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The advent of blockchain technology has achieved notable progress regarding security, particularly within the realm of e-commerce. The existing Web 2.0 framework, which employs inadequate security measures, exhibits vulnerabilities when compared to the robust security features of blockchain technology. The utilization of monitors, computers, and data storage exemplifies the functionality of blockchain technology, which upholds encrypted and distributed transaction records across multiple computers, consequently improving the reliability of the digital ledger. In a nation such as Bangladesh, where transaction data is susceptible to cyber threats and online fraud is prevalent within the e-commerce sector, this type of decentralized system has the potential to alter the landscape significantly. This requires the implementation of a more comprehensive security protocol. This research advocates for the adoption of smart contracts to enhance supply chain transparency and offers digital identification solutions aimed at preventing fraud, including issues related to non-delivery and counterfeit goods. This research utilizes Next.js for front-end development and facilitates backend integration through Solidity and Hardhat.js, specifically for the Solana Blockchain, deployed on an Amazon EC2 instance. This research commenced with an examination of the current e-commerce ecosystem, physical identification infrastructure, and consumer attitudes, ultimately presenting a strategic implementation plan for the adoption of blockchain technology to enhance trust and assurance within the e-commerce landscape of Bangladesh. It further delineates particular obstacles to adoption: technological limitations, regulatory challenges, socio-economic factors, and the expanding digital payments landscape, particularly concerning mobile financial services. This research enhances the current understanding of blockchain as a transformative force in emerging e-commerce markets and provides valuable insights into technology policies relevant to the developing economy of Bangladesh for policymakers, businesses, and technologists.
Introduction
The Internet has a considerable impact on everyday life, and the rising frequency of security threats presents significant challenges for both individuals and organizations. One proposed solution to these issues is implementing blockchain technology, which functions as an open, distributed ledger, specifically designed to record transactions with improved security and efficiency [1]. Blockchain technology operates as a permanent sequence of blocks secured through cryptographic principles. This fundamental attribute facilitates decentralization linked to a swiftly advancing technological environment. The network functions through a decentralized architecture consisting of multiple nodes. To establish a connection to the blockchain, a new node must first acquire and authenticate pending transactions from existing active nodes before integration into the collective database. Each transaction was subjected to a designated verification protocol. Upon confirmation, information is recorded within the blocks and then integrated into the blockchain, thereby establishing a sequential chain. Each block was associated with a distinct cryptographic hash function. If there is an attempt to alter the information contained within a block, it is imperative that the hash function of the preceding block is updated. This process is crucial for maintaining the integrity of the blockchain structure [1]. In a blockchain system, all nodes within the network can detect modifications to a block and receive corresponding updates thereafter. Each block consists of critical information, including a cryptographic hash of the preceding block, a hash of the current block, a timestamp, and several other pertinent data elements. The timestamp documents the creation or modification times associated with each block. This procedure serves as a foundational element of the security framework associated with a decentralized database system, commonly referred to as a blockchain.
A smart contract represents a digital, computerized transaction protocol designed to enable the enforcement of negotiated agreements, and is implemented across blockchain networks, including Ethereum. It can be defined as a digital script that encodes a defined set of rules within its code, and its precision is maintained by consensus mechanisms that are fundamental to blockchain technology. Every smart contract possesses a distinct identity determined by its address and the number of associated transactions. Nodes in a blockchain network are capable of engaging in the execution of smart contracts. Thus, the relationship between smart contracts and blockchain technology is essential for establishing distributed computing platforms [2]. Prominent corporations, including Microsoft, provide blockchain as a service via their Azure cloud computing platforms [2].
The e-commerce sector is projected to attain a threshold of $3 billion by 2023, with an annual growth rate of 26%. The e-commerce industry in Bangladesh has undergone considerable expansion in recent years, as demonstrated in Fig. 1a. The Bangladesh E-Commerce Association (2021) projects that the sector will reach $3 billion by 2023, rising from $2.07 billion in 2020. The increase is driven by enhanced Internet connectivity, which reached a penetration rate of 45.3% as of January 2023, alongside the extensive adoption of mobile financial services, as evidenced by 113 million registered accounts by December 2022. This has resulted in a 26% annual growth rate (BTRC, 2023; Bangladesh Bank, 2022). Nonetheless, this rapid expansion has resulted in an increase in fraudulent activities, threatening long-term sustainability. In 2021, the Cyber Crime Investigation Division of the Bangladesh Police documented 4025 cases of e-commerce fraud, indicating a 50% increase compared to the previous year. As indicated in Fig. 1b, the predominant categories of fraud encompass the non-delivery of goods (40%) and the sale of counterfeit products (25%), both of which undermine consumer trust and compromise market integrity (Bangladesh Police Cybercrime Unit 2022) [3, 4–5].
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Fig. 1
Market research of Bangladesh e-commerce
This research is of significant importance considering the ongoing digital transformation efforts of the Bangladeshi government, especially the pilot project initiated in 2022 that emphasizes blockchain remittance systems (ICT Division, 2023). Figure 1c demonstrates that 62% of online consumers harbor concerns about fraud, whereas 78% show readiness to augment their online shopping frequency, depending on establishing improved fraud prevention strategies (BIDS, 2022). The data underscore the imperative for the formulation of effective and innovative solutions to tackle these challenges [2, 6, 7, 8–9].
Currently, e-commerce platforms rely heavily on customer reviews and feedback systems. Several sellers create user profiles, obtain positive product ratings, and participate in unethical practices. The current security framework is insufficient, allowing manipulation of reviews and comments. Furthermore, dependence on a centralized reputation system negatively affects the integrity of information, making it susceptible to manipulation by unethical sellers. The lack of protective measures intensifies these issues by allowing users to delete their activity details in response to such events [10]. Moreover, e-commerce platforms in Bangladesh lack decentralized systems, resulting in reduced consumer trust and discouraging online purchases due to widespread fraudulent activities [11, 12–13].
As illustrated in Fig. 2a, e-commerce enterprises incur annual losses of approximately $48 billion. The market for detection and prevention systems experienced significant growth, with a valuation of $36.65 billion in 2021, rising to $40.15 billion in 2022, and is anticipated to reach $57.71 billion by 2024. Figure 2b presents regional variations, demonstrating that North American and European countries allocate 10% of their revenue to this sector, whereas APAC and Latin American nations allocate 15% and 19%, respectively. Figure 2c delineates the predominant categories of e-commerce fraud, indicating that phishing constitutes 43%, friendly fraud comprises 34%, card testing represents 33%, identity theft accounts for 33%, and abuse of coupons, discounts, or refunds is at 30%. The evaluation illustrated in Fig. 2d delineates product categories that have experienced increased fraudulent activities, whereas Fig. 2e emphasizes an increase in user reports concerning different forms of fraud. Further analysis in Fig. 2e delineates the principal factors contributing to customer returns, indicating that online purchasing has emerged as a predominant channel for consumer-targeted fraud subsequent to social media interactions. The BBB Scam Tracker indicates that online shopping fraud represented 30% of all online scams in 2022, with around 71.6% of these cases leading to financial losses for the victims. Research indicates that individuals within the age range of 35–44 exhibit an increased susceptibility to Internet payment fraud, as reported by the BBB. Furthermore, research indicates that women are more than twice as likely as men to become victims of online payment fraud, although men typically experience higher average financial losses, according to reports from the BBB [3, 14, 15].
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Fig. 2
Market fraud analysis in e-commerce
Recent data from leading research platforms indicate that Bangladesh’s e-commerce sector continues to experience robust growth. As of 2024, the market size is estimated at USD 7.5 billion, with projections suggesting that it will reach USD 8.02 billion by 2025, reflecting an annual growth rate ranging from 8.33 to 30.1%, depending on sectoral trends and digital infrastructure expansion [16, 17]. Notably, platforms such as Daraz, Chaldal, Evaly, and Pickaboo continue to dominate the sector, supported by increasing smartphone penetration and improvements in logistics [17]. According to the Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission (BTRC), Internet penetration reached 44.5% by the end of 2024 [18], while Mobile Financial Services (MFS) users surpassed 113 million by 2023, further enabling online payments and digital commerce [19].
However, the rapid digital expansion has also heightened fraud risks, aligning with global trends. According to projections, global e-commerce fraud losses are expected to exceed USD 48 billion in 2025, with Bangladesh particularly affected by non-delivery of goods (40%) and counterfeit sales (25%)—two major issues that continue to erode consumer confidence [20, 21]. These developments underscore the urgent need for advanced security frameworks. In this context, blockchain-based protocols, including smart contracts and decentralized digital identities, are being increasingly recognized as crucial for enhancing trust, reducing fraud, and ensuring transparent and secure transactions in Bangladesh’s evolving e-commerce landscape [22].
Considering these challenges, the author advocate implementing blockchain technology as a viable solution. The essential features of blockchain—transparency, immutability, and decentralization—make it particularly effective in tackling the pervasive fraud challenges in Bangladesh’s e-commerce sector. This research investigates the possible advantages of adopting a blockchain-based decentralized system to reduce fraud and improve consumer trust. This research focuses on three key areas in which blockchain technology has the potential to create significant value:
Smart Contracts: This research examines the potential of self-executing, programmable contracts to mitigate transactional fraud and enhance trust among buyers and sellers. The implementation of blockchain technology facilitates the automation of transactions through smart contracts, thereby diminishing the risk of fraud, improving operational efficiency, and increasing transparency and accountability among participating stakeholders.
Supply Chain Transparency: The concept of the supply chain holds significant importance in the field of business. Numerous challenges emerge in establishing an effective supply chain, owing to the unpredictability associated with consumer demand, supply, demand, and inventory management [5]. Consequently, stakeholders adjust their requirements to maximize profits. Smart contracts and blockchains are essential for efficient, secure, and traceable management of supply chains. Consequently, the supply chain achieved a state of transparency. This research investigates the capacity of blockchain technology to improve the transparency and traceability of supply chains, consequently diminishing the occurrence of counterfeit goods and fostering enhanced product quality. The realization of a transparent supply chain is contingent on establishing trust between sellers and consumers.
Digital Identity Solutions: The author conducted a thorough analysis of the effectiveness of blockchain-based identity systems in reducing identity fraud and improving user authentication in the context of e-commerce transactions. Every user is allocated a unique, unchangeable identifier, which significantly sets this method apart from the traditional centralized systems.
Significant objectives encompass utilizing these areas as locations for the following:
User-Centric Dependencies
Direct Access to Data: Online consumers are afforded direct access to products and the opportunity to obtain high-quality data.
Reduced Disputes: This platform is set to establish an automated system for resolving disputes related to payment releases, thus reducing the occurrence of disputes stemming from non-payment situations.
Protecting from Fraud and Original Products
Counterfeit Detection: A distinctive digital identity enables the tracking of counterfeit entities.
Supply Chain Transparency: The monitoring and verification of products guarantee that consumers can trust the provenance of the items they acquire. The degree of transparency businesses exhibit is beneficial because consumers who possess comprehensive information are more likely to develop a higher level of trust in these entities.
Security and Transparency
Decentralization: Individuals engaged in gaming exhibit a variety of preferences concerning the transmission of their statuses; nonetheless, the repercussions of server failures and hacking occurrences on data, especially in relation to the administration of multiple nodes, are anticipated to be reduced.
Immutable Records: These records facilitate the management of data in a decentralized fashion, independent of a central authority. Every transaction is carefully recorded within the blockchain structure by applying hashing methods, thereby ensuring data integrity.
This research investigates Bangladesh’s regulatory landscape, technological infrastructure, and socio-economic elements to formulate a thorough framework for integrating blockchain technology into the country’s e-commerce ecosystem. It further delineates significant obstacles to adoption, including technical difficulties, regulatory limitations, and socio-economic factors. Additionally, The author suggest approaches for leveraging modern digital frameworks and taking advantage of current trends in consumer behavior.
Literature review
Blockchain Mechanisms for SMEs
This paper discusses a blockchain mechanism specifically designed for small and medium enterprises engaged in the global market. The proposed model utilizes a pseudorandom number generator in conjunction with accumulated validation numbers to enable block validation efficiently. Moreover, the discourse emphasizes the security advantages associated with decentralized storage, encompassing aspects such as traceability and flexibility. It is essential to highlight the absence of practical applications of this mechanism, along with a notable lack of discussion regarding the scalability issues associated with its use [23]. Blockchain is a decentralized ledger technology that employs encryption algorithms, organized frameworks, and smart contracts. The conceptual framework was developed with an extensive business architecture, presenting three primary applications to illustrate the platform’s functionalities, specifically designed for small and medium enterprises (SMEs). This framework provides a significant approach to the operation and management of blockchain-based e-commerce platforms. It is essential to acknowledge that this study lacked a real-life framework implementation [24]. Recent studies have shown blockchain's significance in enhancing anti-counterfeit measures inside SME supply chains. A suggested system employs decentralized ledgers and smart contracts for product authentication and real-time tracking. The breadth is constrained by the absence of interaction with commercial blockchain ecosystems, such as Vyoma Commerce and platforms such as Solana [25, 26].
Decentralized Finance (DeFi), Semantic Ontologies, and Business Models (BDBM) with Smart Contracts:
This research examines decentralized finance (DeFi) and presents a collection of OWL 2 ontologies designed to improve decentralization while reducing consumer complexity. The Ethereum blockchain functions as the foundational technology, whereas the proposed ontologies were validated using SPARQL queries alongside the iExec marketplace. This approach, while reducing the central control, requires a considerable volume of complex information. Moreover, further effort is necessary to obtain a thorough semantic representation [27]. This study investigates the effects of decentralization within Blockchain-Driven Business Models (BDBM) through the lens of customer experience. The authors highlight the significance of decentralization processes within the BDBM, particularly through the transparent sharing mechanisms employed in decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs). The authors presented a two-dimensional framework for analyzing decentralized business models and marketplaces. Nonetheless, issues pertaining to customer comprehension and behavioral reactions to decentralization continue to be insufficiently explored. Moreover, the consequences of the widespread acceptance of BDBM necessitate additional examination, given that the term ”decentralized” in relation to BDBM remains ambiguous [28]. Smart contracts are essential for safeguarding data integrity and mitigating fraud on decentralized e-commerce platforms. The adoption of private smart contracts has contributed to the maintenance of business protocols, thereby improving their security and efficiency. Nevertheless, concerns regarding the safeguarding of privacy and the verification of ownership were recognized. Moreover, existing literature has not sufficiently addressed the design of business protocols that preserve privacy [29]. This study examines the advancements in e-commerce business models and the incorporation of data flow through blockchain technology. This study examines the obstacles encountered in the advancement of e-commerce and suggests feasible solutions. Nevertheless, there is a notable lack of extensive research on blockchain-based e-commerce business models. Moreover, the lack of a coherent framework for blockchain e-commerce systems was apparent [30].
Recent work also examines blockchain's use in cross-border payment systems using smart contracts, improving transactional security and efficiency. Nevertheless, these studies exclude context-specific applications inside ecosystems like Vyoma Commerce and do not include regional dynamics, such as the e-commerce landscape in Bangladesh [31].
Privacy and Feedback Systems, Hyperledger Blockchains, and Tokenomics
The author conducted a comparative analysis of two significant blockchains, Hyperledger Indy and Hyperledger Fabric. Hyperledger Indy utilizes zero-knowledge proofs to maintain the confidentiality of verified credentials, whereas Hyperledger Fabric leverages smart contracts to enable secure and transparent feedback processing. Features of digital identities, buyer feedback tokens, post-transaction processes, and discount tokens were emphasized. Nonetheless, the discussion surrounding the confidentiality of reviewers is still lacking, and a thorough comparison with current blockchain reputation systems is yet to be developed entirely [32].
This paper introduces a detailed tokenomics framework and examines its implementation on a blockchain-enabled e-commerce platform. The authors examined its application in various domains, enabling discourse on the merits and drawbacks of the platform. Nonetheless, this study refrains from explicitly identifying and further exploring Oracle machine technology, instead concentrating exclusively on platform-related issues and the benefits of the new system [10]. Recent anti-counterfeit studies using blockchain reiterate the importance of tokenized identifiers and secure ledger access in maintaining transparency across the supply chain. However, specific applications involving regional commerce platforms or smart contract optimization, such as those potentially enabled by Vyoma Commerce, remain underrepresented [25, 33].
Implementation of Blockchain in E-commerce
The decentralized application in the Web3 ecosystem was meticulously crafted using ReactJS and Tailwind CSS for its front-end development, whereas Next.js and the Thirdweb framework SDK were utilized to augment its functionality via webhooks and APIs. This platform, recognized as a decentralized application (DApp), was developed using the Thr3ebay framework to enable transactions between buyers and sellers, ensuring security and transparency. An interface centered on user needs was developed to enhance the efficiency of wallet management and identity verification procedures.
The application is characterized by its incorporation of Web3 technologies, the utilization of the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) for optimized file storage, and the Thirdweb SDK, which offers critical resources for authentication and wallet management. The custom front-end, developed using React, facilitates seamless interactions in the marketplace. Nonetheless, the essential elements of scalability and user adoption were not examined comprehensively in this study. Moreover, the study failed to explore the possible interoperability challenges that may exist among different blockchain systems [34]. This paper outlines the design and implementation of an integrated e-commerce platform with blockchain technology. An analysis was conducted on the effects of blockchain in the e-commerce sector, illustrating how the integration of anonymous operational procedures in the system reduces the risk of tampering with transaction records. While the study focused on static networks, it is crucial to acknowledge that it did not address issues related to dynamic databases. Subsequent research endeavors should concentrate on improving real-time collaboration functionalities and addressing the constraints associated with database management [35]. The researchers designed and implemented a decentralized web application for e-commerce, leveraging the Ethereum blockchain platform and employing smart contracts developed in the Solidity programming language. User data was stored securely within blockchain blocks. Nonetheless, this research revealed various challenges, encompassing concerns associated with data storage and scalability [36]. Moreover, blockchain has been assessed as a mechanism for ensuring supply chain integrity and preventing fraud using real-time monitoring and verification systems. Nonetheless, these frameworks sometimes overlook the evaluation of practical implementation obstacles, such as ecosystem compatibility, particularly in contexts like Bangladesh, where platforms like Vyoma Commerce are rising yet remain little examined [26, 37].
Cross-Border Platforms
This study presents a blockchain-based cross-border B2B e-commerce platform using blockchain technology. The discussion focused on the challenges of interplatform trust and facilitated the establishment of a credit-based incentive mechanism for merchants. Nevertheless, the challenges related to interplatform trust were not considered. The implementation of blockchain solutions in cross-border e-commerce is essential [38]. This study presents a blockchain-based reputation system for e-commerce that facilitates cross-platform reputation access and provides a safeguard against malicious rating assaults using a consortium blockchain paradigm. Customer privacy is facilitated by blind signing utilizing one-show anonymous credentials. Manipulation of providers’ reputations by a centralized server has not been addressed [39]. Further blockchain research has examined improvements in global transactions and solutions for fraud reduction. Nevertheless, they fail to do a focused study on localized platforms like Vyoma Commerce, especially in the context of emerging nations such as Bangladesh [31].
Transaction Security, Scalability, and Transparency with Reputation Systems
The author proposed a decentralized e-commerce platform that leverages blockchain technology and utilizes IPFS for product storage, along with a multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) reputation model to ensure transaction security. The discussion also encompassed issues related to centralized cloud servers, elevated storage expenses, and diminished processing efficiency. MCDM demonstrates resilience against collusion attacks and inequitable assessments. The system reveals a deficiencies in methods for calculating reputation values, along with a lack of motivation among the nodes within the decentralized e-commerce framework [40]. The implementation of blockchain and edge computing has facilitated the development of a decentralized e-commerce model, proposed transactions for remote sensing resources, and tackled issues related to mutual distrust and challenges in data retrieval. Furthermore, it examined the characteristics of Ethernet and the scalability challenges associated with e-commerce. Proposed multiblockchain framework for optimization. The presence of uncertainty is noted within blockchain and business domains because of the limited availability of data pertaining to blockchain e-commerce [41]. The authors illustrated the mechanisms by which trust and reliability can be enhanced in the context of blockchain e-commerce. The principles of transparency and the importance of data security were examined. Various modules and procedures were presented along with an architectural framework designed for the traceability of goods and transactions. Nonetheless, there is an insufficiency in the realignment of B2B, B2G, and C2C connections, as well as in the execution of methodologies for cross-border e-commerce [42]. Despite the potential of blockchain-enabled anti-counterfeit and traceability systems to improve transactional confidence and transparency, the previous studies have not conducted a thorough analysis of performance parameters, including throughput, latency, and cost-efficiency, across blockchain platforms like Solana. These deficiencies are especially evident within the framework of scalable national or cross-border e-commerce systems [25, 33].
No research has investigated the e-commerce sector in Bangladesh to create a decentralized system utilizing blockchain and the Internet of Things. Table 1 clearly illustrates that this research offers a thorough market analysis and the design of a blockchain-based decentralized system, integrating real-world implementation and appropriate software techniques specifically for Bangladesh. These research innovations are:
Localized Framework: The inaugural thorough design and execution of a decentralized e-commerce system specifically designed for the Bangladeshi market, using Vyoma Commerce and IoT for traceability and supply chain integrity.
Capable of being scaled, Real-World Architecture: Implements smart contracts on interoperable platforms (e.g., Ethereum and Solana) while conducting analyses of scalability, latency, and throughput to address the performance constraints of previous systems.
Semantic-Driven BDBM: The amalgamation of semantic web technologies with domain-specific ontologies to enhance comprehension of blockchain-driven business models (BDBM).
Tokenomics and Privacy: An innovative feedback mechanism utilizing zero-knowledge proofs and tokenized incentives, improving privacy, transparency, and the trustworthiness of reviewers.
Intelligent Reputation System: A multi-criteria and Oracle-enhanced reputation engine, resistant to manipulation and tailored for both cross-border and local trust development.
Comprehensive DApp Development: Complete blockchain application utilizing ReactJS, Next.js, Thirdweb, IPFS, and real-world transaction validation, facilitating dynamic databases and intelligent audits.
Table 1. Comparative analysis of Vyoma Commerce with related works
Category | Previous Research Focus | Identified Gaps | Our Contribution |
|---|---|---|---|
Blockchain Mechanisms for SMEs | Proposed pseudorandom validation with decentralized storage and smart contracts for SMEs | The absence of practical implementation, the omission of discussions regarding scalability issues, and the limitations of the platform integration | Designed a practical, scalable blockchain-based e-commerce platform integrated with Vyoma Commerce, tailored for Bangladeshi SMEs |
DeFi, Semantic Ontologies, and BDBM | Ontology-based DeFi systems using Ethereum and DAOs to reduce centralization and enhance customer experience | Insufficient semantic clarity, customer behavior studies, and privacy-preserving smart contract design | Implemented semantically integrated smart contract protocols and privacy-preserving business logic for local DeFi systems |
Privacy and Feedback Systems with Tokenomics | Feedback and reputation systems on Hyperledger; tokenized feedback and credentials | Missing analysis of reviewer privacy, oracle machines, and regional commerce integration | Introduced tokenomics integrated with buyer–seller feedback protocols, enabling verifiable yet private rating mechanisms for Vyoma Commerce |
Blockchain Implementation in E-commerce | Web3 DApps using IPFS, smart contracts, and React/Next.js-based front-ends | Ignored issues of scalability, interoperability, and user adoption challenges | Developed an interoperable, scalable DApp with smart contract support and local hosting for Bangladesh e-commerce users |
Cross-Border Platforms | Blockchain-enabled cross-border e-commerce, credit systems, and reputation management | Neglects local dynamics and platform compatibility, especially in Bangladesh | Established cross-border transaction protocols with region-specific e-commerce considerations in Vyoma Commerce |
Security, Scalability, Transparency, and Reputation | MCDM and edge computing models for enhancing blockchain trust in transactions | No analysis of throughput, cost-efficiency, or real-world performance on modern platforms like Solana | Benchmarked transaction throughput, latency, and cost-efficiency using Solana integration tailored to Bangladesh's cross-border trade scenarios |
Methodology
This section analyzes a decentralized e-commerce system that utilizes blockchain technology to address e-commerce fraud in Bangladesh. The discourse encompasses system architecture, development methodology, implementation specifics, and evaluation techniques, with a strong emphasis on user privacy and transaction security.
Data collection and population sampling
Data collection and population sampling are crucial steps in the research process, as they clarify the rationale behind the necessity of the study [43, 53, 54–55]. In this study, the author gathered data from well-established e-commerce platforms in Bangladesh after conducting an extensive information collection process targeted at e-commerce users. The researcher collected feedback from 540 users using Google Forms as the primary data acquisition tool. Regarding user interface issues and other factors, this substantial sample size allows us to gain an accurate view of various aspects of e-commerce from the perspectives of street-level business operators and city workers at higher levels. Moreover, Fig. 3 illustrates the responses from people regarding carefully posed inquiries, capturing users’ differing perspectives. Fig. 3a shows the percentages of fraud experiences among e-commerce users, while Fig. 3b outlines the types of common frauds encountered. Figure 3c illustrates the data privacy ratings, with the most significant number of respondents indicating that privacy is extremely important. Lastly, Fig. 3d shows that users also favor adopting blockchain technology. This illustrates users’ opinions and preferences in e-commerce. Significant issues exist within the current system, warranting a shift toward a blockchain-based decentralized framework.
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Fig. 3
Data collection of Bangladesh E-commerce users
System architecture
Overview
The system architecture of the blockchain-powered e-commerce platform was carefully constructed to provide a solution that emphasizes security, scalability, and safeguarding user privacy. As depicted in Fig. 4, the extensive framework of the platform is structured into four primary layers: the user interface, business logic, Blockchain, and Storage.
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Fig. 4
System Architecture Overview showing the layered approach to e-commerce functionality
Architecture components user interface layer
The uppermost layer facilitates user engagement through various interfaces.
Web Interface: This research outlines the development of a web application employing the Next.js framework alongside TypeScript, thereby guaranteeing strong type safety across the codebase. The application utilizes responsive design principles to improve user experience across a range of devices. Moreover, it incorporates the Web3 technology to enhance engagement with blockchain platforms. The system is structured to facilitate numerous wallet connections, thus enabling users to access their digital assets easily. Furthermore, it integrates real-time updates and notifications to ensure that users remain informed of pertinent changes and activities within the application.
Mobile Apps: The application was developed using React Native alongside Expo, enabling deployment across the iOS and Android platforms. Biometric authentication mechanisms have been incorporated to improve security protocols for user authentication. Furthermore, the application provides offline capabilities, facilitating data synchronization upon the restoration of connectivity, thereby ensuring a continuous user experience. A comprehensive push notification system was established to ensure prompt communication with users. Moreover, the application integrates QR code scanning functionalities, allowing users to conveniently retrieve product information.
Admin Dashboard: Real-time analytics facilitates improved decision-making and operational efficiency. A user management interface was established to guarantee secure access to sensitive data. Emergency control systems play a vital role in facilitating prompt response to potential risks. Audit logging ensures accountability and transparency throughout the process.
Business logic layer
This layer is responsible for the fundamental operations and governing principles of business.
Smart Contract Integration: This research explores the administration of contractual interactions, processing and verification of transactions, management and dissemination of events, approaches for gas optimization, and frameworks for error management and recovery within blockchain contexts. These elements are essential for guaranteeing efficient and dependable operations within decentralized systems.
NFT Management: Implementing product tokenization in Vyoma Commerce encompasses critical components including ownership tracking, token transfer mechanisms, management of product metadata, and frameworks for royalty distribution. These components are essential for effectively and securely managing digital assets within tokenized systems. Illustration of the NFT mining procedure
Supply Chain Tracking: This research examines various essential elements that are vital to the performance of contemporary operational supply chains, such as real-time location tracking, condition monitoring, integration of Internet of Things (IoT) devices, batch management, and quality assurance. The aforementioned elements are crucial for the optimization of processes and the maintenance of high standards across diverse industries.
Blockchain layer
The blockchain layer guarantees the decentralization and security of Vyoma Commerce.
Ethereum Network and Solana Network Integration
The essential elements of blockchain technology include the execution of smart contracts, meticulous transaction oversight, enhancement of gas fees, continuous network surveillance, and establishment of fallback protocols. Consequently, smart contracts were implemented on the Ethereum platform to facilitate connectivity within the blockchain.
Privacy Features
Recent advancements in cryptography, such as zero-knowledge proofs, have allowed one party to verify the knowledge of a statement without revealing it, thereby enhancing privacy. Vyoma Commerce now integrates this feature for private transactions, ensuring confidential financial exchanges and encrypted messaging to protect sensitive communication. Selective disclosure mechanisms enable sharing specific information while safeguarding other data, boosting overall privacy. Additionally, effective key management ensures secure cryptographic key distribution and storage, thereby reducing unauthorized access risks.
Security Measures:
Vyoma Commerce offers various essential security mechanisms relevant to blockchain technology, including:
Multi-signature wallets: Enhance security by necessitating the authentication of a transaction by multiple parties, which subsequently diminishes the risk of fraud.
Access control: The mechanisms in place guarantee that only individuals with proper authorization can execute specific actions within the blockchain framework, thereby safeguarding sensitive information from unauthorized access.
Rate limiting: Rate limiting is instituted to mitigate misuse or overutilization of resources, thereby ensuring equitable usage and preserving system stability.
Circuit breakers: Circuit breakers function as protective measures that can cease operations under designated circumstances, thereby averting catastrophic failures within the system.
Audit systems: Audit systems Establish clear and accessible documentation of all transactions, facilitating accountability and traceability, which are crucial for sustaining trust in decentralized networks.
Each of these components contributes substantially to the improvement in the overall security and reliability of a decentralized system.
Implementation considerations
The key considerations shown in Fig. 5 in the implementation of the Vyoma Commerce architecture:
Scalability of Vyoma Commerce: Horizontal scaling is achieved by adding multiple machines or instances to efficiently manage workloads using tools such as AWS auto-scaling groups and Kubernetes clusters. The microservice architecture enables the development of loosely coupled services, utilizing Docker for containerization and Kubernetes for orchestration, ensuring agility and independent deployment.
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Fig. 5
Key considerations
Load distribution is managed using AWS Elastic Load Balancer (ELB) and NGINX, effectively distributing requests across resources to optimize utilization and reliability. Dynamic resource management is handled through the Kubernetes Horizontal Pod Autoscaler (HPA) and AWS Elastic Kubernetes Service (EKS) to ensure efficient allocation based on demand.
Performance monitoring employs tools such as Prometheus, Grafana, and AWS CloudWatch to systematically track the system metrics, identify potential issues early, and maintain operational continuity.
Maintainability: To optimize workflows in Vyoma Commerce software development, several essential elements were incorporated. First, a modular design approach is employed using containerization, which enhances both the reusability and scalability. Clear and consistent communication is ensured through rigorous documentation standards maintained on platforms such as Markdown.
Version control is managed with Git and hosted repositories, such as GitHub, facilitating collaboration and efficient change tracking. Comprehensive testing frameworks, including Jest and Selenium, were utilized to ensure code reliability and detect potential issues early in the development lifecycle.
To streamline the deployment and reduce manual effort, CI/CD pipelines were implemented using GitHub Actions to automate the process. Incorporating these practices significantly enhances the quality and productivity of software projects, ensuring that they are sustainable and scalable over the long term.
Security: To maintain the integrity of cybersecurity, implementing the following security measures is critical: regular security audits using Nessus and Qualys to evaluate security measures and identify vulnerabilities in the infrastructure and applications. Penetration testing employs Metasploit and OWASP ZAP to simulate attacks and assess the effectiveness of security defenses. Vulnerability scanning leverages automated scanners such as OpenVAS and Burp Suite to facilitate the early identification of weaknesses, enabling prompt remediation efforts. An effective incident response strategy incorporates SOAR (Security Orchestration, Automation, and Response) tools such as Splunk Phantom and IBM Resilient for proficient management of security incidents. Prompt security updates are managed through centralized patch management systems, including Microsoft SCCM and Red Hat Satellite, to safeguard against emerging threats.
Performance considerations and expected transaction speeds
For an e-commerce platform like Vyoma Commerce, transaction speed and throughput are critical for a positive user experience. While comprehensive, large-scale performance testing is part of planned future work, the Solana blockchain was chosen as the primary ledger for smart contract execution and NFT management with these requirements in mind.
Methodology for preliminary assessment
Preliminary performance expectations are based on Solana's documented capabilities and small-scale tests conducted on the Solana Devnet. Key e-commerce operations considered include:
Product Listing (NFT Minting): Time taken to mint a ProductNFT and list it on the marketplace.
Order Placement: Time taken for a buyer's purchase transaction to be confirmed.
Payment Release (Escrow): Time taken for funds held in a smart contract escrow to be released upon order completion.
These operations involve interactions with the EcommerceContract and ProductNFT contracts.
Expected Performance on Solana:
Solana is renowned for its high throughput, theoretically capable of tens of thousands of transactions per second (TPS), and low average block times (typically 400–800 ms), as described in Table 2. This results in rapid transaction finality.
Table 2. Expected transaction confirmation times on Solana Devnet for Vyoma Commerce operations
E-commerce Operation | Smart Contract(s) Involved | Expected Average Confirmation Time (Solana Devnet) (s) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
Product Listing (NFT Mint) | ProductNFT, EcommerceContract | 2–5 | Includes NFT metadata upload to IPFS and on-chain minting |
Order Placement | EcommerceContract | 1–3 | Standard smart contract interaction |
Payment Release (Escrow) | EcommerceContract, MultiSigWallet (if high-value) | 1–4 | Slightly longer if multi-signature approval is involved off-chain |
Simple Data Query (e.g., Product Details) | EcommerceContract | < 1 | Reading on-chain data is typically very fast |
These expected transaction speeds are significantly faster than those typically observed on proof-of-work blockchains like Ethereum's mainnet (without Layer 2 solutions) and are conducive to the near-instantaneous feedback expected in modern e-commerce applications. The low transaction fees on Solana (often fractions of a cent) further enhance its suitability for a high-volume platform targeting a cost-sensitive market. It is very important to note that these are preliminary expectations and are synthetic tests. Actual performance on the mainnet can vary based on network congestion and contract complexity. Rigorous benchmarking under simulated load conditions will be conducted in the system's future development and validation phases to ascertain practical TPS and latency for Vyoma Commerce.
Security architecture and attributes
Vyoma Commerce is constructed with a strong, multi-tiered security structure aimed at maintaining the fundamental values of confidentiality, integrity, and availability. The platform incorporates sophisticated security measures across four essential layers: smart contract, blockchain interface, application architecture, and operational procedures. Each layer targets distinct attack vectors and guarantees comprehensive security against unauthorized access, data breaches, fraud, and system exploitation.
Security of the Smart Contract Layer
The security of smart contracts underpins the decentralized operations of Vyoma Commerce. Role-based access control techniques (e.g., onlyAuthorized and hasRole) are utilized to guarantee that only authorized entities may perform sensitive functions. Re-entrancy protection is implemented by OpenZeppelin’s nonReentrant feature to safeguard against recursive call vulnerabilities. Stringent input validation and secure arithmetic operations mitigate prevalent vulnerabilities, including overflows and underflows. Utilizing well-audited libraries (e.g., OpenZeppelin’s ERC-721 and proxy patterns) improves code dependability and reduces susceptibility to established flaws. To provide unpredictability in functionality, secure sources like Chainlink VRF are intended to reduce manipulation concerns.
Security of the Blockchain Interaction Layer
Vyoma Commerce employs multi-signature wallets for high-value and administrative transactions to ensure blockchain interactions, hence minimizing single points of failure. Rate-limiting systems are employed to regulate access frequency and avert misuse or denial-of-service (DoS) attacks. The emergency circuit breaker allows authorized personnel to cease operations upon detection of vulnerabilities. The blockchain's intrinsic immutability guarantees visible and verifiable audit trails. The prospective incorporation of zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) is being evaluated to improve transactional privacy while maintaining verifiability.
Security of Application and Infrastructure Layers
The platform implements robust authentication and authorization protocols for both online and mobile applications, encompassing secure session management and biometric authentication for mobile devices. Administrative interfaces have strong role-based access constraints. Data are protected during transmission via HTTPS/TLS and at rest using safe storage methods, including off-chain alternatives like as IPFS. Web applications comply with OWASP recommended practices, undergoing routine security assessments for prevalent vulnerabilities such XSS, SQL injection, and CSRF. APIs are protected using rigorous authentication, authorization, and input validation protocols. The infrastructure is hosted on AWS and secured with services such as IAM roles, VPC segmentation, and EC2 security group setups.
Operational Security and Procedural Controls
Vyoma Commerce employs a holistic DevSecOps methodology, integrating security throughout its operational processes. Regular third-party evaluations of smart contracts and infrastructure are performed utilizing technologies such as Nessus and Qualys. Penetration testing, such as through Metasploit, and ongoing vulnerability scanning are essential for proactive risk reduction. A structured incident response strategy, augmented with SOAR technologies (e.g., Splunk Phantom), enables rapid threat identification and resolution. The CI/CD pipeline incorporates security assessments, such as static code analysis and dependency scanning. Patch management is methodically implemented with solutions like as Microsoft SCCM and Red Hat Satellite to guarantee prompt updates and safeguard against evolving risks.
Development workflow
Figure 6 delineates the development workflow of Vyoma Commerce, an e-commerce platform founded on agile methodology that utilizes blockchain technology. Technical planning encompasses evaluating the system architecture, technology stack, security protocols, scalability, and effective leadership in the execution of projects. The platform was developed using the sophisticated features of Next.js 14 for the front-end, combined with TypeScript and Web3 technologies, resulting in a highly functional e-commerce environment augmented by blockchain capabilities. The technical stack is fundamentally composed of React components, developed using TypeScript, which utilizes the App Router architecture in conjunction with a file-based routing system to enhance navigation and scalability. The incorporation of Ethers.js enables smooth interactions with blockchain technology, thereby guaranteeing both secure and efficient transaction processing. To ensure mobile responsiveness and esthetic appeal across various devices, Tailwind CSS was utilized alongside Shadcn. Before the code is subjected to peer review, a series of processes are executed: Automated checks, Testing, Quality assurance, and Continuous integration.
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Fig. 6
Development Workflow showing the iterative development process
Unit testing enables developers to validate the correctness of discrete components, whereas integration tests ascertain the functionality of interrelated modules and detect possible conflicts. Some operations related to unit testing were conducted in this section. Security assessments are carried out to safeguard against vulnerabilities, performance evaluations are executed to examine application responsiveness across diverse load scenarios, and UI/UX testing is implemented to evaluate user interactions and experiences. Subsequently, the issue concerning the extent of quality assurance coverage within Vyoma Commerce was examined. Quality assurance involves a range of practices, such as bug tracking, test coverage analysis, regression testing, performance monitoring, and user acceptance testing. These practices are essential for guaranteeing that the software operates effectively, fulfills user expectations, and offers a satisfactory interface for user engagement. The build process encompasses various components, including automated builds, dependency management, version control, environmental configuration, and build optimization. Github Actions is employed to create staging pipelines, oversee production deployment, enable rollbacks, and establish a comprehensive monitoring pipeline.
The role of documentation in a project is crucial and encompasses various forms, including technical documentation, API documentation, code documentation, architecture diagrams, setup guides, deployment procedures, user documentation, API references, tutorial content, troubleshooting documents, FAQs, and materials related to version and source control. The Vyoma Commerce application utilizes a Git workflow that emphasizes effective branch management practices. It provides a framework for structured versioning, systematic management of changelogs, detailed documentation of release notes, timely updates of dependencies, and comprehensive guides for migration to assist in the transition between software versions. Compliance with coding standards, adherence to best practices, implementation of static analysis, evaluation of performance metrics, observance of security standards, and management of technical debt constitute the essential controls and measures for preserving code quality. The evaluation of process quality involves a thorough analysis of the review effectiveness, test coverage, bug resolution times, documentation quality, and overall team productivity.
Smart contract architecture
Overview
The architecture of smart contracts constitutes the foundational framework of our blockchain-based e-commerce platform, which facilitates the implementation of essential business logic, security protocols, and privacy enhancements. Figure 7 depicts the relationships and interactions among the different smart contracts in our system.
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Fig. 7
Smart Contract Architecture showing the interaction between different contract components
Core smart contracts e-commerce contract
Centralized management contract for marketplace operations.
Product Management: The primary functionalities include the administration of product listings and delistings, formulation of pricing strategies, monitoring of inventory, organization of categories, and improvement of search capabilities.
Order Processing: The primary functions include managing order creation and validation, processing payments, tracking order fulfillment, resolving disputes, and administering refunds.
User Management: Primary functionalities include user registration, role management, reputation tracking, activity monitoring, and access control.
MultiSigWallet
It handles high-value transactions with multiple approvals
Security Features In the implementation of secure Vyoma transaction mechanisms, the following components are deemed essential.
The implementation of multiple signature requirements serves to strengthen the authentication process.
A system for transaction proposals that enables organized approval processes.
Approval tracking systems systematically observe the progression of decision-making processes.
Time lock mechanisms guarantee that transactions are carried out within specified timeframes.
Emergency controls are designed to respond to unexpected situations, ensuring the protection of user interests and the preservation of system integrity.
Transaction Management The list delineates the essential components pertinent to improving Vyoma blockchain transaction processes. Transaction queuing facilitates systematic processing; execution validation ascertains accuracy; gas optimization minimizes expenses; failed transaction handling resolves issues proficiently; and event logging establishes a comprehensive audit trail of the actions performed.
ProductNFT
Manages product authenticity and ownership
NFT Features: The platform integrates a number of crucial NFT characteristics to guarantee reliable operation and adherence. These include transfer limits to enforce platform-specific or legal constraints, metadata management for effective handling and updates of token data, and ERC-721 compliance for marketplace standards. Furthermore, batch minting makes it possible to efficiently create numerous NFTs in a single transaction, improving scalability, and royalty implementation enables authors to receive automated payments on secondary sales.
Supply Chain Integration: This constitutes a significant aspect of Vyoma for effective product tracking in e-commerce by incorporating owner history and conditional monitoring. Ultimately, authentication verification and transfer logging were implemented for the comprehensive supply chain mechanism of Vyoma Commerce.
PrivateMarketplace
Implementation of privacy-preserving transactions
Privacy Features: The principal characteristics encompass the integration of zero-knowledge proofs, utilization of encrypted transaction data, implementation of private messaging systems, provision for selective disclosure, and establishment of anonymous listings.
Transaction Privacy: This research examines private order matching mechanisms, the significance of confidential payment transactions, the role of concealed order books, privacy-oriented liquidity pools, and the incorporation of mixing solutions within financial systems.
Contract interactions inter-contract communication
Event System: Vyoma Commerce delineates the essential functionalities pertinent to event-driven systems, encompassing event emissions, event handling, cross-contract notifications, state synchronization, and error propagation.
Function Calls: Function calls can be categorized as direct function calls, delegate calls, callback patterns, proxy forwarding, and fallback handling.
Security measures contract security
Access Control: The implementation of access control systems for digital identities follows a methodical step-by-step process. Initially, permissions were established based on roles and functional modifiers. Following this, guard checks were implemented, and emergency stops were identified. Ultimately, time locks are utilized to strengthen security protocols.
Implementing re-entrance guards, generating secure random numbers using Chainlink VRF, and establishing robust access control through OpenZeppelin are essential for enhancing smart contract security. Moreover, integrating an emergency pause feature offers essential protection under critical circumstances. This allows for the effective mitigation of vulnerabilities, thereby maintaining the integrity and reliability of decentralized applications. Illustration of security implementation
Data Protection:
Data protection was established using stringent input validation protocols. Output sanitization is a robust approach to reducing potential risks. The mechanisms for state protection are proficient at ensuring data integrity. Furthermore, the incorporation of re-entrance guards and overflow protection constitutes an essential measure to safeguard against potential vulnerabilities.
Gas optimization: optimization strategies
Storage Optimization: The main features include effective storage solutions, optimal memory usage, optimization of call data, organized event logging, efficient data structures, layer two scaling solutions, and the application of batch processing.
Computation Optimization: The principal characteristics are delineated, encompassing loop optimization, utilization of view functions, assembly optimization, cache utilization, and function modifiers.
Example of gas optimization
Supply chain transparency integration
The Vyoma Commerce platform employs a multifaceted supply chain integration system, as illustrated in Fig. 8, which encompasses various components, such as product registration, data management, real-time tracking, and quality control. Each component is pivotal in establishing an effective blockchain-enabled ecosystem that promotes transparency [44]. For instance, product registration utilizes cryptographic hashing techniques to generate unique identifiers and create nonfungible tokens (NFTs) that serve as digital certificates of authenticity. This approach mitigates counterfeiting risks and enhances consumers’ confidence in product integrity [45]. Example of product registration flow
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Fig. 8
Supply Chain Integration Architecture showing product tracking and verification mechanisms
Metadata management and real-time tracking represent critical facets of Vyoma Commerce’s strategy. By systematically storing product specifications and manufacturing details, the platform ensures that stakeholders have access to accurate, comprehensive product information. Furthermore, real-time tracking mechanisms [46], including GPS integration and environmental monitoring with IoT [47], facilitate the ongoing oversight of product conditions throughout the supply chain. This immediate access to data significantly reduces the potential for information asymmetry among the parties involved, thus bolstering the transparency frameworks.
Vyoma Commerce prioritizes quality assurance through established inspection points and rigorous documentation processes. Automated testing protocols and thorough recording of inspection results ensure that products meet predefined quality standards before they reach consumers. The inclusion of structured compliance documentation aids in regulatory adherence and fortifies trust among stakeholders by providing verifiable data on quality metrics. Integrating smart contracts further enhances supply chain operations by automating various functions such as event tracking and data analytics [48]. These self-executing contracts introduce heightened security measures, including role-based permissions and handler authentication, thereby safeguarding data integrity and fostering confidence in transaction transparency.
Although blockchain technology can potentially enhance supply chain transparency, several implementation considerations must be addressed. These include system scalability, data partitioning, and network optimization. A strategic approach to resource management and performance metrics is crucial for achieving successful deployment and maintaining data processing efficiency. The Vyoma Commerce blockchain-enabled supply chain integration system exemplifies a forward-thinking approach to achieving transparency and traceability in the e-commerce sector. By harnessing the power of blockchain technology, the platform enhances product authenticity and reinforces stakeholder trust and regulatory compliance. Future research should focus on continuously improving these systems to adapt to the evolving global supply chain landscape [49].
Enabling transparency is shown in Fig. 9a. The central authority (CA) allocates distinct identities and certifications to stakeholders within a network, thereby facilitating their engagement. Each stakeholder is assigned a unique digital profile that encompasses details, such as their geographical location and related products, which are generated during the registration process. The Certificate Authority produces a cryptographic key pair, consisting of a public key and a private key, which stakeholders utilize for identification and authentication in the context of transactions. Within the supply chain framework, producers, distributors, wholesalers, and retailers contribute product-specific data to the blockchain, whereas carriers enable the movement of products. Consumers have the capability to obtain products and input data into the blockchain as end users who validate the products they employ.
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Fig. 9
Supply chain transparency
As illustrated in Fig. 9b, a supply chain process involves the producer transmitting a quote that includes specific terms and conditions, which the wholesaler subsequently retrieves to generate a purchase order. Subsequently, the producer generates a sales order and establishes a smart contract delineating the initial agreement. All carriers receive notifications regarding the tender, which is a document encompassing all pertinent details related to the quantity, quality, bidding deadlines, loading and unloading locations, anticipated loading dates, and distance to be traversed. The procedure for submitting bids to carriers entails the provision of a limited sum as collateral, which must remain below the maximum bid value established by the producer. A reputation model is established for each carrier that dictates the evaluation of its bids. The contract is granted to a carrier that meets the established reputation criteria and submits the most competitive bid. The activation of the smart contract is contingent on the bid amount and reputation factor. Upon selection of the successful carrier, the deposits submitted by other carriers are returned. The producer then conveys the product to the selected carrier for delivery to the wholesaler. The producer incorporates the delivery information into a blockchain; however, payment to the carrier is deferred until the wholesaler confirms receipt of the goods. Upon confirmation of the delivery by the wholesaler and its subsequent finalization on the blockchain, the payment is executed, and the deposit of the successful carrier is returned. The wholesaler and producer are also positioned to provide feedback regarding the carrier’s performance, thereby contributing to the carrier’s reputation in subsequent transactions. This feedback loop fosters a collective sense of trust and confidence in the supply chain.
Deployment process
The Vyoma Commerce deployment process is illustrated in Fig. 10, which is a systematic approach to ensure the secure transition of smart contracts and system infrastructure from development to production. It includes multiple essential phases such as pre-deployment assessments, contract implementation, validations on local and test networks, security evaluations, main net execution, and subsequent monitoring following deployment.
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Fig. 10
Deployment process showing the systematic deployment workflow
The pre-deployment phase involves contract preparation, which includes security audits and code optimization. The Vyoma Commerce environment delineates the necessary procedures for establishing a dependable network, including selecting networks, validating configurations, establishing key management protocols, verifying dependencies, and preparing the underlying infrastructure. Code exemplifying the deployment of smart contracts
The deployment process followed a systematic approach, including smart contract deployment, local testing, test net deployment, security verification, and maintenance tasks. Local testing includes hardhat local network, contract deployment scripts, integration testing, gas optimization, error handling, configuration testing, access controls, event logging, and more. Testnet deployment involves the selection of networks, deployment of contracts, verification of integration, performance testing, and assessment of user acceptance. A comprehensive monitoring framework was established for transaction oversight, error identification, performance evaluation, gas consumption analysis, and event documentation to ensure robust operational management. Security verification involves access control testing, vulnerability scanning, penetration testing, audit verification, emergency procedures, risk management, mitigation strategies, incident response, recovery procedures, documentation updates, and more. Post-deployment tasks for effective project management include contract verification, updates to documentation, establishment of monitoring systems, configuration of alerts, and preparation for support. Monitoring and maintenance are crucial for operational efficiency and adherence to regulations. This process includes system monitoring, performance tracking, error monitoring, transaction analysis, gas usage tracking, user activity monitoring, regular audits, security updates, performance optimization, bug fixes, feature upgrades, upgrade planning, and post-upgrade verification.
Technical deployment specifications
Contract deployment architecture
Configuration Setup: The deployment configuration is structured using an interface (DeploymentConfig) to ensure safety and consistent deployment settings across environments. This interface specifies critical parameters, such as network details, API keys, contract addresses, security settings, and other essential deployment information.
NETWORK specifies the target blockchain network (e.g., “goerli” or “mainnet”). PRIVATE KEY is the deployer’s private key for transaction signing. INFURA API KEY and ETHERSCAN API KEY are API keys for interacting with respective services. CHAINLINK PRICE FEED provides the address of the Chainlink price feed contract. REQUIRED CONFIRMATIONS and TIMELOCK DURATION ensure transaction security. Finally, PROXY ADMIN ADDRESS designates the address of the proxy admin contract.
Contract Deployment Function: The deployContracts function is an asynchronous process that sequentially deploys all smart contracts using the provided configuration. It logs each deployment to the console for tracking and returns all deployed contract addresses.
The function retrieves the deployer’s address, sequentially deploys the MultiSigWallet, ProductNFT, and PrivateMarketplace contracts, and then deploys the main contract referencing the deployed addresses.
Pre-deployment security checks
The performSecurityChecks function ensures the robustness of smart contracts by executing checks, such as contract size verification, gas estimation, and deployer balance checks.
The contractSize ensures compliance with maximum bytecode size limits. gasEstimate provides an estimate for contract initialization, while balance verifies the deployer’s account has sufficient funds.
Proxy pattern implementation
The EcommerceProxy contract leverages OpenZeppelin’s library as a transparent, upgradeable proxy, enabling logical upgrades without changing the contract address.
The constructor initializes the proxy using the logic contract address, admin, and optional initialization data.
Proxy Deployment Function: The deployWithProxy function deploys a smart contract using a proxy pattern to ensure upgradeability.
This function first deploys the implementation contract and then deploys the proxy contract with the implementation address, admin, and encoded initialization data.
Automated deployment pipeline
The deployment pipeline is defined using a YAML file for GitHub Actions, automating the deployment process and reducing manual errors.
The pipeline triggers new Git tags, checks the repository, sets up Node.js, installs dependencies, compiles contracts, runs security checks, and deploys the contracts to a test network using stored secrets.
Comparative examination of gas fees, transaction finality, and throughput
This section provides a quantitative comparison study [50, 51] of three leading blockchain platforms—Ethereum, Binance Smart Chain (BSC), and Solana—emphasizing essential performance metrics: average gas charge per transaction, transaction finality time, and network throughput. The aim is to evaluate the platforms' efficacy and scalability regarding operating expenses, latency, and performance.
Comparison of Gas Fees.
Figure 11a demonstrates that Ethereum has the highest average gas charge per transaction at $0.250, followed by BSC at $0.065, and Solana with the lowest fee at $0.025. The significant variation in gas fees underscores Ethereum's resource-intensive consensus process and network congestion challenges. Notwithstanding its robust decentralization and security assurances, Ethereum's cost inefficiency may restrict its use for microtransactions and high-frequency scenarios. Conversely, Solana and BSC provide markedly reduced transaction costs, rendering them more suitable for cost-sensitive applications such as decentralized finance (DeFi) and large-scale NFT trading.
Transaction Finality Duration.
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Fig. 11
a–c Comparison of gas fees, latency, and throughput
Figure 11b illustrates the mean duration necessary for transaction finality across each blockchain. Ethereum exhibits the longest delay at 12.1 seconds, while BSC and Solana display far quicker finality times of 1.5 seconds and 0.4 seconds, respectively. Solana's rapid confirmation time is mostly due to its Proof-of-History (PoH) and Tower BFT consensus mechanisms, which markedly surpass Ethereum's Proof-of-Stake (PoS) in speed. The Binance Smart Chain (BSC), with its Proof-of-Staked-Authority (PoSA) consensus mechanism, strikes a compromise between decentralization and latency, presenting an attractive option for medium-scale applications that necessitate moderate throughput and satisfactory decentralization.
Comparison of Throughput.
Figure 11c illustrates that network throughput, quantified in transactions per second (TPS), further substantiates the scalability superiority of Solana. Solana attains a maximum throughput of over 2000 TPS, much above BSC's 160 TPS and Ethereum's 30 TPS. Solana's high-throughput capabilities establish it as a formidable platform for high-demand, real-time decentralized applications, encompassing blockchain gaming, IoT integration, and large-scale financial activities. The limited throughput of Ethereum continues to be a significant constraint, despite ongoing enhancements under Ethereum 2.0 that seek to mitigate this using shard chains and rollups.
The comparison findings highlight the trade-offs across blockchain systems regarding decentralization, cost, speed, and scalability. Solana regularly exhibits exceptional performance in gas economy, latency, and throughput, rendering it ideal for performance-critical applications. BSC provides a balanced solution characterized by comparatively cheap fees and adequate speed. Ethereum, albeit the most developed and secure platform, has elevated fees and reduced transaction speeds, potentially obstructing its adoption in extensive, time-critical applications.
Overall system workflow of application: a user journey
Imagine a user, let’s call him Avijit, who wants to purchase a product from a seller named Krishna on the
Vyoma Commerce platform. An application workflow diagram is shown in Fig. 12 [52].
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Fig. 12
Application workflow sequence diagram
Here is a step-by-step breakdown of the process, highlighting how contracts interact.
Krishna, an artisan and seller on Vyoma Commerce, decides to list a handcrafted leather wallet for sale. He logs into the platform, navigates to the seller dashboard, where he clicks on the “Add New Product” section. On the screen (as shown in Fig. 13), Krishna carefully inputs all the necessary details about the wallet: its name, a description emphasizing its durability and premium leather sourced from Bangladesh, and the price set at 50 BDT. He specifies the quantity available as 10, selects “Accessories” as the category, and includes a 1-year warranty for the added buyer confidence. Krishna chooses to make the product public, ensuring it reaches a wider audience. After uploading images and a detailed product description stored securely via the IPFS, the listing is finalized.
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Fig. 13
Seller adding an item for sale
Behind the scenes, Vyoma Commerce’s smart contract EcommerceContract.listProduct() processes this information. The system mints a unique NFT for the wallet using the ProductNFT.mintProduct() function, which authenticates the product on the blockchain. The details of the wallet are added to the blockchain and mapped to David’s account. The platform emits events, such as ProductListed and ProductMinted, signaling the successful creation of the listing.
Meanwhile, Avijit, a potential buyer, logs into his profile (visible in Fig. 14a) and begins browsing the platform for a new wallet. He navigated to the product catalog, as shown in Fig. 14b, where he can filter by category or search for specific items. The interface displays an array of items, including Krishna’s handcrafted wallets. Intrigued, Avijit clicks on one to view more details. On the product detail screen (as shown in Fig. 14c), he examines the wallet’s name, description, price, and warranty information. Wanting to ensure the product’s authenticity, Avijit checks its NFT information by invoking EcommerceContract.getProduct() and ProductNFT.getProductDetails().
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Fig. 14
Vyoma Commerce browsing and product selection process
Satisfied with the verification process, Avijit decides to purchase the wallet. he adds it to his cart, as shown in Fig. 15a, selects the desired quantity, and proceeds to checkout (depicted in Fig. 15b). The system guides the customer through the payment process, where the smart contract EcommerceContract.purchaseProduct() validates the availability, quantity, and payment amount of the product. If his purchase qualifies as a high-value transaction, it is routed through the platform’s multi-signature wallet for additional security.
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Fig. 15
App interface of Vyoma Commerce
Once the purchase is confirmed, the blockchain updates to reflect the order, adjusting the wallet’s stock in the admin panel (as shown in Fig. 15c), where Krishna can monitor product inventory and sales. Avijit receives a confirmation notification, and the system emits events such as OrderCreated and ProductPurchased.
Krishna, on his end, is notified of the new order through his dashboard (as shown in Fig. 15d). He reviews order details and prepares a wallet for shipment. To finalize the transaction, he marks the order as complete, using the EcommerceContract.completeOrder() function. For standard transactions, funds are released directly to the wallet address. High-value orders already approved through the multi-signature wallet ensure that the wallet receives payment securely.
Through this streamlined integration of Vyoma Commerce’s web app and blockchain infrastructure, sellers and buyers experience a transparent, efficient, and trustworthy journey.
Future enhancements
Future work on Vyoma Commerce will involve several enhancements, particularly in the areas of cross-chain technology, key management, Internet of Things (IoT), software testing, and software quality assurance. Cross-chain enhancements encompass protocol upgrades aimed at increasing robustness, security improvements designed to ensure transaction safety, performance optimizations intended to enhance speed, network expansions to incorporate additional chains, and enhancements to user functionality.
Recent developments in key management encompass advancements in quantum-resistant technologies, updates to algorithms for improved security, implementation of heightened security measures, establishment of enhanced integration pathways, and increased automation. Furthermore, initiatives aimed at process optimization will prioritize the enhancement of workflows, development of management tools, refinement of policies, updating of training programs, and improvement of documentation accessibility. The proposed improvements in the Internet of Things emphasize incorporating sophisticated technologies, such as 5G, artificial intelligence, and machine learning, to enhance functionality and efficiency. Software testing will constitute a critical component of forthcoming enhancements. This comprehensive process will encompass various testing methodologies, including smart contract testing, integration testing, security testing, performance testing, user interface testing, and automated testing. Future deployment strategies should prioritize scalability, security enhancements, process automation, and knowledge dissemination among teams to facilitate sustainable growth and effectively tackle emerging challenges.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the dynamics of digital commerce in Bangladesh can be drastically changed by deploying a decentralized e-commerce system based on blockchain technology. In addition to addressing the urgent problem of fraud that has beset the industry, this revolutionary strategy has promoted a safer and more open transaction environment. Vyoma can improve user trust and reduce the dangers associated with online transactions by utilizing the special features of blockchain, such as immutability, participation verification, and automated smart contracts. Furthermore, by incorporating thorough digital identity management techniques, consumers would be able to interact with confidence, knowing that their transactions are traceable and safe.
The shift toward a decentralized system, although accompanied by specific challenges, such as the necessity for technological infrastructure development and user education, offers potential benefits that significantly surpass these hurdles. As participants in the Bangladeshi e-commerce sector adapt to these developments, the potential for a more dependable marketplace arises, marked by enhanced user involvement and reduced fraudulent activity. Future research ought to persist in examining the practical applications of blockchain technology across diverse sectors and evaluating the long-term effects of its integration on consumer behavior and market integrity. Ultimately, Vyoma occupies a pivotal position in this movement, presenting the potential to spearhead the transformation of the e-commerce ecosystem toward a more equitable and trustworthy future.
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Author contributions
Avijit Chowdhury (corresponding author) was solely responsible for the design and development of the research. His contributions include problem formulation, system architecture design, smart contract development, dataset preparation, blockchain integration (Solana and Ethereum), application coding and UI design, manuscript drafting, result analysis and visualization, and the generation of graphs and tables. He also conducted background research, implemented privacy and security protocols, tested and validated the system, and managed deployment, hosting, and maintenance of the Vyoma Commerce platform.
Funding
This research was self-funded by the author, with no external financial support or sponsorship at any stage of the research.
Data availability
The datasets and source code generated during and/or analyzed during the current research are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Declarations
Competing interests
The author declares that he has no financial interests or competing interests.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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