Preliminary analysis of the Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety Scale (FLTAS) in Iranian teachers

Abstract

Although anxiety in the context of learning a foreign language has been widely studied, the anxiety experienced by foreign language teachers seems to be neglected. While research primarily focuses on foreign language anxiety in a learning context, there is insufficient research to assess the psychometric properties of Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety (FLTA) scale among Iranian teachers. Therefore, this study aims to present the preliminary results of the validity and reliability of the Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety Scale (FLTAS) among Iranian teachers. Using a convenience sampling procedure, a total of 468 Iranian foreign language teachers (female, n = 333) responded to an online survey. The confirmatory factor analysis results showed a 5-factor structure resembling the original factor structure in the Persian language. Moreover, the results showed that the Persian version of FLTA exhibited high internal consistency and test–retest reliability. Overall, the results support the validity and reliability of the Persian version of the FLTAS, which can be used to assess foreign language teaching anxiety.

Introduction

As a psychological construct, anxiety is one of the most salient features of the foreign language learning process (Derakhshan & and Fathi, 2024; Xin & Derakhshan, 2025). In its broader sense, anxiety is an uncomfortable emotional state in people in which there is a feeling of apprehension, nervousness, helplessness, and tension before, during, or after obtaining any experience (Blau, 1955; Silverman & van Schalkwyk, 2019). Anxiety is likely to lead to many problems in the foreign language learning process for future teachers (Aydin, 2008). For example, future teachers in training feel anxious when their teaching practice lesson plans do not correspond to their real classrooms (Halbach, 2000). Halbach (2000) argues that finding a practical pedagogical approach in teacher education programs is essential because student teachers are more likely to model their teachers’ instructional behaviors in their teaching models. Therefore, there is a need to bridge the gap between theoretical and practical knowledge in teacher training programs. Teacher education programs may be the best link from which perspective teachers become familiar with language teaching approaches and the fundamentals of classroom management (Mercer, 2018). While extensive research has explored foreign language anxiety (FLA) among learners (Liu & Wu, 2021; Liu et al., 2023; MacIntyre & McGillivray, 2023; Zhou et al., 2023), few studies examine how teaching anxiety manifests among English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers (Can, 2018), particularly in non-Western contexts like Iran (Soleimani & Allahveysi, 2022).

This article’s main objective is to better understand the pedagogical development process of future trainee teachers during their teacher training programs focusing on foreign language teaching anxiety. Although teaching internships can play an important role in initial teacher training programs, their imminent position before attending the real classroom can make them perceive teaching as a difficult task. As a result, they are, in some cases, strongly influenced by negative opinions or assumptions. This indicates the need to understand the different perceptions of anxiety among foreign language teachers. Can (2018) explored foreign language teaching anxiety (FLTA) among pre-service teachers through interviews, questionnaires, and written reflections. Findings reflected that pre-service EFL teachers experienced affective, cognitive, and socio-cultural anxiety, specifically when teaching young learners. The study also highlighted FLTA’s detrimental impacts on classroom outcomes, including impaired teacher performance and reduced language learning success (Horwitz et al., 1986). Furthermore, FLTA has led to despair, worry, low self-confidence, lack of self-esteem, and difficulties in knowledge retention (Pipuš, 2021; Toyama & Yamazaki, 2022). Further research suggests that EFL teachers, often still learners themselves, remain vulnerable to FLTA (Ghanizadeh et al., 2020), which can also undermine their teaching efficacy, job satisfaction, and overall well-being (Fraschini & Park, 2022).

Given FLTA’s significant implications, further research is needed. While language learning anxiety has been widely studied, teacher-specific anxiety in language teaching remains underexplored. In Iran, empirical research on FLTA has been hindered by the absence of a validated measurement tool. Since English is a foreign language in Iran, instructors may face heightened teaching anxiety, making this a critical area of inquiry. This research aims to adapt and validate the psychometric properties of an FLTA scale for Iranian English teachers, involving translation into Persian.

Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety (FLTA)

Anxiety is a personality trait (Asanjarani & Zarebahramabadi, 2021). However, situation-specific anxiety, emphasizing the multifaceted and persistent nature of anxieties, is experienced during a particular reaction to a learning situation (Ayuningtyas et al., 2022; Chen et al., 2006; Feng & Mohd Rawian, 2023; Habeb Al-Obaydi & Pikhart, 2022). Foreign language anxiety (FLA) is linked to language learning in classroom settings. It includes distinct behaviors, emotions, and perceptions (Horowitz, 1986). As the first attempts in the literature to explain FLTA, some scholars have generally defined FLTA as part of the problems faced by language teachers (Tüfekçi-Can, 2018). Along the same lines, Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) define FLTA as an apprehension experienced by a teacher who does not sufficiently master the target language. FLA can therefore be defined as situation-specific anxiety (Aydin, 2008). The term FLTA was first introduced by Horwitz (1996) and was defined as the feeling of anxiety experienced by non-native teachers when teaching a foreign language in their classrooms. These people are foreign learners who still feel they have not acquired enough skills in the target language or suffer from low foreign language proficiency (Mercer, 2018). Our study is conceptually framed in Aydin’s (2016) definition of the construct of FLTA as “the emotional and affective state in which student teachers feel when stress is caused by personal, perceptual, motivational, and technical issues before, during, and after teaching practice” Therefore, there should be different views on FLTA, and the factors causing the FLTA problem need further investigation (Sari & Anwar, 2021).

By applying various research instruments such as surveys, interviews, and diaries, researchers have generally highlighted different factors and sources of anxiety among teachers. Mindfulness of the details of the language used, student culture (Öztürk, 2016), and teaching experience (Aydin, 2016; Kobul & Saraçoğlu, 2020; Sari & Anwar, 2021), fear of negative evaluations (Fraschini & Park, 2021; Liu & Wu, 2021; Uştuk & Aydın, 2018), poor language proficiency (Aydin, 2016; S. Aydin & Ö. Ustuk, 2020), time management (Sari & Anwar, 2021), lack of learner interest (S. Aydin & Ö. Ustuk, 2020; Sari & Anwar, 2021) can be mentioned among these factors that can lead to pedagogical anxiety. In addition, classroom management, specific language teaching approaches, and procedures, or power relations such as supervisor-teacher, emotional, and affective states (Ali, 2011) causes teachers to avoid using a foreign language not only in the classroom but also in various social contexts (Aydin, 2008). Along the same lines, (Öztürk, 2016) provided significant results in terms of factors and sources causing anxiety in foreign language teaching in the classroom context.. He also finds that student teachers feel anxious when they do not know the pronunciation or meaning of words or do not respond to supervisors’ requests to transcribe audible text. In addition, exposure to students'immediate questions and judgmental behaviors disrupted them during instruction.

Method

Participants

Using convenience sampling, a total of 468 participants—including 333 female Iranian foreign language teachers—responded to an online survey. Specifically, participants were selected from four univesities in Isfahan & Markazi provinces. The summary of demographic information is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Sample Demographic Information

		n=468
		n	%
Age
18-21 years		186	39.7
21-30 years		148	31.6
31-40 years		65	13.9
41-50 years		58	12.4
51 and more		11	2.4
Gender
Male		173	40.32
Female		256	59.67
Marital Status
Single		295	63.00
Married		171	63.00
Divorced		2	0.40
Educational Qualification
Associate degree		60	12.8
Bachelor		308	65.8
Master		93	19.9
PhD		7	1.5
Employment status
Pre-service teacher		31	6.6
Teacher		125	26.7
English language student		312	66.7
Teaching experience
Student/intern		263	56.2
0-1 year		37	7.9
1-2 years		19	4.1
2-3 years		17	3.6
3-4 years		12	2.6
More than four years		120	25.6

Measures

Demographic scale

The demographic questionnaire included questions about the participant’s age, sex, marital status, teaching experience, employment status, and educational background.

Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety Scale (FLTAS)

Designed by Aydin and Ustuk (2020a, 2020b), the FLTAS consisted of 27 items based on a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5 (never = 1, rarely = 2, sometimes = 3, often = 4, always = 5). The scale was developed through a long-term research process beginning with qualitative research on key factors related to FLTA as described in Aydin (2016). FLTAS was developed later. In this regard, after piloting FLTAS, internal consistency in a five-factor solution in the preliminary study and a high-reliability coefficient (0.95 in Cronbach’s alpha) were obtained (Aydin & Ustuk, 2020a, 2020b). The five-factor solution accounted for 69.09% of the variance. Factors included self-perceived language proficiency, lack of student interest, inexperience in teaching, fear of negative evaluation, and difficulties with time management. In other words, the items have been listed in the order of the factors listed above. By way of conclusion, it should be mentioned that the items on the scale were representative of the particular situations in the foreign language teaching context. In the current study, the reliability assessed by Cronbach’s alpha was 0.91.

The Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI)

This scale was designed by (Beck et al., 1988) and is a 21-item self-report inventory used to measure anxiety levels based on the Likert scale, with each response scored on a scale of 0 (not at all) to 3 (severely). This scale was developed to be an accurate measure of anxiety symptoms. Higher total scores represent more severe anxiety symptoms. The standardized thresholds are the same as (0–7: minimal, 8–15: mild, 16–25: moderate, 26–63: severe) Specifically designed as “an inventory to measure clinical anxiety,” the BAI reduces the overlap between depression and the anxiety scale. Several studies (Kaviani & Mousavi, 2008) have confirmed the psychometric traits of the BAI, including its reliability and validity. Additionally, internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha of the scale in the current study was 0.93.

Procedure

After emailing and receiving permission from the developers of the FLTA questionnaire (Aydin & Ustuk, 2020a, 2020b), the researchers developed the FLTA package in English. IRB approval of the article was obtained from the University Ethics Committee MARKED FOR REVIEW. Translation and back-translation of the FLTA followed standard guidelines (Sousa & Rojjanasrirat, 2011). First, two independent collaborators fluent in Persian and English, whose native language was Persian, revised an initial translation of the scale for the Persian language. Any disagreements were resolved by reaching a consensus. Next, a native English speaker performed a back-translation compared to the original by two clinical psychologists. A pre-test of the FLTA version in Persian was also carried out by asking 20 foreign language teachers to fill in the scale and point out any doubts, questions, or misunderstandings regarding the clarity of the instructions, the answer format, and the structure of the item sentences.

After receiving feedback, we concluded this process and began data recruitment from foreign language teachers as participants using convenience sampling. Due to the coronavirus outbreak, data was collected online by uploading questions to a website (porsline.ir). To complete the questionnaires, the researchers first spoke to several foreign language teachers at four teacher training universities in the province of MARKED FOR REVIEW about the primary purpose and necessity of this study. After obtaining the informed consent of the participants, the researchers sent them the link to the online questionnaire. Moreover, in addition to the link to the questionnaire, written and audio notice files were also attached explaining the purpose of the study, indicating the anonymity of the questionnaires, voluntary participation, and the possibility of withdrawing at any time. Finally, 503 participants responded to the research tools, and 35 incomplete or non-eligible questionnaires were excluded from the data analysis.

The University of Isfahan ethics committee approved the study protocol. All procedures performed in this study complied with the ethical standards of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its subsequent amendments or comparable ethical standards. Furthermore, informed consent was obtained from all individuals.

Data analysis

The data were processed using SPSS/Windows (version 21) and AMOS (version 19). Descriptive statistics were used to explore participants’ characteristics. Psychometric properties of the Persian version of the FLTA were assessed by several statistical tests as follows.

Validity

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to assess construct validity using structural equation modelling (SEM). Common data model fit statistics and their associated decision rules were used to assess the goodness of fit of the latent measurement models. Model fits were assessed by chi-square goodness of fit (fixed at 0.05), the goodness of fit index (GFI), adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI), incremental fit index (IFI), and comparative fit index (CFI) greater than 0.9 (Kline, 2015). For another approximate fit index, a root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), a value less than 0.08, and a root mean square residual (RMR) less than 0.05 were assessed (Stevens, 2012).

A concurrent validity analysis was also performed. Concurrent validity was assessed by the correlation between FLTA scores and BAI scores.

Reliability

In order to measure its reliability, we used internal consistency and test/retest reliability. Specifically, internal consistency was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, with a coefficient equal to or greater than 0.70, indicating reliability ranging from adequate to excellent (Cronbach, 1951). Additionally, the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was used to assess test/retest reliability, with 30 participants completing the questionnaire twice 4 weeks apart. ICC values of 0.40 or more are satisfactory (r = 0.81–1.0 as excellent, 0.61–0.80 very good, 0.41–0.60 good, 0.21–0.40 fair, and 0.0 to 0.20 poor) (Munro, 2005).

Results

Within the range of 27 to 135, the range of scores obtained from the data set was from 27 to 135, with a mean score of 68.19. The standard deviation was 22.27. The descriptive details for each item in the FLTAS are given in Table 3. We used confirmatory factor analysis to examine the original 5-factor structure of the Persian language FLTA. Descriptive statistics and the structure of the FLTA were established (see Table 2 Descriptive statistics and reliability coefficients).

Table 2. Descriptive statistics and reliability coefficients

FLTA	M	SD	Cronbach’s alpha	test–retest reliability
Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety	68.19	22.27	.69	.72**
Self-perception of language proficiency	31.38	12.24	.76
Teaching inexperience	11.10	5.41	.59	.69**
Lack of student interest	9.98	4.01	.64	.73**
Fear of negative evaluation	8.34	3.65	.63	.68**
Difficulties with time management	7.42	3.28	.65	.69**

N = 468. **P < 0.01

The FLTA model consisting of 5 factors (27 items) achieved the required chi-square value: χ2/pdf = 3.22, N = 468, and the fit indices of the model to the data were very satisfactory: GFI = 0.9, AGFI = 0.82, IFI = 0.91, CFI = 0.91, TLI = 0.90, and RMSEA = 0.06 for the Persian version of FLTA. The results are shown in Table 3

Table 3. Confirmatory factor analysis fit indices Persian version of FLTA

Model	χ2/df	GFI	AGFA	IF	CFI	TLI	RMS
Persian version of FLTA	3.22	. 90	.82	.91	.91	.90	.06

According to Schumacker and Lomax (2004), the value of these indicators indicates the adequacy of the FLTA questionnaire model with the data. In the 5-factor model, all items relied significantly (P < 0.05) on their respective factors: self-perceived language proficiency (factor loading = − 0.61 to 0.80), inexperience in teaching (factor loading = − 0.61 to 0.87), lack of student interest (factorial load = 0.49 to 0.90), fear of a negative evaluation (factorial load = 0.74 to 0.95), and time management difficulties (factorial load = − 0.70 to 0.89). See Table 4 for the factor loading of each item.

Table 4. Confirmatory factor analysis on the Persian version of FLTA

Item	Factor loading	t	P value
Factor 1: Self-perception of language proficiency
1	.71	14.60	.0001
2	.70	14.35	.0001
3	.71	14.64	.0001
4	.68	14.07	.0001
5	.80	16.49	.0001
6	.74	15.28	.0001
7	.73	14.96	.0001
8	.85	17.38	.0001
9	.61	12.60	.0001
10	.73	14.96	.0001
11	.66	15.71	.0001
12	.70	-	.0001
Factor 2: Teaching inexperience
13	.61	-	.0001
14	.69	15.24	.0001
15	.79	15.22	.0001
16	.82	13.65	.0001
17	.87	14.08	.0001
Factor 3: Lack of student interest
18	.90	-	.0001
19	.49	10.90	.0001
20	.67	16.35	.0001
21	.88	23.74	.0001
Factor 4: Fear of negative evaluation
22	.95	-	.0001
23	.89	29.51	.0001
24	.74	20.69	.0001
Factor 5: Difficulties with time management
25	.89	-	.0001
26	.77	17.86	.0001
27	.70	15.91	.0001

Concurrent validity was assessed by correlations of FLTA scores with BAI, which revealed satisfactory concurrent validity (r = 0.55, P < 0.01). Table 5 represents the Pearson correlation coefficients between the two measurement tools.

Table 5. Pearson correlation coefficients between the Beck Anxiety Inventory and Foreign Language Teaching inventory

FLTA	BAI	P value
Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety	.55	.01
Self-perception of language proficiency	.42	.01
Teaching inexperience	.56	.01
Lack of student interest	.34	.01
Fear of negative evaluation	.39	.01
Difficulties with time management	.29	.01

Test–retest reliability was assessed by two consecutive administrations of the questionnaires 4 weeks apart. Internal consistency was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha statistic for the total scale and the different domains of the questionnaire. Cronbach’s alpha values ranged from 0.59 to 0.76. Additionally, the ICC ranged from 0.68 to 0.73, indicating the temporal stability of the questionnaire (see Table 2).

Discussion

This study aimed to assess the psychometric characteristics of the Persian version of the FLTA in a sample of foreign language teachers’ reliability. The findings of this study, which validate the 5-factor structure of the Persian version of the FLTAS, align closely with Horwitz’s (1986) Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA) theory, which theorizes that language anxiety is a multifaceted construct influenced by cognitive, emotional, and situational factors. Our results support this theoretical framework by demonstrating that foreign language teaching anxiety (FLTA) among Iranian teachers also encompasses interrelated dimensions—reflecting the original FLTAS structure (e.g., fear of negative evaluation, self-perceived inadequacy, and classroom management stress).

In order to examine the validity of this scale, we used factor analysis, and to measure its reliability, we used internal consistency and test/retest reliability. The confirmatory factor analysis results showed a 5-factor structure resembling the original factor structure in Persian language. Moreover, the results showed that the Persian version of FLTA exhibited high internal consistency and test–retest reliability. Overall, the results support the validity and reliability of the Persian version of the FLTA, which can be used to assess foreign language teaching anxiety. The results of the confirmed factor analysis show that the measurement tool is well-adjusted. It has high levels of concurrent validity at the significance level (0.91). Therefore, the FLTA measurement tool can be used as an appropriate tool to measure foreign language teaching anxiety among Iranian teachers. Our findings align with those of Aydin and Ustuk (2020a, 2020b), the FLTA Scale developers. They conducted a preliminary study to develop and assess the FLTAS. Concerning the first objective of their research, the FLTAS confirmed strong reliability. Their findings indicated that the FLTAS is just as reliable as the statistical instrument developed by Kim and Kim (2004). The latter tool consisted of 30 items with a reliability coefficient of 0.96, though the calculation method was not detailed. In contrast, the FLTAS contains a slightly lower number of items (n = 27) but yielded a nearly identical reliability score (0.95), computed via Cronbach’s alpha.

A second key finding in Aydin and Ustuk’s (2020a, 2020b) research was that the scale showed strong internal consistency. Specifically, the scale included a five-factor structure based on pre-service teachers’ self-assessments of their foreign language competence, limited teaching experience, disengaged students in class, anxiety over being judged negatively by observers and students, and the possible challenges in managing time.

The theoretical foundation of the FLTAS can be scrutinized alongside previous research on FLTA. For instance, the FLTAS reinforces earlier studies on negative emotions among foreign language teachers, particularly regarding their perceived language proficiency (Horwitz, 1996; Tum, 2015), time constraints (Numrich, 1996), classroom management difficulties (Kim & Kim, 2004), fear of evaluation by mentors (Ali, 2011), and student’s low proficiency level (Kongchan & Singhasiri, 2008).

Conclusion, implications, and suggestions for further research

The results of the present study provide evidence of the potential use of the Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety Scale as an appropriate research tool to measure teaching anxiety among foreign language teachers in Iran. Additionally, since this study presents preliminary results from the FLTAS, research with a larger sample may identify other factors.

The lack of knowledge in previous studies resulting from the lack of an appropriate research tool necessitated the development of a foreign language teaching anxiety scale among English teachers in Iran. However, some limitations of this study should be acknowledged. One of its limitations is associated with the leading group of participants, namely student teachers in Iran. These participants had recently attended schools, and their self-perceptions were primarily based on their experiences in pre-service, in-service, and internship courses. Another study focusing more on a larger sample, with teachers benefiting from more teaching training, is therefore suggested. Another limitation of this study was the scarcity of documentary research on the subject in the socio-cultural context of Iran. Indeed, no previous study on the subject was found in the literature. Khani and Mirzaee (2015) are the only researchers who have studied influential variables on teacher burnout in the Iranian context of EFL.

Authors'contributions

All authors equally contributed to write the main manuscript text. For example, Heshmatifar prepared tables. Rajabi and Kalani performed data analysis and interpretation. Asanjarani contributed to the discussion and revised the manuscript critically for important intellectual content. Finally, All reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

Not applicable.

Data availability

Data is provided within supplementary information files (table section)

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Consent for publication

The study meets all applicable standards with regard to the ethics of experimentation and research integrity. As an expert scientist and along with co-authors in the concerned field, the paper has been submitted with full responsibility, following due ethical procedure, and there is no duplicate publication, fraud, plagiarism, or concerns about animal or human experimentation.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Abbreviations

FLA

Foreign Language Anxiety

FLTA

Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety

FLTAS

Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety Scale

CFA

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

GFI

Goodness of Fit Index

AGFI

Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index

IFI

Incremental Fit Index

CFI

Comparative Fit Index

RMSEA

Root mean square error of approximation

RMR

Root mean square residual

BAI

Beck Anxiety Inventory

ICC

Intraclass correlation coefficient

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

References

Ali, M. Sources of foreign language student teacher anxiety: A qualitative inquiry. Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry; 2011; 2, 4 pp. 80-94.

Annual Korea TESOL International Conference: Responding to a Changing World, Seoul.

Asanjarani, F; Zarebahramabadi, M. Evaluating the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy on math self-concept and math anxiety of elementary school students. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth; 2021; 65, 3 pp. 223-229.

Aydin, S. An investigation on the language anxiety and fear of negative evaluation among Turkish EFL learners. The Asian EFL Journal; 2008; 31, pp. 421-444.

Aydin, S., & Ustuk, O. (2020). The Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety Scale: Preliminary Tests of Validity and Reliability. Journal of Language and Education, 6(2), 44–55. https://doi.org/10.17323/jle.2020.10083

Aydin, S; Ustuk, Ö. A descriptive study on foreign language teaching anxiety. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching; 2020; 7, 3 pp. 860-876.

Aydin,S. (2016). A Qualitative Research on Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety. Qualitative Report, 21(4), 629–642. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2016.2232

Ayuningtyas, P., Mauludin, L. A., & Prasetyo, G. (2022). Investigating the Anxiety Factors among English for Specific Purposes Students in a Vocational Education setting [Research article]. Language Related Research, 13(3), 31–54. https://doi.org/10.52547/lrr.13.3.3

Beck, AT; Epstein, N; Brown, G; Steer, RA. An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology; 1988; 56, 6 pp. 893-897.

Blau, A. (1955). A unitary hypothesis of emotion: I. Anxiety, emotions of displeasure, and affective disorders. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 24(1), 75–103.

Can, D. T. (2018). The reflections of pre-service EFL teachers on overcoming foreign language teaching anxiety (FLTA) during teaching practicum. https://doi.org/10.22190/JTESAP1803389C

Chen, FF; West, SG; Sousa, KH. A comparison of bifactor and second-order models of quality of life. Multivariate Behavioral Research; 2006; 41, 2 pp. 189-225. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr4102_5]

Cronbach, LJ. Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika; 1951; 16, 3 pp. 297-334. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555]

Derakhshan, A., & Fathi, J. (2024). Longitudinal exploration of interconnectedness through a cross-lagged panel design: enjoyment, anxiety, willingness to communicate, and L2 grit in English language learning. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2024.2393705

Feng, L., & Mohd Rawian, R. (2023). The Mediating Role of Motivation and Language Anxiety in Increasing EFL Learners’ Working Memory [Review - analytic article]. Language Related Research, 14(1), 335–358. https://doi.org/10.48311/lrr.14.1.335

Fraschini, N; Park, H. Anxiety in language teachers: Exploring the variety of perceptions with Q methodology. Foreign Language Annals; 2021; 54, 2 pp. 341-364. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/flan.12527]

Fraschini, N; Park, H. A Q methodology study to explore Korean as a second language undergraduate student-teachers’ anxiety. International Journal of Educational Research Open; 2022; 3, [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2022.100132] 100132.

Gardner, RC; MacIntyre, PD. On the measurement of affective variables in second language learning. Language Learning; 1993; 43, 2 pp. 157-194.

Ghanizadeh, A; Goldast, G; Ghonsooly, B. Designing and validating the Sources of EFL Teacher Apprehension Scale (STAS). The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher; 2020; 29, 6 pp. 495-508. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40299-020-00501-5]

Habeb Al-Obaydi, L., & Pikhart, M. (2022). A qualitative evaluation of the impact of online visually-based L2 acquisition on college students’ risk-taking, motivation, and anxiety [Research article]. Language Related Research, 13(5), 281–301. https://doi.org/10.52547/lrr.13.5.11

Halbach, A. Finding out about students' learning strategies by looking at their diaries: A case study. System; 2000; 28, 1 pp. 85-96.

Horwitz, EK. Even teachers get the blues: Recognizing and alleviating language teachers' feelings of foreign language anxiety. Foreign Language Annals; 1996; 29, 3 pp. 365-372.

Horwitz, EK; Horwitz, MB; Cope, J. Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal; 1986; 70, 2 pp. 125-132. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/327317]

Kaviani, H; Mousavi, AS. Psychometric properties of the Persian version of Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI). Tehran University Medical Journal; 2008; 66, 2 pp. 136-140.

Khani, R; Mirzaee, A. How do self-efficacy, contextual variables and stressors affect teacher burnout in an EFL context?. Educational Psychology; 2015; 35, 1 pp. 93-109.

Kim, SY; Kim, JH. When the learner becomes a teacher: Foreign language anxiety as an occupational hazard. English Learning; 2004; 59, 1 pp. 165-185.

Kline, P. A handbook of test construction (psychology revivals): Introduction to psychometric design; 2015; Routledge:

Kobul, MK; Saraçoğlu, İN. Foreign language teaching anxiety of non-native pre-service and in-service efl teachers. Journal of History Culture and Art Research; 2020; 9, 3 pp. 350-365.

Kongchan, C., & Singhasiri, W. (2008). Teachers' anxiety about using L2 in EFL classrooms Proceedings of the 16th

Liu, M; Wu, B. Teaching anxiety and foreign language anxiety among Chinese college English teachers. SAGE Open; 2021; 11, 2 21582440211016556.

Liu, M., Lin, C.-H., & Zhang, Y. (2023). Editorial: Dynamic roles of anxiety and motivation in second/foreign language acquisition [Editorial]. Frontiers in Psychology, Volume 14 - 2023. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1145368

MacIntyre, PD; McGillivray, MF. The inner workings of anxiety in second language learning. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics; 2023; 43, pp. 88-104. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0267190523000065]

Mercer, S. Psychology for language learning: Spare a thought for the teacher. Language Teaching; 2018; 51, 4 pp. 504-525.

Munro, B. H. (2005). Statistical methods for health care research (Vol. 1). lippincott williams & wilkins.

Numrich, C. On becoming a language teacher: Insights from diary studies. TESOL Quarterly; 1996; 30, 1 pp. 131-153. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3587610]

Öztürk, G. (2016). Foreign language teaching anxiety among non-native teachers of English: a sample from Turkey [İngilizceyi Yabancı Dil olarak Öğreten Öğretmenlerin Yabancı Dil Öğretimi Kaygısı: Türkiye’den bir örneklem]. Sakarya University Journal of Education, 6(3), 54–70. https://doi.org/10.19126/suje.220180

Pipuš, D. (2021, March 26–29). Overcoming speaking anxiety in the EFL classroom. World Conference on Education and Teaching.

Sari, H. I., & Anwar, C. (2021). English foreign language teaching anxiety of Indonesian pre-service teachers of undergraduate internship program. EduLite: Journal of English Education, Literature and Culture, 6(2),222–237.

Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling. Psychology Pess.

Silverman, W. K., & van Schalkwyk, G. I. (2019). Chapter 2 - What Is Anxiety? In S. N. Compton, M. A. Villabø, & H. Kristensen (Eds.), Pediatric Anxiety Disorders (pp. 7–16). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813004-9.00002-5

Soleimani, H., & Allahveysi, S. P. (2022). Teacher education and multiple intelligences: foreign language teaching anxiety of Iranian EFL teachers. Journal of English Language Teaching & Learning, 14(29), 214–227. https://doi.org/10.22034/elt.2022.49428.2470

Sousa, VD; Rojjanasrirat, W. Translation, adaptation and validation of instruments or scales for use in cross-cultural health care research: A clear and user-friendly guideline. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice; 2011; 17, 2 pp. 68-274.

Stevens, JP. Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences; 2012; Routledge:

Toyama, M; Yamazaki, Y. Foreign language anxiety and individualism-collectivism culture: A top-down approach for a country/regional-level analysis. SAGE Open; 2022; 12, 1 21582440211069143. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/21582440211069143]

Tüfekçi-Can, D. Foreign language teaching anxiety among pre-service teachers during teaching practicum. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching; 2018; 5, 3 pp. 579-595.

Tum, DO. Foreign language anxiety's forgotten study: The case of the anxious preservice teacher. TESOL Quarterly; 2015; 49, 4 pp. 627-658. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tesq.190]

Uştuk, Ö; Aydın, S. The effects of the use of paralinguistic cues on foreign language anxiety among English as a foreign language speakers. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching; 2018; 12, 3 pp. 289-302.

Xin, Z; Derakhshan, A. From excitement to anxiety: Exploring English as a foreign language learners' emotional experiences in the artificial intelligence-powered classrooms. European Journal of Education; 2025; 60, 1 [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12845] e12845.

Zhou, S; Chiu, MM; Dong, Z; Zhou, W. Foreign language anxiety and foreign language self-efficacy: A meta-analysis. Current Psychology; 2023; 42, 35 pp. 31536-31550. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-04110-x]