | 82/135 | 61 | 0.1–56 | Fields and research stations | Pakistan | 2022 | [120] |
Maize | 28/45 | 62 | 1.3.22 | Local markets, shops and farmers | Nepal | [121, 81] | ||
Rice | 2/10 | 20 | 0.3–5.6 | Supermarkets | Palestine | [122] | ||
Maize | 26/189 | 13.75 | n.d-126 | Retail market, household | Viet Nam | 2020 | [114] | |
Wheat | 145/300 | 48 | 0.51–9.71 | Warehouses | Lebanon | [121] |
Effect of mycotoxin
Mycotoxin concentrations in maize exhibit significant year-to-year variability across different regions, influenced by factors such as rainfall and temperature during critical grain growth stages. A substantial proportion of the samples (64%) were contaminated with two or more mycotoxins. The most common combinations included deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins, and aflatoxin B1. A correlation between deoxynivalenol and zearalenone concentrations in maize and wheat has been observed. Comprehensive global assessments have revealed that mycotoxin contamination, including co-contamination in animal feed, is widespread, follows geographical patterns, and is partially driven by climate and weather conditions [74].
Fish feed contaminated with mycotoxin has the same harmful effects as other animal species intended for human consumption. These impacts can result in reduced feed conversion efficiency and weight gain, impaired immune and reproductive systems, and increased fish mortality, indicating production losses. In addition, fish can spread mycotoxin residues through the food chain, which could be harmful to human health. Given these serious consequences, controlling mycotoxin levels in fish feed must be given top priority. This can be achieved by introducing strict controls to reduce the risk of contamination during production and storage processes [75].
Mycotoxins are a significant health hazard, particularly in developing countries, as they can cause severe and irreversible health issues, including cancer. Most mycotoxins are heat-resistant at typical cooking temperatures, making them difficult to remove from food and feed once contamination has occurred [76]. The majority of mycotoxins can withstand heat. Aflatoxin and OTA undergo partial decomposition at temperatures of around 250 and 200 °C, respectively. At temperatures above 180 °C, fumonisins may be totally destroyed [77], and DON degrades above 210 °C [78]. Mycotoxin degradation is often influenced by treatment temperature and time. High-pressure processing (HPP) in conjunction with thermal treatment can hasten the breakdown of mycotoxins in food. Therefore, it is essential to encourage effective prevention and control of these harmful compounds in agricultural products while they are still in the field. This proactive approach can greatly reduce the spread of mycotoxins and the incidence of related illnesses, thereby ensuring food safety and enhancing the longevity of populations, particularly in Africa. Governments and research organizations must adopt strategies to combat the occurrence and prevalence of mycotoxins, which will offer the best opportunities for the successful development of sustainable food systems in Africa [76].
The presence of fungi and mycotoxins has been a longstanding global issue, particularly severe in developing regions such as China and Africa. Early detection of fungal infections and mycotoxin contamination, even in trace amounts, is crucial for preventing these dangerous toxins from entering the global food supply [79].
Fungal and mycotoxin contamination of food crops is widespread, leading to prolonged exposure that can result in serious health problems and significant economic losses. Food and feed are often contaminated with multiple pollutants, including trace elements, heavy metals, dioxins, pesticides, and mycotoxins. This pervasive contamination poses substantial challenges to food safety, especially in African countries with limited capacity to enforce international food safety regulations. Consequently, exportable raw food products from these regions are often rejected, leading to financial strain and increased domestically consumption of potentially hazardous foods. While some African countries have adopted innovative biocontrol technologies to manage mycotoxin contamination, these solutions may not provide a comprehensive or long-term remedy. Therefore, exploring additional strategies for mycotoxin management and food safety in African countries is essential to protect public health and mitigate the economic losses associated with food contamination [80].
In Ghana, research has identified toxicogenic fungal profiles and mycotoxins (including aflatoxins) present in various herbs, such as bay leaf (Laurus nobilis) and garden egg leaves (“gboma”, Solanum macrocarpon), as well as spices like ginger (Zingiber officinale) and “dawadawa” (Parkia biglobosa). The fungal contaminants included Aspergillus species (niger, flavus, fumigatus, and ochraceus), Fusarium species (oxysporum, verticillioides), Mucor racemosus, Penicillium species (digitatum, expansum), Rhizopus stolonifer, Rhodotorula sp., and Trichoderma harzianum. The most prevalent species was Fusarium oxysporum. Fresh ginger had the highest number of colony-forming units (3.71 log10 CFU/g), while bay leaves had the lowest (2.36 log10 CFU/g). Mycotoxins were detected in gboma and dawadawa, but not in bay leaf or ginger [81].
Control and management of mycotoxins
The most crucial pre-harvest practices for the management of mycotoxins in the wheat/maize chain may be (i) land preparation, including tillage, cover crops, and crop rotation; (ii) planting and antifungal mulch treatment; (iii) application of botanical extracts and intercropping; (iv) application of fungal biocontrol agents to reduce aflatoxins; and (iii) mycotoxin-hazard and analysis of control measures in the pre-harvest operations. Five Control Points (CPs) and one Critical Control Point (CCP) have been identified for the post-harvest processes. The CCP contains intervention measures that can be used during storage, like UV therapy, ozonization, cold plasma, and treatments with volatile bioactive chemicals [82].
Pre-harvest using resistant cultivars, field management, biological and chemical agents, and harvest management are examples of techniques [61]. Postharvest grain treatments employed as mycotoxin mitigation techniques, such as sorting, cleaning, milling, fermenting, baking, roasting, flaking, nixtamalization, and extrusion cooking, lower the concentration of mycotoxin [23, 62].
Based measures can reduce mycotoxin contamination, while traditional chemical, biological, and physical methods can be used to detoxify following contamination. However, the increasing fungal resistance and limitations associated with current methods need the development of novel strategies for quick eradication with short processing times and minimal impact on quality. Recent new solutions for mycotoxin control in foods include cold atmospheric plasma, polyphenols and flavonoids, magnetic materials and nanoparticles, and natural essential oils. Although the available research showed that these techniques had promising results, total decontamination was not accomplished. Mycotoxin bioactivity was reduced through the disruption of fungal cell membranes and structural degradation of complex biochemical molecules caused by the oxidative effects of reactive species, inhibition of enzymes responsible for carbohydrate breakdown, and adsorption and binding of mycotoxin functional groups in food substrates. Integrated management systems that combine numerous strategies can be investigated for increased efficiency and adaptation to various food matrices [83].
RNA-based fungicides, biocontrol, and natural plant defenses are some methods of managing fungi. Fungicides and natural product preservatives are being investigated as ways to get around clean label food product requirements. Physical solutions like polymer materials and treatments that lower chlorine levels are also being contemplated. The effectiveness of food preservatives may be impacted by the rise of lower-sugar foods. Combining fungicides and preservatives can target various fungus populations while using fewer chemicals [84].
Using natural substances that have been separated from various sources (plants, animals, and microbes) as possible antifungal compounds, along with details regarding their mode of action and application in food preservation and shelf life extension. A wide range of foods can have the fungal decay controlled by compounds derived from plants, chitosan, lactoferrin, and biocontrol agents (lactic acid bacteria, antagonistic yeast, and their metabolites). A number of techniques are used to lessen the negative effects of various antifungal agents, such as combining them with other natural preservatives, incorporating them into edible films and active packaging, and incorporating them into oil-in-water emulsions and nanoemulsions [85].
Various strategies can be implemented to effectively combat mycotoxins including harvesting plants early, using rapid drying techniques, separating infected seeds from healthy seeds, maintaining cleanliness, implementing sensible agronomic practices, controlling insect populations, and using both botanical and synthetic protectants for storage. In addition, biological control methods and detoxification processes for contaminated products are important measures to mitigate the risks associated with mycotoxins [86].
Because it can convert mycotoxins into less harmful or harmless metabolites in mild settings while maintaining the nutritional value and sensory appeal of agricultural products, biodegradation is a promising method for getting rid of mycotoxins. Furthermore, animals possess the capacity to detoxify mycotoxins, and certain bioactive compounds, such as quercetin, sporoderm-broken spores of Ganoderma lucidum, and lipoic acid, can enhance an animal’s capacity to detoxify mycotoxins and lessen their harmful effects [87].
Conclusion
Mycotoxins have significant health and economic impacts on humans and society, increasing human disease and contamination. Posing major challenges for companies and communities alike, with significant economic losses. Environmental pollution caused by mycotoxins is widespread throughout Africa and Asia, causing serious health and economic problems. Effective management strategies such as proper drying, separation of infected plants from healthy plants, sanitation, implementation of various agricultural practices, control of insect pests, and use of artificial pesticides for storage are required to combat the situation. Future recommendations: Patel TK 2025 reported that it explores various detection and quantification methods, including advanced technologies for accurate and efficient monitoring; global regulatory frameworks, including those of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, the European Union, and the US FDA; and outlines current safety standards. Mitigation strategies, from pre-harvest practices to post-harvest and processing interventions, are detailed alongside emerging technologies such as genetic engineering and biocontrol.
Author contributions
Author Contributions: Jianrong Shi: conceptualization, writing; Jianhong Xu: visualization, review and editing; Xin Liu: visualization, writing original draft preparation; Amira A. Goda: visualization, writing original draft preparation; Salah H. Salem: review and editing; Mohamed M. Deabes: review and editing; You Zhou: review and editing; Liwen Xiao: review and editing; Mona Abdel-Galil: review and editing; Eman G Ayad: review and editing; Ofentse Pooe: review and editing; M.A. Abou Donia: review and editing; Abou-Arab: review and editing; Sherif Ramzy: conceptualization and writing.
Funding
Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in cooperation with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB).
Data availability
No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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