The impact of a love language game intervention on relationship satisfaction among Chinese couples in China and Malaysia: examining the role of individualism-collectivism

Abstract

Background

Relationship satisfaction is crucial for the well-being and longevity of romantic relationships. Although love language interventions have demonstrated positive effects on relationship satisfaction, most research has focused on Western contexts. This study investigates the impact of a Love Language Game intervention on relationship satisfaction among Chinese couples in China and Malaysia and examines the role of individualism-collectivism in determining the intervention's effectiveness.

Method

Employing a mixed-methods approach and a randomized controlled trial design (RCT). The quantitative analysis utilized a two-way ANOVA to compare the Love Language Game intervention group with a control group participating in an alternative relationship enhancement workshop series. The qualitative component consisted of interviews exploring participants' experiences and perceptions of the interventions.

Results

The findings revealed the effectiveness of the Love Language Game intervention in improving relationship satisfaction among Chinese couples and highlighted the influence of individualism-collectivism on the intervention's outcomes. Participants' experiences and perceptions emphasized the significance of engagement, communication, cultural sensitivity, and tailored strategies in relationship interventions.

Conclusion

This study contributes to the literature on love language-based interventions and their application in culturally diverse settings, offering valuable insights for relationship counsellors, educators, and policymakers. The findings may guide the development and implementation of culturally sensitive interventions to enhance relationship satisfaction and overall well-being in diverse populations.

Introduction

Relationship satisfaction is a critical factor in the overall well-being and longevity of romantic relationships. Extensive research has focused on understanding and enhancing relationship satisfaction through various approaches [6, 7, 10]. One such approach is the Love Language Game (LLG) intervention, which is based on the Love Language concept introduced by Chapman [4, 5]. This concept posits that individuals express and receive love through five primary channels: words of affirmation, acts of service, receiving gifts, quality time, and physical touch. The Love Language Game intervention was developed to help couples identify and practice each other’s preferred love languages through structured activities and guided interactions. Studies have shown that aligning love expressions with a partner’s preferred love language can enhance relationship satisfaction [8, 9, 12]. However, most research on love languages and its impact on relationship satisfaction has been conducted in western contexts, leaving a critical gap in understanding the effectiveness of such interventions in culturally diverse populations. As is well known, the West and the East are completely different in culture, such as the logic and expression of language, cultural core, and degree of implicitness. By focusing on Chinese couples in China and Malaysia, this study aims to explore how cultural dimensions, specifically individualism and collectivism, influence the outcomes of the intervention.

Language is often viewed as a cultural tool, and this study argues that love languages serve as a psychological mechanism for emotional connection and relationship satisfaction. The effectiveness of love languages lies in their ability to meet psychological needs for emotional intimacy, validation, and connection, which are central to relationship satisfaction. By examining how cultural orientations influence the expression and interpretation of love languages, this study bridges the gap between cultural and psychological perspectives, positioning love languages as both a cultural and psychological construct. This approach aligns with the Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT), which posits that individuals adapt their communication styles to accommodate the preferences and needs of their interaction partners [15]. In the context of romantic relationships, adapting one’s communication style to align with a partner’s preferred love language can enhance emotional connection and satisfaction. This theoretical integration provides a more comprehensive understanding of how love languages function within the psychological and cultural dimensions of relationships.

Individualism and collectivism are cultural dimensions that significantly shape relationship dynamics. Individualism emphasizes personal autonomy, independence, and self-expression, while collectivism prioritizes group harmony, interdependence, and relational obligations [1, 2, 29]. These orientations influence how individuals perceive and navigate romantic relationships, particularly in areas such as communication, intimacy, and conflict resolution. In individualistic cultures, relationship satisfaction is often tied to personal fulfillment, emotional intimacy, and open communication. Individuals in these cultures prioritize self-expression and personal needs within their relationships, with studies highlighting the importance of direct communication and emotional openness as key contributors to satisfaction [23, 28]. Love languages such as"words of affirmation"and"quality time"may hold greater significance in individualistic settings, as they align with the cultural emphasis on personal connection and emotional bonding [16]. Conversely, in collectivistic cultures, relationship satisfaction is more closely linked to relational harmony, family involvement, and fulfilling social roles. Couples in these cultures often prioritize maintaining harmony and meeting the expectations of their extended social networks [11, 28]. These cultural differences are particularly relevant when examining Chinese couples in China and Malaysia. This is also the reason why Chinese couples from two different countries were chosen, as it provides a unique opportunity to explore how cultural variations within the same ethnic group influence relationship satisfaction and the effectiveness of the Love Language Game intervention. While both groups share a common ethnic heritage rooted in Confucian values, their differing cultural contexts—China’s predominantly collectivist society versus Malaysia’s more multicultural and individualistic environment—allow for a comparative analysis of how cultural dimensions shape relationship dynamics and the perception of love languages.

Chinese couples in China, influenced by a predominantly collectivist culture, are more likely to prioritize relational harmony and family obligations in their relationships. Love languages such as"acts of service"and"receiving gifts"may carry greater weight, as they reflect cultural values of care, responsibility, and relational obligations [14, 33]. Communication in collectivistic cultures tends to be indirect and focused on preserving harmony, which may influence how couples express and interpret love languages [24, 25, 28]. Chinese couples in Malaysia, who are influenced by a more multicultural and individualistic environment, may place greater importance on love languages like"quality time"and"words of affirmation,"reflecting a shift towards personal connection and emotional intimacy [19, 21]. Furthermore, the cultural dimensions of individualism and collectivism also impact on how couples resolve conflicts and accommodate each other’s needs. In individualistic cultures, conflict resolution is often direct and focused on addressing individual concerns. In contrast, collectivistic cultures emphasize indirect communication and conflict avoidance to preserve relational harmony [28]. These differences in conflict resolution styles can influence the effectiveness of interventions like the Love Language Game, which relies on open communication and mutual understanding. Therefore, the choice of individualism and collectivism as theoretical frameworks is particularly relevant in understanding the psychological dimensions of couples’ relationships.

Despite the growing body of research on love languages and relationship satisfaction, there is a lack of studies investigating the effectiveness of love language-based interventions among Chinese couples in China and Malaysia. In order to fit the contexts of this study, the concept of love language derived from Chapman was adapted by the authors into gamified intervention measures, making the measures one of the first to evaluate its effectiveness in non-Western cultural settings. The intervention incorporates tools such as guided discussions, role-playing exercises, and feedback mechanisms to promote communication and emotional connection, tailored to the unique cultural contexts of the participants. Additionally, the role of cultural dimensions, such as individualism and collectivism, in shaping the outcomes of these interventions remains underexplored. By examining the Love Language Game intervention in these two culturally distinct settings, this study aims to address this gap using mixed research methods and provide insights into how cultural values influence relationship satisfaction and intervention outcomes.

The research questions guiding this investigation are as follows:

1. a

Is the Love Language Game intervention effective in improving relationship satisfaction among couples in the Chinese community?

2. b

Is there a significant difference in relationship satisfaction improvement between couples who participate in the Love Language Game intervention and those who participate in the alternative relationship enhancement workshop series?

3. c

Does individualism-collectivism influence the effectiveness of the Love Language Game intervention on relationship satisfaction improvement?

4. d

How do Chinese couples in China and Malaysia perceive and experience the Love Language Game intervention in comparison to the alternative relationship enhancement workshop series, and how do their cultural values and individualism-collectivism orientations influence their engagement with these interventions?

Method

Research design

This study employs a mixed-methods design, integrating both quantitative and qualitative research elements through a randomized controlled trial (RCT). The primary aim is to assess the impact of the Love Language Game intervention on relationship satisfaction among Chinese couples in China and Malaysia, while also examining the influence of individualism and collectivism. The specific research objectives include: first, evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention to determine whether the Love Language Game significantly improves participants'relationship satisfaction; second, comparing the intervention group with the control group to analyze whether couples participating in the Love Language Game show greater improvements in relationship satisfaction than those attending an alternative relationship enhancement workshop series; third, exploring the influence of cultural dimensions by investigating how individualism and collectivism affect the outcomes of the Love Language Game intervention; and finally, comparing how Chinese couples in China and Malaysia perceive and experience the Love Language Game intervention versus the alternative workshop series, as well as how their cultural values and orientations toward individualism and collectivism influence their engagement with these interventions.

Participants were required to meet specific inclusion criteria to ensure the relevance and reliability of the study. All participants needed to be in a committed romantic relationship and aged between 18 and 55 years. While there were no specific requirements regarding the duration of the relationship, data on the length of each couple's relationship was collected as part of the demographic questionnaire. This information will be analyzed to investigate whether the duration of the relationship influences the outcomes of the Love Language Game (LLG) intervention. This approach allows the study to explore potential moderating effects of relationship duration while maintaining flexibility in participant recruitment. Exclusion criteria included couples currently undergoing counseling or therapy for relationship issues, as such factors could confound the effects of the intervention and introduce bias into the results.

The selection of Chinese couples from two different countries, China and Malaysia, was a deliberate decision aimed at examining how cultural differences within the same ethnic group influence the effectiveness of the intervention. China represents a predominantly collectivist society, emphasizing interpersonal harmony, family cohesion, and group-oriented values. In contrast, Malaysia, while also home to a significant Chinese population, is a more multicultural society that incorporates elements of individualism due to its diverse cultural and social environment. This distinction allows the study to explore how the interplay of collectivist and individualist values shapes relationship dynamics and communication styles, providing deeper insights into the cultural relevance of the intervention.

To ensure objectivity and minimize selection bias, couples were randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group. A computer-generated randomization sequence was used to assign participants to their respective groups, overseen by a research assistant who was not involved in the facilitation of the intervention or the analysis of the data. By ensuring that the randomization process was independent and unbiased, the study maintained the integrity of its methodology and reduced potential confounding variables. This rigorous approach to sampling and randomization ensures that the results are reliable and generalizable across the two cultural contexts studied.

Participants

A total of 40 couples were recruited for this study through various channels, including advertisements, social media platforms, and local community centers. The sample included 20 couples from Malaysia and 20 couples from China, with an equal distribution of 10 couples in the experimental group and 10 couples in the control group for each country. This balanced sampling ensured that both groups were comparable in size and allowed for a meaningful analysis of the intervention's effects across different cultural contexts.

Interviewees for qualitative interviews were selected among 20 couples who participated in experimental research. Interviewees consisted of 8 couples from China and Malaysia respectively. As stated in the report of youth perspective of marriage and love provided by Shanghai University’s sociological research team in 2024, the generations after 80 s, 90 s and 00 s presented different perspectives towards marriage and love [26]. In order to ensure the diversity of interviewees’ perspective, participants should be selected from different age groups including 20–25 years old, 25–30 years old, 30–40 years old and 40–50 years old [27].

Experimental procedure

The"Love Language Game"(LLG) intervention is a structured, culturally adapted program designed to enhance relationship satisfaction by fostering deeper communication and understanding between partners. This intervention draws inspiration from the Love Lingual card game and integrates Chapman’s Five Love Languages framework—words of affirmation, acts of service, receiving gifts, quality time, and physical touch—into a series of targeted activities and discussions [20]. Specifically tailored for Chinese couples in China and Malaysia, the intervention considers cultural dimensions such as individualism and collectivism to ensure its relevance and effectiveness across different cultural contexts.

The program consists of six 90-min sessions conducted over three weeks, with each session focusing on specific themes that begin with an introduction to the Five Love Languages and progress to in-depth discussions and activities centered on each language. Initial sessions help participants identify their own and their partner’s primary love languages through guided discussions and activities. Subsequent sessions delve deeper into individual love languages using tools like the Love Lingual card game, which includes prompts designed to encourage open communication about emotional needs and preferences. For example, prompts may include questions like, “What can I do to make you feel more loved?” or “What small gestures in our daily life mean the most to you?” These prompts are customized and culturally adapted based on pilot testing to align with the relationship dynamics of Chinese couples, ensuring sensitivity to cultural values and the effectiveness of the content.

In addition to the card game, the intervention includes other interactive activities such as role-playing, reflective journaling, and practical exercises. Role-playing allows participants to practice expressing love in their partner’s preferred language, while journaling encourages participants to reflect on their experiences and insights. Homework assignments are a key component of the intervention, designed to reinforce concepts introduced in the sessions and encourage participants to apply what they have learned in real life. These assignments are tailored to each participant's identified love languages, ensuring that the activities are meaningful and relevant to their relationship.

Examples of homework assignments include writing heartfelt notes for partners who value words of affirmation, preparing favorite meals for those who appreciate acts of service, planning special outings for partners who prioritize quality time, and selecting thoughtful gifts for those who value receiving gifts. For physical touch, participants are encouraged to engage in meaningful intimate contact, such as holding hands or hugging. These tasks are designed to be simple yet impactful, allowing participants to easily incorporate them into their daily lives.

To monitor the completion and effectiveness of these assignments, facilitators maintain regular contact with participants through emails, phone calls, or messaging platforms, depending on participants'preferences. Facilitators encourage participants to share their experiences, challenges, and successes in completing the tasks. In subsequent sessions, participants reflect on their homework, discuss their experiences with their partners, and receive feedback from facilitators. This reflective process helps participants identify effective strategies, address challenges encountered, and adjust their approaches to better meet their partner’s emotional needs. Additionally, participants are encouraged to keep reflective journals to document their thoughts, feelings, and observations while completing their homework. These journals serve as self-monitoring tools, helping participants track their progress and gain deeper insights into their relationship dynamics. Facilitators review these journals during sessions to provide personalized guidance, ensuring that participants remain engaged and motivated throughout the intervention.

The intervention is conducted by trained professionals with backgrounds in psychology or counseling, ensuring that participants can share their thoughts and feelings openly in a safe, supportive, and non-judgmental environment. Facilitators play a crucial role in guiding discussions, encouraging active participation, and addressing challenges that arise during the sessions. To maintain consistency and quality, all facilitators receive specific training related to the LLG intervention, including understanding the Five Love Languages framework, cultural considerations for Chinese couples, and techniques for promoting effective communication.

While the intervention primarily focuses on individual couples, sessions are conducted in small groups of two to three couples to foster a sense of community and shared learning. Group discussions allow participants to exchange perspectives, learn from others'experiences, and maintain focus on their own relationships. Special attention is given to ensuring that group dynamics remain positive and that each couple feels supported and respected.

The development of the LLG intervention underwent rigorous pilot testing to refine its structure and content. Feedback from pilot participants was used to adjust card prompts, session activities, and facilitation techniques to ensure cultural relevance and practical applicability. For example, adjustments were made to incorporate collectivist values, such as emphasizing relationship harmony and family involvement, while also considering the individualistic tendencies observed among Chinese couples in Malaysia. This iterative process ensures that the intervention is both theoretically grounded and adaptable to the unique needs of the target population.

The control group participates in an Alternative Relationship Enhancement Workshop Series, which also consists of six 90-min sessions. These sessions cover general relationship skills such as communication, empathy, conflict resolution, and intimacy, utilizing traditional techniques like lectures, role-playing, and group discussions. This design ensures that the control group receives a comparable level of engagement and time commitment, allowing for a fair comparison of the effectiveness of the LLG intervention.

Figure 1 illustrates participant flow in the study. A total of 80 participants were assessed for eligibility. They were then randomized into four groups: 20 participants each in the experimental and control groups for both Malaysia and China. Additionally, 32 interviewees were selected for qualitative interviews, comprising 8 couples from each country.

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Instruments

Relationship satisfaction scale

The Relationship Satisfaction Scale is based on the Couples Satisfaction Index developed by Funk and Rogge [13], which originally consists of 32 items. However, this study only adopted 10 items that were most relevant to the objectives of the research to measure participants'satisfaction with their romantic relationships. For example, “my partner and I have a strong emotional connection” and “I feel satisfied with the level of communication in our relationship”. Participants rated their agreement with each statement on a scale from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). The scale was administered both before and after the intervention, facilitating the comparison of pre- and post-test scores. The Cronbach's Alpha for this scale is 0.84, indicating good internal consistency.

Individualism-collectivism scale

The Individualism-Collectivism Scale is derived from Hofstede's framework [17] and includes 10 items designed to evaluate participants'orientations toward individualism and collectivism. Items include “My personal goals and desires take priority over my family” and “it is important for me to maintain harmony within my family”. Participants rated their agreement with each statement on a scale from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). On the individualism dimension, higher scores indicate a stronger tendency towards individualism; on the collectivism dimension, higher scores indicate a stronger tendency towards collectivism. This means that the scale measures individualism and collectivism as two independent dimensions, rather than treating them as opposite ends of a single continuum. This design allows the scale to simultaneously assess an individual's orientation towards both cultural tendencies, rather than assuming that an individual can only lean towards one or the other. This scale was completed prior to the intervention to classify participants'cultural orientation. The Cronbach's Alpha for this scale is 0.87, demonstrating excellent reliability.

Semi-structured interviews

The semi-structured interviews employed 10 open-ended questions that delve into participants'experiences and perceptions of the Love Language Game intervention or the alternative relationship enhancement workshop series. These questions aim to reveal participants'thoughts, feelings, challenges, and the perceived impact on their relationships. Each semi-structured interview lasted between 30 to 45 min.

Before the interview began, the researcher booked a meeting room with a password, located approximately 2 km from the interviewee’s workplace, if an offline interview was needed. The interviews were conducted over two months, with the researcher scheduling each session according to the interviewees’ preferences (e.g., avoiding their working hours). Most interviews took place between 6 and 8 PM on weekdays or during weekend afternoons or evenings.

Examples of a few interview questions include “could you share your experience participating in the Love Language Game intervention or the alternative relationship enhancement workshop series?” and “what were your initial thoughts and feelings about participating in the intervention or workshop series?”.

Data analysis

In this study, data collection and analysis consisted of both quantitative and qualitative components. The quantitative analysis used IBM SPSS 27. This was conducted with intervention type (Love Language Game intervention vs. alternative relationship enhancement workshop series) and individualism-collectivism categories as independent variables, and relationship satisfaction improvement as the dependent variable. Main effects and interaction effects were examined. Descriptive statistics, reliability analysis, independent samples t-tests, and tests for normality and homogeneity of variance were conducted to assess the validity and reliability of measurement scales and to ensure that the assumptions for parametric statistical tests were met. A two-way ANOVA was performed to examine the main effects of group assignment and individualism-collectivism orientation, as well as their interaction effect on relationship satisfaction improvement scores. Post hoc multiple comparisons were carried out using the Tukey HSD test to explore the significant main effect of individualism-collectivism orientation further.

Data analysis of semi-structured interview data was conducted by thematic analysis. It has been defined to identify, analyze and report patterns (themes) within qualitative data, further to interpret various aspects of research topics. All themes drawn from interview notes are used for addressing interview questions further to address the main research question [3]. Six steps of Braun and Clark’s thematic analysis used for this research contain: (a) familiarize yourself with the data,(b) generate initial codes; (c) search for themes; (d) review themes; (e) define the name of themes; (f) produce the report. Firstly, NVivo has been used for transforming interview recordings into texts. At this stage, researchers were required to understand how interviewees respond to interview questions and consider how statements were similar across different interviewees [3, 18]. Furthermore, it was the generation of initial code that has been defined as assigning meaning in relevance with interview question and research objective [3, 18]. To be specific, initial codes concerning feelings after experiencing love language game were generated from both Chinese and Malaysian couples. Several codes drawn from interview data in the second step were categorized into different groups of themes [3, 18]. The third step was to develop themes based on codes with similar meanings. As illustrated by Lawless and Chen [18], codes with similar meaning have been organized into broader themes that seemed to address research questions. The third step identified 4 preliminary themes to address the research objective. These could be answering interview questions from four aspects, including interviewees’ experience during intervention, how love language game impacts on relationship satisfaction, cross-cultural factors influencing the presentation of individualism and collectivism, and recommendations for future relationship enhancement programs.

Ethical considerations

This study received ethical approval from the relevant institutional review boards. All participants provided informed consent before participating in the study, and their confidentiality and anonymity were ensured throughout the research process. Additionally, the randomized controlled trial (RCT) was registered with the author's institution prior to the study's commencement, ensuring adherence to ethical research practices and promoting transparency throughout the research process.

Results

Quantitative findings

The scales in this study show good internal consistency. In addition, the authors conducted tests of normality and homoscedasticity, the results confirmed that the data followed a normal distribution and homogeneity of variance.

Individualism-collectivism differences between Malaysia and China

The independent samples t-test results reveal significant differences in individualism (t = 2.59, p = 0.01) and collectivism (t = −2.39, p = 0.02) scores. Malaysian respondents have higher individualism (M = 3.47, SD = 0.70) and lower collectivism (M = 3.12, SD = 0.68) scores, while Chinese respondents have lower individualism (M = 3.11, SD = 0.56) and higher collectivism (M = 3.48, SD = 0.65) scores. This finding suggests cultural differences between the two countries shape individualism-collectivism orientations. Table 1 shows the details.

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Relationship satisfaction

Table 2 demonstrates an independent samples t-test comparing relationship satisfaction scores between the experimental and control groups before the intervention. The results (t = −0.464, p = 0.644) show no significant differences between the experimental group (M = 3.25, SD = 0.61) and the control group (M = 3.31, SD = 0.54). This indicates that the two groups were comparable at baseline and suitable for the controlled experiment.

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Table 3 presents the relationship satisfaction scores for the experimental and control groups across the four categories of individualism-collectivism, both before (pre-test) and after (post-test) the experiment. Analyzing the differences between the post-test and pre-test scores allows us to evaluate the changes in relationship satisfaction for each category and assess the effectiveness of the love language game intervention. In the experimental group, relationship satisfaction scores increased across all four categories from pre-test to post-test. The most notable improvement occurred in the Low Individualism-High Collectivism category, where the average score rose from 3.42 to 4.03. On the other hand, the control group exhibited relatively stable or marginally increased relationship satisfaction scores. The only exception was the Low Individualism-Low Collectivism category, where the mean score experienced a slight decrease from 3.33 to 3.26.

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The two-factor ANOVA results (Table 4) reveal significant main effects for both the pre-post assignment (F = 33.73, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.32) and individualism-collectivism orientation (F = 12.50, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.34) on relationship satisfaction scores, with the experimental group showing greater improvement compared to the control group. However, the interaction effect between the pre-post assignment and individualism-collectivism orientation is not significant (F = 2.08, p = 0.11, η2 = 0.08), nor is the interaction between nationality and individualism-collectivism orientation (F = 3.50, p = 0.07, η2 = 0.12). The interaction effect between the pre-post assignment and nationality is marginally significant (F = 4.25, p = 0.05, η2 = 0.15), while the three-way interaction involving pre-post assignment, individualism-collectivism orientation, and nationality is also marginally significant (F = 1.80, p = 0.05, η2 = 0.06).

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Figure 2 further illustrates the improvement scores of relationship satisfaction for different individualism-collectivism categories in the experimental and control groups. By comparing the outcomes of both groups, the overall effectiveness of the love language game intervention in enhancing relationship satisfaction across various individualism-collectivism orientations becomes evident. The experimental group demonstrated more substantial improvements in relationship satisfaction scores compared to the control group.

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After the experiment, relationship satisfaction scores changed. These changes, whether they increased or reduced scores, were post hoc multiple comparisons in different individualism-collectivism groups by Tukey HSD test. Table 5 presents the details of the results. There are 12 pairwise comparisons, as each of the four individualism-collectivism categories is compared with the other three categories.

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Qualitative findings

As identified by results of experimental research, the Love Language Game intervention exerts positive effect on improving relationship satisfaction among Chinese couples in China and Malaysia. However, quantitative analysis of results of experimental research focusing on identifying positive or negative effects, neglects in-depth understanding of the analyzed items [22, 29], like participants’ thoughts about their feelings of experiencing love language game intervention. Semi-structured interview is designed to make up the deficits of experimental research and quantitative analysis. Findings in this section are organized into four themes, with critical evaluations integrated throughout the analysis to provide a deeper understanding of the results.

For the purpose of protecting interviewees’ identities, the researcher saved the interview records after it has been agreed by interviewees. The interviewees’ names have been anonymized as letter-based IDs (e.g., A, B, C, etc.) or other salutations. While faced with several interviewees did not allow the researcher to record their statements, the researcher wrote down all the important content of interview answers.

Theme 1: engagement and enjoyment in interventions

Engagement and enjoyment were identified as key factors influencing the effectiveness of the interventions. Participants in the experimental group consistently highlighted the interactive and gamified format of the Love Language Game as a major contributor to their positive experiences. As one couple from China shared,

“We really enjoyed the game format. It allowed us to learn how to communicate better in a relaxed atmosphere, rather than feeling like we were attending a formal class. Through the game, we could express ourselves naturally and were more willing to listen to each other’s thoughts.”

Terms like ‘in a relaxed atmosphere’ ‘express us naturally’ presented that, Chinese couple was placed at a relaxed atmosphere to interact with others without pressure from the surroundings. Their willing to listen to each other’s being cultivated by love language game indicates that, Chinese couple began to pay attention on others’ feeling and create the atmosphere of harmonious interactions. The nature of cooperation has been valued in love language game. The non-confrontational platform provided by the game allowed them to discuss sensitive topics without disrupting relational harmony, which is a core value in collectivist cultures like China.

In contrast, Malaysian participants emphasized how the intervention supported individual expression and autonomy. As one Malaysian couple explained,

“The game gave me the opportunity to express my feelings without feeling judged. I think it helped us understand each other’s needs better, and I felt respected in the process.”

Terms like ‘express own feelings’ ‘feel respected’ highlights the individualistic tendencies of Malaysian Chinese couples, who prioritize personal autonomy and self-expression within their relationships. Malaysia’s multicultural environment fosters a balance between individual needs and relational harmony, which participants appreciated in the intervention.

The differences in how participants from China and Malaysia engaged with the intervention underscore the importance of cultural sensitivity in designing relationship enhancement programs. While the gamified format resonated with both groups, the reasons for its success varied. For Chinese participants, the game’s cooperative nature aligned with their collectivist values, fostering relational harmony. For Malaysian participants, the game’s support for individual expression and autonomy addressed their need for personal agency within the relationship. These findings highlight the adaptability of the Love Language Game in meeting the diverse needs of participants from different cultural backgrounds.

Theme 2: improvement of mutual understanding

Effective communication and mutual understanding emerged as central outcomes of the Love Language Game intervention. Participants in the experimental group reported significant improvements in their ability to understand and respond to their partner’s preferred love languages. As one couple from China explained,

“Through this game, I learned how to express love in ways my partner appreciates, like doing small things to help her, rather than expressing love in my own way. Before, I thought I was doing enough, but she didn’t feel loved. Now I understand what she truly needs.”

Terms like ‘express love as my partner appreciates’ ‘understand what she truly needs’ indicated that, Chinese couple endeavored to understand partners’ truly need through love language game intervention. The sense of mutual understanding reflects the collectivist cultural emphasis on relational obligations and responsibilities. In collectivist cultures, acts of service are often seen as a primary way to express love, as they align with the cultural values of care and responsibility.

In Malaysia, participants focused more on emotional connection and open communication. As one Malaysian shared,

“The game made me realize how important it is to spend quality time with my partner and really listen to her feelings. Before, I was always busy with my own things, but now I know that ‘quality time’ is what matters most to her.”

This perspective highlights the individualistic tendencies of Malaysian Chinese couples, who value emotional intimacy and direct communication as key components of a satisfying relationship. Compared to their Chinese counterparts, Malaysian participants were more inclined to prioritize emotional expression and open dialogue.

The differences in how participants from China and Malaysia experienced the intervention reflect the influence of cultural dimensions on communication styles. In collectivist cultures like China, communication is often indirect and focused on maintaining harmony, which the Love Language Game supported by providing structured, non-confrontational opportunities for couples to express their needs. In more individualistic contexts like Malaysia, the game encouraged direct communication and emotional expression, which are critical for building intimacy. These findings suggest that relationship enhancement programs should be tailored to address the specific communication preferences and relational dynamics of different cultural groups.

Theme 3: relational harmony and family obligations vs balance between individual needs and mutual support

Cultural dimensions played a significant role in shaping participants’ experiences and perceptions of the intervention. In China, participants emphasized the alignment of the Love Language Game with collectivist values. As one couple elaborated,

“This game made me realize how important it is to understand and meet my partner’s needs. In Chinese culture, we value family harmony, and this game helped us better understand each other, which reduced unnecessary conflicts.”

This narrative highlights the collectivist emphasis on relational harmony and family obligations. Chinese participants valued the intervention’s focus on understanding and practicing love languages as a way to maintain stability and harmony in their relationships.

In Malaysia, participants highlighted the importance of balancing individual needs with mutual support. As one Malaysian couple shared,

“The intervention struck a good balance for us. It allowed us to express ourselves while also focusing on understanding and supporting each other.”

This perspective reflects the unique cultural context of Malaysian Chinese couples, who navigate a blend of individualistic and collectivist values. They appreciated how the intervention addressed their need for autonomy while simultaneously emphasizing mutual understanding and support.

The contrasting experiences of participants from China and Malaysia underscore the importance of cultural sensitivity in relationship enhancement programs. In collectivist cultures, interventions that emphasize relational harmony and mutual obligations are more likely to resonate with participants. In more individualistic contexts, interventions that support personal expression and autonomy while maintaining relational balance are more effective. These findings highlight the need for culturally adaptive interventions that can address the diverse needs of participants from different cultural backgrounds.

Theme 4: to consider about culturally sensitivity and adaptable relationship programs

Participants provided valuable recommendations for improving future relationship enhancement programs. Chinese participants in China emphasized the importance of culturally relevant content. One participant suggested,

“Future programs should include examples and scenarios that reflect our culture and traditions. This would make the sessions more relatable and effective.”

This recommendation reflects the collectivist cultural emphasis on cultural relevance and tradition. Chinese participants wanted interventions to be more grounded in their cultural realities to enhance their effectiveness.

Malaysian participants, on the other hand, focused on the need for diversity and inclusivity in the intervention. One participant shared,

“I think the game could include more diverse scenarios, like how to handle conflicts in a multicultural environment. This would make it more suitable for couples like us.”

This recommendation reflects the individualistic tendencies of Malaysian Chinese couples, who value flexibility and inclusivity in interventions. They wanted the intervention to address a broader range of scenarios to cater to the diverse needs of multicultural couples.

These recommendations highlight the importance of tailoring relationship enhancement programs to the specific cultural contexts of participants. In collectivist cultures, interventions should emphasize traditional values and family dynamics to enhance their relevance and impact. In more individualistic contexts, interventions should focus on inclusivity and adaptability to meet the diverse needs of participants. By incorporating these recommendations, future programs can be more effective in promoting relationship satisfaction and well-being across diverse cultural contexts.

The qualitative findings reveal how cultural dimensions—individualism and collectivism—shape participants’ experiences with the Love Language Game intervention. Themes of engagement, communication, cultural differences, and recommendations emphasize the need for culturally sensitive and adaptable relationship programs to meet diverse needs and foster stronger, more fulfilling relationships.

Discussion

The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of the Love Language game intervention in improving relationship satisfaction among Chinese couples in China and Malaysia. It also examined the moderating role of cultural orientation, specifically individualism-collectivism, in the intervention's effectiveness. Findings contribute to a more nuanced understanding of how cultural and psychological factors interact to shape relationship satisfaction, offering a foundation for culturally sensitive relationship theories and interventions. Furthermore, the intervention was particularly effective for collectivistic couples, who exhibited a greater improvement in relationship satisfaction compared to individualistic couples. These findings contribute to the existing literature on love language-based interventions and their application in culturally diverse settings. By integrating the Love Languages Theory [5], this study provided a practical and culturally sensitive approach to understanding the factors that influence relationship satisfaction and the effectiveness of relationship interventions. The results underscored the importance of considering cultural differences in relationship interventions and highlight the potential moderating role of cultural orientation in shaping the outcomes of such interventions.

Specifically, the first research question has been confirmed. The intervention of Love Language Games effectively improves the relationship satisfaction in Chinese couples in both China and Malaysia, which is consistent with previous conclusions that individuals who receive love in their preferred language report higher levels of relationship satisfaction [30,31,32,33]. Next, the findings of RCT reveal a significant difference in the improvement of relationship satisfaction between couples who participated in the intervention of Love Language Games and those who participated in the seminar series on enhancing alternative relationships, which confirms the second research question. The improved score of the experimental group is significantly higher than that of the control group (as shown in Table 4). These findings emphasize the positive impact of intervention on the level of relationship satisfaction among participants. Third, individualism-collectivism orientation emerged as a salient factor in the enhancement of relationship satisfaction. Notably, participants characterized by high individualism and high collectivism, as well as those exhibiting low individualism and high collectivism, demonstrate greater improvement scores in relationship satisfaction compared to other categories. This observation suggests that the individualism-collectivism orientation of participants influenced their responsiveness to the intervention. Moreover, the qualitative findings demonstrate that the Love Language Game intervention successfully improved relationship satisfaction among Chinese couples in China and Malaysia. Furthermore, individualism-collectivism orientation plays a pivotal role in determining the extent of improvement. These findings highlight the importance of considering cultural factors, such as individualism-collectivism orientation, when designing and implementing interventions aimed at enhancing relationship satisfaction in diverse populations, which extends previous research on collectivism and individualism [22, 23, 28].

Limitations

This study acknowledges some limitations. First, the sample size is relatively small, which may limit the generalizability of the results. However, since the research employed RCT, the small sample size was easier to manage and monitor. Another limitation lies in the brevity of the follow-up period, which limits the ability to assess the long-term effects of the intervention. While the immediate improvements in relationship satisfaction are promising, it remains unclear whether these effects are sustained over time. Future studies should include longer follow-up periods to evaluate the durability of the intervention’s impact.

Despite these limitations, the present study offers valuable insights into the effectiveness of the Love Language game intervention and the role of cultural orientation in shaping the intervention's impact. The findings have significant implications for therapists, counselors, and relationship educators, who may use this knowledge to design and implement culturally sensitive interventions that better address the needs of couples from diverse cultural backgrounds. By tailoring interventions to align with the cultural values and preferences of participants, practitioners can improve the relevance and effectiveness of their programs. The Love Language game intervention was found to be particularly effective for couples with a collectivistic cultural orientation. This highlights the importance of considering cultural differences in relationship interventions and suggests that collectivistic values, such as relational harmony and mutual understanding, may enhance the effectiveness of love language-based interventions. For individualistic couples, future research could explore additional strategies to adapt the intervention to better align with their values, such as emphasizing personal autonomy and self-expression within the context of relationship dynamics. Future research should also investigate other potential moderating factors, such as age, gender, and relationship duration, to further refine the understanding of how these factors impact the success of relationship interventions. Additionally, exploring the influence of socioeconomic status and educational background could provide valuable insights into how these variables shape the effectiveness of interventions across different populations.

In summary, the Love Language game intervention shows promise as an effective tool for improving relationship satisfaction among couples, particularly those with a collectivistic cultural orientation. This study emphasizes the importance of taking cultural differences into account when designing and implementing relationship interventions and highlights the potential for a more culturally sensitive and competent approach to enhancing relationship satisfaction and overall well-being for couples from diverse cultural backgrounds. By addressing the challenges encountered during the intervention and building on the study’s findings, future research can further refine and expand the application of love language-based interventions, contributing to a deeper understanding of relationship dynamics and offering valuable insights for practitioners in the field of couples therapy, counseling, and relationship education.

Conclusion

This study provides significant insights into the effectiveness of the love language game intervention in improving relationship satisfaction among Chinese couples in China and Malaysia, highlighting the importance of considering cultural differences and communication styles in relationship interventions. The Love Languages theory, Communication Accommodation theory, and Individualism-Collectivism theory were integrated into the study's design, providing a comprehensive approach to understanding the factors that influence relationship satisfaction and the effectiveness of relationship interventions. However, this study has limitations such as a small sample size and the short-term nature of the intervention. Further research could address these limitations and investigate the sustained effects of the intervention on relationship satisfaction and other outcomes in diverse cultural settings. This study contributes to the growing body of research aimed at developing culturally sensitive and effective relationship interventions that can improve outcomes for couples worldwide. The study's findings have important implications for practitioners and researchers seeking to develop relationship interventions that consider cultural differences and communication styles.

Data availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, Yanying Chen, upon reasonable request. Interested parties may contact her directly to obtain access to the data.

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